Developmental Psychology

1978, Vol. 14, No. 1, 37-43

Working and Nonworking Mothers with Infants:

Perceptions of Their Careers, Their Infants'
Needs, and Satisfaction with Mothering
ELLEN HOCK
Department of Family Relations and Human Development
Ohio State University

This study examines the attitudinal differences and commonalities of working and
nonworking mothers of 3-month-old infants. Fifty-nine working and 71 nonworking
mothers participated in the study. Interviews and an attitude scale were used to
obtain information about mothers' perceptions of infant needs, their beliefs about
their own career-related needs, and their satisfaction with mothering. Significant
group differences were determined on separation-related issues: Working mothers
perceived less infant distress at separation, were less anxious about separation, and
were less apprehensive about other care givers. Career orientation and maternal
satisfaction were related to beliefs about infant needs in both working and nonwork-
ing groups.

As more mothers of infants enter the labor
force, behavioral scientists have become in-
creasingly interested in the effects of em-
ployment on the functioning of women as
mothers. Authors of recent analytical re-
views of research literature focusing on ef-
fects of maternal employment on the child
(Etaugh, 1974; Hoffman, 1974) concluded
that the influence of maternal work status,
per se on the development of the young child
is limited and that other factors such as the
nature of the employment, family circum-
stances, and attitude of the mother toward
various roles may be more critical than ac-
tual employment status. (However, Hoff-
This research was supported by the Office of Child
Development under Grant OCD-CB-490 and the Ohio
Agricultural Research and Development Center under
Project SS-216.
The author wishes to thank Pat Burnheimer for her
assistance in manuscript preparation and Francille
Firebaugh, Fern Hunt, Michael Hock, Paul Isaac, and
Claribel Taylor for their thoughtful editorial assis-
tance. The author is especially grateful to the many
students at Ohio State University who conscientiously
contributed to all phases of this research effort.
Requests for reprints should be sent to Ellen Hock,
Department of Family Relations and Human Develop-
ment, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210.
Copyright 1978 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
man, 1974, has noted that more data are
needed on the impact of maternal employ-
ment on infants before conclusions can be
generalized to that age group.) Several in-
vestigators have dealt with concerns such as
maternal attitudes toward the roles of career
woman and mother and satisfaction with
those roles (Hoffman, 1963; Woods, 1972;
Yarrow, Scott, DeLeeuw, & Heinig, 1962).
Etaugh (1974) in her literature review sug-
gested that "Mothers who are satisfied in
their roles—whether working or not—have
the best-adjusted children" (p. 90).
The present study is exploratory, ex-
amining attitudinal differences and com-
monalities of working and nonworking
mothers of infants. It focuses on working
and nonworking women principally as
mothers in the context of their relationships
with their infants. Particularly, it examines
mothers' attitudes and perceptions about
balancing the infants' needs with their own.
The study describes and relates career
orientation, beliefs about infant need for ex-
clusive maternal care, and satisfaction with
mothering among working and nonworking
mothers.
While the importance of satisfaction with

