A2

Durability is defined as the capability of concrete to resist weathering action, chemical

attack and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. It normally
refers to the duration or life span of trouble-free performance.

Durability of Concrete depends upon the following factors

Cement content

Mix must be designed to ensure cohesion and prevent segregation and bleeding. If
cement is reduced, then at fixed w/c ratio the workability will be reduced leading to
inadequate compaction.

Compaction

The concrete as a whole contain voids can be caused by inadequate compaction.

Usually it is being governed by the compaction equipments used, type of formworks,
and density of the steelwork

Curing

It is very important to permit proper strength development aid moisture retention and
to ensure hydration process occur completely

Cover

Thickness of concrete cover must follow the limits set in codes

Permeability

It is considered the most important factor for durability. It can be noticed that higher
permeability is usually caused by higher porosity. Therefore, a proper curing,
sufficient cement, proper compaction and suitable concrete cover could provide a
low permeability concrete

A3

mile tho bhje dena………….

a4
Physical Durability
The ability of concrete to resist environmental conditions is its physical durability. Concrete
tends to crack when there’s a change in volume, for example due to temperature changes or
when concrete is restrained from those volume changes.

 Abrasion: Abrasion resistance is defined as the ability of a surface to resist being

worn away by rubbing or friction. It is affected by the exposure conditions, concrete
strength, aggregate properties, cementitious materials, curing methods and surface
finish. At its’ worst case, abrasion can completely wear away concrete from structural
elements. In the case of reinforced concrete, abrasion reduces concrete cover to the
reinforcing steel (rebar) which can lead to corrosion (and thus weakening of rebar) as
water and chlorides make their way down to the reinforcing steel.

Photo Credit: Jenike

 Freezing and Thawing: Concrete that is exposed to elements in northern climates

must be resistant to the effects of freeze-thaw cycles. Ice takes up more volume than
water, which causes microfractures in concrete to open up and become cracks. The
addition of de-icing chemicals in snowy environments only worsen the cracking in
concrete when chlorides are introduced. Air-entrainment improves the physical
durability of concrete by providing microscopic air pockets to relieve internal
pressure and provide tiny chambers for water to expand into when it freezes. 

 Rain and Humidity: Moisture and environmental conditions affect the pH levels of

concrete, known as carbonation. Carbonation does not damage the concrete directly,
but the formation of calcium carbonate leads to a loss of the alkaline concrete
environment for rebars. This enables reinforcing steel corrosion, which causes serious
damage to the structure.
Chemical Durability
 Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR): ASR is an expansive reaction between chemicals
contained in concrete mixes where silica in aggregates reacts with potassium and
sodium alkalis in cement paste. When this reaction occurs it may produce expansion
which results in the development of network of cracks, spalling of joints, and
movement of certain portions of a structure.

 Chemicals: Concrete is resistant to most natural environments and many chemicals.

Some chemicals, however, can attack concrete and cause deterioration. Concrete with
low permeability is more resistant to chemicals. 

 Chloride and Steel: Chlorides in de-icing chemicals can make its way down to the
reinforcing steel. Chemical reactions between the chlorides and the steel initiates the
corrosion process which can create significant damage to structural concrete. Deck
overlays, surface treatments, and especially coating reinforcing steel can help protect
bridge concrete from corrosion due to chlorides.

 Sulfates: Sulfates in water and soil can attack concrete and cause damage. Sulfates
react to compounds in hardened concrete which can create pressure eventually leading
to disintegration. Concrete used in heavy sulfate environments must be specially
formulated to resist their effects.

a5

What is Concrete Carbonation ?

Carbonation in concrete is the process whereby carbon dioxide (in moist
air) reacts with the lime and other alkaline materials in the concrete and
creates calcium carbonate.
This is the most common cause for loss of alkalinity in concrete, which is
important as a high level of alkalinity is required to prevent corrosion of
the re-inforced steel inside the concrete.
 How is Concrete Carbonation Tested ?
Concrete Carbonation is tested with the straightforward use of a chemical indicator;
the most commonly used indicator is a solution of phenolphthalein in alcohol and/or
water. Phenolphthalein solution applied to fresh strongly alkaline concrete will turn
pink. If the alkalinity has been lost the concrete will not turn  pink. In practice it is
essential that the phenolphthalein solution is applied to freshly exposed concrete. 
This can be carried out in 2 ways, either:
1. By breaking a piece of concrete from the main area and spraying the
underlying surface immediately.
2. By drilling a hole into the concrete either at a given depth or in small
increments.
The hole must be flushed out with de-ionised water immediately after the drilling to
avoid contamination; this is then followed straight after with a spray of
phenolphthalein. There should be a clear mark indicating the difference between pink
and ‘natural’ concrete colour.  The degree of carbonation can then be measured in
millimetres.

A6

ASR is caused by a reaction between the hydroxyl ions in the alkaline cement pore solution
in the concrete and reactive forms of silica in the aggregate (eg: chert, quartzite, opal, strained
quartz crystals).

A gel is produced, which increases in volume by taking up water and so exerts an expansive
pressure, resulting in failure of the concrete. In unrestrained concrete (that is, without any
reinforcement), ASR causes characteristic 'map cracking' or 'Isle of Man cracking'.

The conditions required for ASR to occur are:

 A sufficiently high alkali content of the cement (or alkali fromother sources)
 A reactive aggregate, such as chert.
 Water - ASR will not occur if there is no available water in the concrete, since
alkali-silica gel formation requires water.

Write down the various methods used to prevent concrete structure from ASR
damage.

 There are three essential elements needed for ASR to occur: alkali,
reactive aggregates and water. Efforts to prevent or mitigate ASR
have nearly always focused on measures to reduce or eliminate the
first two. Special low-alkali cements have been used. Partially
replacing cement with pozzolins such as fly-ash and slag have also
been demonstrated to help. Of course, avoiding the use of reactive
aggregates would definitely prevent ASR. But these various
measures are not always available or economical.
  The idea of eliminating water has been largely ignored. This is likely
because water is generally accepted to be ever present. While
normal concrete is porous and will absorb water, there are multiple
ways to reduce or prevent the penetration of water into the concrete.
 The incorporation of Krystol Internal Membrane (KIM) to a well-
proportioned mixture can aid in the prevention of water into concrete
and protection against the harmful expansion forces of ASR. When it
comes to creating durable and sustainable structures, it’s important
to consider the benefits of keeping water out of concrete.

A7

A severe exposure condition on portland cement concrete structures is exposure to cycles of

freezing and thawing. Air entrainment is used to enhance the freeze-thaw resistance of portland
cement concrete exposed to an external environment. The typical deterioration of concrete
exposed to freeze-thaw conditions is random cracking, surface scaling and joint deterioration due
to D-cracking. The first two are primarily due to lack of adequately entrained air in the concrete
mass or the surface layer, respectively, and the latter phenomenon is primarily related to non-
durable aggregate.

Freeze/thaw damage occurs in concrete when the water molecules in concrete freeze and
expand beyond the volume constraints of the concrete.