37
38 ELLEN HOCK

their maternal role is seldom questioned, lit- maternity patient who did not plan to work and met the
tle is known about the circumstances that matching requirements was asked to participate. These
matching procedures produced a random sample of
enhance maternal satisfaction in working mothers who planned to work and a nonrandom sample
and nonworking mothers. This study was of mothers who did not plan to work (it is plausible that
guided by beliefs that maternal satisfaction the data might have differed somewhat had both sam-
is related to the degree of congruence be- ples been drawn randomly). The matching procedure
tween a mother's perceptions of her infant's was used only to facilitate sample selection; due to
attrition and changes in original work plans, subsequent
needs and her perceptions of herown needs. treatment of the data did not utilize matched-pairs anal-
It seems reasonable to suggest that to insure yses.
maternal satisfaction, these perceptions Although the data were collected from the mother at
should mesh. Perception of infant needs 3-months infant age, the final study sample was not
selected until 12-months infant age to insure that the
may bear on a mother's choice of work roles work pattern of the study mothers would be known.
or on the degree of satisfaction the maternal Because work status in some individuals changed often,
role provides to a working or nonworking it was difficult to meaningfully define working mothers.
mother. When considering work status, In order to have a study sample with stable employment
several dimensions of perceived infant need status, two definitions were used: (a)Aworking mother
was employed outside the home at 3-months infant age
seem especially critical and related to how and continued to work on a regular basis throughout the
mothers balance infant needs with their first year of the infant's life; (b) a nonworking mother
own, particularly the attitude a mother pos- did not work outside the home in the first year.
sesses about her infant's need for exclusive With selection of subjects based on these criteria,
data for 59 working and 71 nonworking mothers were
maternal care, her perceptions of the in- analyzed. There were 9 black and 50 white mothers in
fant's response to her leaving, and her feel- the working group and 12 black and 59 white mothers in
ings about being apart from the infant. Evi- the nonworking group. Average ages of the working and
dence to describe and relate these phenom- nonworking mothers wereM = 24.61 years (SD = 4.79)
ena is lacking, and this exploratory study is and M = 24.87 years (SD = 4.63), respectively. Nine of
the 59 working mothers were unmarried, and 13 of the
designed to examine satisfaction with moth- 71 nonworking mothers were unmarried. Educational
ering and career orientation among working level was quantified by using the Hollingshead-Redlich
and nonworking mothers as related to ma- Index of Social Position (Hollingshead & Redlich,
ternal perceptions of infant need for exclu- 1958), where 1 = graduate professional training and 7 =
less than 7 years of school. Average educational levels
sive maternal care. of the working and nonworking mothers were M = 3.14
(SD = 1.28) andM = 3.30 (SD = 1.22), respectively;
these average scores represent 13-15 years of educa-
Method -tion. Socioeconomic status was determined according
to the Hollingshead-Redlich 7-point scale, based on the
education and occupation of the head of the household;
Subjects socioeconomic status ratings were M = 3907 (SD =
Early sample selection procedures identified a popu- 17.16) and M = 35.76 (SD = 17.32) for working and
lation of maternity ward patients whose reported plans nonworking mothers, respectively. The means of both
to work in the first year of their infants' lives indicated groups fall in the category labeled "middle class";
however, both groups were similarly and evenly dis-
that about half would stay home and half would return tributed in all five classes. The working and nonworking
to work. Maternity ward patients in two large met- groups did not differ significantly with respect to any of
ropolitan hospitals were potential study participants. these demographic characteristics.
All mothers delivering healthy, full-term infants (status
determined by a pediatrician's examination) from No-
vember 1, 1973 to February 15, 1974 were asked about Procedure
their plans for working during the first year of their
infants' lives. To better insure that the final study popu- Data were collected from the mothers by use of a
lation would include comparable numbers of working standard interview schedule and administration of an
and nonworking mothers and to insure that the two attitude scale.
groups would possess comparable demographic char-
acteristics, a matching procedure was used in sub- Interviews. The mothers were interviewed in the
ject selection. Mothers who planned not to work were hospital on the second or third day after delivery and
matched to mothers who planned to work on the basis again in their homes when their infants were 3 or 4
of sex of infant, hospital accommodations (private or months of age. The average interview lasted about l'/i
clinic), parity, and marital status. All mothers who hours in length and dealt with the mother's attitudes
planned to work were asked to participate. On receiving about the mothering role, her feelings about a career,
the consent of a "working mother," the next admitted and her perceptions of her infant's needs. Prom these
 WORK STATUS OF MOTHERS OF INFANTS 39

Table 1: Description of Study Variables

Variable label
and description
1. Career orientation rates the amount
of interest the mother expresses in a
career, job, or occupation for
herself.
Typical interview questions
Do you enjoy being at work or resent it?
Do you plan to continue working? Any
plans to quit? If so, when? Why?
Do you have any plans to return to work?
When? Why?
How do you feel about not working? Do
you enjoy the extra hours that you have
at home?
Rating scale extremes
1 = No interest in career or job now or
in the future.
9 = Highly career oriented; views
career/work as a gratifying and
necessary experience.

2. Mather Interpretation of infant
discontent rates degree to which
mother takes it as a personal affront
or sign of rejection when her infant is
discontent, inconsolable, or is
unresponsive to maternal care or
contact.'
How does it make you feel when your baby
just won't stop fussing or crying? What
do you do? Why?
Do you think that the baby cries because of
something you did—because he's angry
with you?
1 = Does nor view discontent (crying
orfussing) as being her fault.
9 = Takes most crying-type behaviors
as an affront or sign of rejection.

3. Mother perception of infant distress
at separation rates the mother's
perception of infant's responses to
being separated from her.
Does your baby show any signs of being
upset when you leave? Why do you think
this happens?
Does he act differently toward you when
you return? Why?
1 = Because of separation from her,
mother believes infant becomes
greatly distressed.
9 = Mother perceives no distress that
is due to her leaving.

4. Separation stress rates the mother's Do you feel guilty or worry about leaving 1 = Mother worries constantly while
anxiety /feelings of guilt at leaving yourbaby? away and dreads separation.
herbaby. Can you enjoy yourself when you're at 9 = Mother expresses no anxiety at
work or away from your baby? leaving her infant.

5. Attitude to nonmaternal care rates
frequency and intensity of concerns
about nonmaternal care.
When did you first leave your baby with
someone else? Did you worry while you
were gone? Why?
Does it worry you now to leave your baby in
the care of someone else?
1 = No apprehension over
nonmaternal care.
9 = Constant apprehension and
concern over nonmaternal care.

Note. Detailed questions and scoring guidelines are available from the author.
" This variable description and rating guidelines were based on the work of Moss (Note 1).

interviews, ratings were made on a 9-point scale for
the five variables presented in Table 1.
Career orientation (Variable 1 in Table 1) was
scored at both the hospital and home visits; the corre-
lation between the first and second ratings on 130 sub-
jects was .64, suggesting that this rating tapped a di-
mension that was rather stable over a 3- or 4-month
period. Interrater reliabilities for the first and second
assessments made on the basis of 10 cases were .93
and .92, respectively. Attitude to nonmaternal care
(Variable 5 in Table 1) was also scored at the hospital
and home visits. Ratings at the two visits were not
highly correlated (r = .21, N = 130), suggesting that
mothers were not consistent over a 3- or 4-month pe-
riod in their expressions of concern about others car-
ing for their infants. Interrater reliabilities for the first
and second assessments (calculated after two judges
scored 10 cases) were .62 and .88 for the hospital and
home visits, respectively. (Only data collected at the
home visits are considered in the later analyses.)
The three variables dealing with the mother's per-
ceptions of her infant's behavior and her anxiety about
separation (Variables 2, 3, and 4 in Table 1) were as-
sessed only at the home visit. Two raters jointly at-
tended nine interviews and independently rated the
cases; interrater reliability coefficients for Variables 2,
3, and 4 were .88, .99, and .95, respectively.
Attitude scale. During a home visit, the mothers were
administered the Maternal Attitude Scale (MAS) de-
veloped by Cohler, Weiss, and Grunebaum (1970).
The 233-item Likert-type instrument usually took the
mother about 1 hour to complete; the visiting re-
searcher sat nearby and cared for the infant while the
mother completed the form. Item development of the
scale was guided by Sander's (1962, 1964) conception
of the mother-infant relationship as a sequence of is-
sues negotiated by mother and infant; these issues
focus on the mother's response to changing infant be-
havior, such as the young infant's increasing demand
that his mother alone fulfill his needs. The manner in
which developmental issues are resolved may depend
on the mother's ability to perceive and negotiate effec-
tive solutions; her attitudes can be viewed as adaptive
or maladaptive to the extent that they facilitate or hin-
der the resolution of an issue (Cohler et al., 1970).
The MAS yields standardized factor scores based on
five orthogonal factors derived by the test authors from
analyses of data collected on pretest samples of over
700 mothers (Cohler et al., 1970). The factor score
40 ELLEN HOCK
labeled "Appropriate Closeness," which is the ability
to establish appropriate distance between oneself and
one's child, was considered particularly relevant to the
present study in measuring a mother's ability to balance
her own needs with those of her infant and so was
included in the data analysis. To a considerable extent,
the Appropriate Closeness factor reflected a woman's
degree of satisfaction with mothering. Item-based
principal-components factor analytic procedures em-
ployed early in test development produced a factor
labeled "Maternal Satisfaction" (versus "Feelings of
Depletion and Futility"). A subsequent factor analysis,
which produced the Appropriate Closeness factor used
in the present study, was executed on the earlier de-
rived item-based factors and other scores. The item-
based factor of Maternal Satisfaction loaded highly on
Appropriate Closeness (Cohler, Weiss, & Grunebaum,
Note 2). Thus, a mother earning a high score on the
Appropriate Closeness factor possesses adaptive at-
titudes and evidences a feeling of satisfaction from car-
ing for babies; she enjoys caring for her infant without
feeling that she is sacrificing herself and without yield-
ing to the baby's demand for an exclusive relationship.
She does not view motherhood as depleting and does
not feel that infants make demands that lead to unhap-
piness and frustration. Such mothers are inclined to
disagree with the following sample MAS items:
1. Babies are frequently so demanding that their
mothers have no time for anything else.
2. Babies act like they are the most important people
in the household and are always demanding things.
3. Children take great delight in annoying parents by
pushing rules to the limit.
Results
In the following presentation of results,
the comparisons of average scores of work-
ing and nonworking mothers are considered
first. Then, the relationships between the
variable of career orientation and the vari-
ables reflecting the mother's perceptions of
Table 2: Means and Standard Deviations of Study Variables for Working and Nonworking Mothers
Working mothers
Variable M SD
Career orientation 7.10 1.70
Mother interpretation
of infant discontent 3.08 1.97
Perception of infant
distress at separation 8.05 1.77
Separation stress 6.54 2.00
Attitude to
nonmaternal care 4.41 1.87
Attitude reflecting
appropriate closeness .08 .82
Note. For working mothers, « = 59; for nonworking mothers, n = 71.
her infant's needs and concern about other
care givers (Variables 2, 3, 4, and 5 in Table
1) are described. Finally, the Appropriate
Closeness factor is considered as it relates to
those four variables.
The working mothers were significantly
more career oriented than the nonworking
mothers (p < .01; see Table 2). Considering
the four interview-based variables reflecting
the mother's perceptions of her infant's
needs and nonmaternal care, the groups
were very similar in their interpretation of
infant discontent that was not associated
with separation. Significant group differ-
ences were determined for the three vari-
ables characterizing aspects of separation of
mother and infant (p < .01). Working
mothers were less likely to perceive infant
distress at separation caused by the moth-
er's leaving, felt less anxiety when leaving
their infants, and were generally less ap-
prehensive about leaving their babies in the
care of others. There were no significant
group differences in attitudes reflecting Ap-
propriate Closeness.
The coefficients of correlation between
career orientation and the other five study
variables for the working and nonworking
mothers are presented in Table 3. For the
working mothers, the relationship of career
orientation to the four interview-based vari-
ables reflected a consistent tendency. The
more highly career oriented a working
mother was, the less she took infant discon-
tent as a personal affront, the less she per-
ceived infant distress at separation caused
by her leaving, the less anxiety she felt about
separation, and the less anxious she was
Nonworking
. mothers
M SD
3.74 1.94 10.3% .01
3.11 1.87 -.089 ns
6.90 2.43 3.029 .01
5.38 2.45 2.918 .01
5.69 1.90 -3.853 .01
.29 .78 -1.494 ns
 WORK STATUS OF MOTHERS OF INFANTS 41

Table 3: Coefficients of Correlation between adaptive do not take infant discontent as a

Career Orientation and Other Study Variables in personal affront; also, they do not perceive
Working and Nonworking Mothers distress at separation caused by their leav-
Career orientation ing. The nonworking mothers who express a
Variable Working Nonworking more adaptive attitude also tend not to take
infant discontent as a personal affront. Al-
Mother interpretation of though the coefficient is not statistically sig-
infant discontent -.52** .23*
Perception of infant nificant, it should be noted that the direction
distress at separation .29* -.25* of the relationship is the same as that of
Separation stress .56** -.10
Attitude to nonmaternal working mothers. This is not the case when
care -.38** .00 perception of distress at separation is con-
Appropriate closeness .17 .09 sidered. Nonworking mothers who possess
Note. For working mothers, n = 59; for nonworking mothers, n = 71. a more adaptive attitude tend to perceive
*p < .05.
"p < .01. infant distress at separation caused by their
leaving.
about other care givers. When the nonwork-
ing mothers were considered, the direction Discussion
of the relationship changed. The more highly
career oriented a nonworking mother was, When the characteristics of working and
the more she took infant discontent as a nonworking mothers were compared, no
personal affront, and the more she perceived significant group difference was found with
infant distress at separation caused by her respect to their tendency to interpret infant
leaving. Career orientation in nonworking discontent not related to mother-infant sep-
mothers was not significantly related to sep- aration as a personal affront; as well, no
aration stress or to attitude to nonmaternal difference was found in their attitude reflect-
care. As well, career orientation was not ing Appropriate Closeness. When the three
significantly related to Appropriate Close- variables that dealt directly with separation
ness in either working or nonworking moth- of mother and infant were considered, sig-
ers. nificant group differences were determined.
Table 4 shows the coefficients of correla- Working mothers (when compared to non-
tion between the attitude reflecting Appro- working mothers) expressed views that
priate Closeness and four interview-based reflected less adherence to an exclusive
variables in working and nonworking moth- mother-infant relationship: They appeared
ers. Among working mothers, significant re- not to doubt the competence of other
lationships suggest that mothers who obtain care givers, they did not express feelings of
an attitude score that is considered more anxiety about leaving their infants, and they
did not perceive infant distress caused by
Table 4: Coefficients of Correlation between their leaving. The cause-effect relationship
Attitude Reflecting Appropriate Closeness between work status and these beliefs is not
and Other Study Variables in Working and
Nonworking Mothers
known. Holding such beliefs could certainly
function to lessen a mother's anxiety about
Attitude reflecting returning to work; alternatively, one could
appropriate closeness
argue that the beliefs arise after work status
Variable Working Nonworking is determined. A reasonable resolution of-
Mother interpretation of fered here is that both forces are in effect,
infant discontent -. 26* -. 16 that is, a mother who intends to work after
Perception of infant the birth of her infant does believe that the
distress at separation .37** -.28*
Separation stress - .07 -.15 child will not be distressed by her leaving
Attitude to nonmaternal and will fare well in her absence; after re-
care -.13 -.04 turning to work and experiencing repeated
Note. For working mothers, n = 59; for nonworking mothers, n = 71.
•p < .05.
separations, she may find that her 3-
**p < .01. month-old infant is not distressed and is
42 ELLEN HOCK
doing well in her absence, further confirming
her beliefs.
Consideration of career orientation pro-
vided insight into the beliefs and motivations
of working and nonworking mothers. Find-
ings of this study suggest that career orienta-
tion is a rather stable predisposition—
mothers who were career oriented in
maternity-ward interviews were still career
oriented when interviewed 3 months later;
mothers who returned to work within 3
months after delivery were career oriented
at the time of their infant's birth and when
assessed later. Results of this study suggest
that women who are career oriented and
return to work shortly after the birth of their
infants develop (or have always possessed)
perceptions about how the infant will fare in
their absence. When working mothers are
considered, those who are more career
oriented tend not to perceive infant distress
at separation caused by their leaving, they
are less anxious about leaving, and they are
less apprehensive about other care givers.
Although nonworking mothers are sig-
nificantly less career oriented than working
mothers, it is important to consider the
characteristics of mothers who do not return
to work but who are rated as more career
oriented than other nonworking mothers.
These mothers are more inclined to perceive
infant distress at separation due to their leav-
ing and take infant discontent as a personal
affront. It may be that even though in-
terested in pursuing a career, these mothers
stay home to care for their infants, believing
that their infants are distressed by their leav-
ing and that this distress is an expression of
rejection by the infant.
These findings can be considered in light
of two earlier studies that sought to describe
factors that motivate mothers to stay home
with their children. Hoffman (1974), in her
discussion of an unpublished study of inter-
view data collected by Birnbaum, noted that
full-time homemakers compared to profes-
sional women more often stressed the sac-
rifice that motherhood entailed and to a
greater extent stressed duty and responsibil-
ity. Yarrow et al. (1962) categorized non-
working mothers in her study as staying
home because of a "love of mothering" or a
"duty to mothering." The mothers moti-
vated by duty described childrearing as in-
volving hardships and deprivations and ex-
pressed less favorable childrearing practices
and philosophies. The nonworking mothers
in the present study who were career
oriented seemed also to indicate that their
choice of roles was made out of a sense of
duty. Mothers who believe that their
3-month-old infants become distressed
when they leave and who take it as a per-
sonal affront when discontent is evidenced
might be strongly influenced by a sense of
duty to their infants.
The MAS factor score Appropriate
Closeness assesses aspects of the mother-
infant relationship that characterize satis-
faction with mothering and the ability to es-
tablish appropriate distance between one-
self and one's child. A mother scoring in the
adaptive direction on this factor would tend
to view motherhood as satisfying as opposed
to depleting. It is interesting to note that
there was no significant difference between
working and nonworking mothers on this
variable. The relationship of Appropriate
Closeness to the mothers' interpretation of
infant discontent is in the expected direction
and the same for both groups of mothers
(although the coefficient of correlation is
significant only with the working group);
mothers who take infant discontent as a per-
sonal affront are more likely to view moth-
erhood as depleting. Appropriate Closeness
also was significantly related to perception
of infant distress at separation in both work-
ing and nonworking groups but in opposite
directions. Working mothers whose scores
are in the adaptive direction (i.e., they feel
that motherhood is satisfying) tend not to
perceive infant distress due to their leaving,
whereas nonworking mothers whose scores
are more adaptive tend to perceive infant
distress at separation due to their leaving.
(Before interpreting this finding, it is impor-
tant to note that the infants in this study were
3 or 4 months old when their mothers were
interviewed. Data from studies of the devel-
opment of focused relationships indicate
that clear distress due to mother's leaving, if
exhibited at all, is not seen until after 5 to 6
months of age [Ainsworth, 1973; Yarrow,
1967]. This normative information would
lead one to believe that the infants in the
 WORK STATUS OF MOTHERS OF INFANTS
present study were not exhibiting separation
distress with any consistency. Therefore, it
could be suggested that the mothers' de-
scriptions of infant behavior expressed in
the interview reflected their own percep-
tions consistent with their beliefs about their
infant's need for their care exclusively.)
Confirming what one would expect, the
findings suggest that mothers who score in
the adaptive direction on the Appropriate
Closeness factor do not take infant discon-
tent as a personal affront, and work status
does not appear to influence this relation-
ship. Conversely, when perception of infant
discontent is assessed as it relates to sep-
aration of mother and infant, work status
appears to affect the direction of the rela-
tionship: Mothers who tend to view moth-
erhood as satisfying if working perceive no
infant distress due to separation; if non-
working, they perceive infant distress due
to separation. Mothers' perceptions of sep-
aration-related distress in their 3-month-old
infants probably consistently reflect their
beliefs about their infant's needs for exclu-
sive maternal care. Although the study de-
sign did not provide information about
causal relationships, it could be hypothe-
sized that if mothering is to be viewed as
satisfying, there must exist a mesh between
work status and perception of the infant's
need for exclusive maternal care. Future
studies should be designed to further eluci-
date factors that influence satisfaction with
mothering in working and nonworking
mothers with particular attention to such
variables as career orientation and beliefs
about exclusive maternal care.
REFERENCE NOTES
1. Moss, H. Manual for global variables—Post-
partum interview determinants of maternal con-
tact. Unpublished manuscript, 1971. (Available
43
from H. Moss, Child Research Branch, National
Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, Maryland.)
2. Cohler, B. J., Weiss, J. L., & Grunebaum, H. U.
The Maternal Attitude Scale: Preliminary Manual.
Unpublished manuscript, Massachusetts Mental
Health Center, Harvard University, 1968. (Avail-
able from B. J. Cohler, Department of Education,
5730 South Woodlawn Avenue, University of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637.)
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