Geologic Processes and Hazards

An earthquake is caused by the sudden release of slowly accumulating strain of energy

along a fault within the Earth's crust. Magnitude measures the energy released at the
source of an earthquake while intensity measures the strength of shaking produced by
the earthquake at a certain location. A large earthquake will always be followed by
a sequence of aftershocks.

Ground Shaking

 It is simply the vibration of the land surface. It occurs if an earthquake

generates enough shaking intensity causing man-made structures like buildings,
bridges, and dams to be severely damaged.
 The softer and thicker the soil, the greater the shaking or amplification of waves
produced by an earthquake.

Surface Faulting

 It is the offset or tearing of the ground surface by differential movement along

a fault during an earthquake. 
 The most effective way to limit the damage is to avoid construction in the
immediate vicinity of active faults.

Earthquake- Induced Landslides

 It occurs under a wide range of conditions: in steeply sloping to nearly flat

land; in bedrock, loose sediments, fill, and mine dumps; under dry and wet
conditions. Moisture content can also be considered a criterion for classification:
some can occur only under very wet conditions

Rock Avalanches or Rock Slides

 It originates on over- steepened slopes in weak rocks.

 Rock avalanches are among the most hazardous landslides phenomena due
to the speed, size, and run-out distance.
 Rock avalanches can be very destructive.

Rock Falls

 It is a sudden, steep drop of rock fragments or debris. Rockfall commonly

occurs on steep cliffs and may involve a single rock or a mass of rocks.
Mudflows

 Mudflows are rapidly moving wet earth flows that can be initiated by
earthquake shaking or heavy rainstorms. Mudflow triggered by an earthquake
occurs when the soil is saturated with water or the water content of the soil is
high.

 Mudflows associated with volcanoes are called lahars.

Liquefaction

 It is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of soil are reduced

by earthquake shaking.

 Liquefaction occurs in saturated soils; that is, the soil where the space
between individual particles is completely filled with water. 
Landslide
USGS defines landslide as a "wide variety of processes that result in the downward
and outward movement of slope- forming materials including rock, soil, artificial fill, or a
combination of these. The materials may move from failing, toppling, sliding, spreading,
or flowing."
Types of Landslides
Hazards Due to Volcanic Eruptions

Hydro- meteorological Phenomena

“Hydrometeorological phenomena” refers to a wide variety of meteorological,

hydrological, and climate phenomena in nature (UNISDR, 1997). Tropical cyclones or
typhoons, coastal storm surges, thunderstorms, floods including flash floods, drought,
and heatwaves are examples of hydro-meteorological hazards.

Hazards Due to Tropical Cyclones

Tropical cyclone - a rotating, organized system of clouds and thunderstorms that

originate over warm tropical or subtropical waters and have a closed low- level
circulation. They rotate counterclockwise or cyclonic in the northern hemisphere
and clockwise or anticyclonic in the southern hemisphere because of the Coriolis
Effect.

The South Atlantic Ocean and South-Eastern Pacific are the two regions on earth

where tropical cyclones could not be formed because of the cooler sea surface
temperature and higher vertical wind shears.
Almost all tropical cyclones develop from the Northwest Pacific Ocean, directly
hitting the Philippines. 
Tropical cyclones are dangerous because they generate destructive wind and
heavy rainfall and amplify storm surges that can cause flooding of low-lying
coastal areas.
1. Strom surge- Strong surge is described as an abnormal rise of water
generated by a storm, over and above the predicted astronomical
tides (National Hurricane Center).
2. Flash flooding- Human activities such as slash and burn farming and land
development add to the problem. Flash floods trigger landslides, mudslide,
including lahar flow.
3. Flooding in Urban Areas- Flash flooding in highly urbanized areas like
Metro Manila severely disrupts the normal flow of life. Primarily, it affects the
delivery of goods and basic services.
Hazards Due to Tornadoes

 Tornado (ipo-ipo) is a narrow, violently rotating column of air that extends

from the base of a thunderstorm to the ground. Typically, it is characterized
by its condensation funnel which is actually composed of water droplets, dust,
and debris.

 Tornadoes are sometimes called twister because they move as if they are

being twisted. They are very destructive. Tornadoes are capable of lifting heavy
objects and hurl them several meters away, rip off buildings and houses, and
uproot trees. They destroy everything along their paths resulting in enormous
damage to properties.
Hazards due to Monsoons
Monsoon is the wind that reverses its direction with the season, blowing more or
less steadily from the interior of a continent toward the sea in winter, and in the
opposite direction during summer. Monsoons are most often associated with the
Indian Ocean. Monsoons always blow from cold to warm regions. The summer
monsoon or the southwest monsoon and the winter monsoon or northeast monsoon
determine the climate for most of India and Southeast Asia.
The summer monsoon is locally referred to as hanging Habagat while winter
monsoon is called hanging Amihan.
Winter monsoon, dominated by trade winds, brings cooler air from Siberia and
the Himalayas. It starts from the middle of October or November and ends in February
or early March. It is characterized by a drop in temperatures especially at a higher
elevation and its associated with the onset of the Christmas session.
Southeast monsoon causes flooding in most cities in Southeast Asia. In the
countryside, flooding destroys crops especially palay, corn, and vegetables, and this
affects rice production and food supply.
 Flooding also triggers vector-borne diseases such as malaria, and dengue/ dengue
hemorrhagic fever, while direct contact with contaminated water leads to dermatitis,
conjunctivitis, ear, nose, and throat infections wound infections and leptospirosis.
Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effects
Coastal Erosion –it is a natural process. Erosion is the gradual breakdown of the
land or coast due to unending wave action. Coastal erosion happened by any of
the following processes or combinations of these processes: hydraulic
action, abrasion, attrition, and corrosion

 Hydraulic action - occurs whenever water from the waves enter cracks in the
cliff face and exerts pressure on the surrounding rock

 Abrasion - when rocks are picked up and carried by the waves and are thrown
onto the beach and cliffs, damaging them

 Attrition - when rocks and pebbles carried by the waves hit against one another
and break down into smaller particles
Marine Coastal Process

Corrosion is when weak acids in

Coastal processes are responsible for some of
seawater react with certain types of
the most amazing landforms or coastal formations
rocks, usually limestone and chalk slowly
in the country and around the world.
dissolve the rocks.

Transportation or coastal transport is when the Coastal processes are natural

eroded materials are transported somewhere else
by ocean waves and tides.
 
 
phenomena and nature's chisel to
carve out landforms. However, due to
the rapidly growing population worldwide
and uncontrolled economic
development, coastal erosion occurs
at an incredible rate.

Mangroves and Coastal Erosion

Mangroves are an effective natural defense against coastal erosion. They reduced
wave damage from strong typhoons and tsunamis and their roots strongly bind soils
together.
Mangroves and Economy
The greatest impact of coastal hazards such as coastal erosion and storm surges is
mostly on the livelihood and settlement of the people.
Mangroves and Storm Surges
Mangroves are our shield or natural seawall against storm surges and tsunamis
became of their extensive root systems capable of "absorbing wave energy and
reducing the velocity of a sudden surge of water".
Mangroves and Carbon Sequestration
Mangroves are very efficient in carbon sequestration. They act like a sponge by taking
up excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and storing them in their roots, stems,
leaves, and trunks. They are our natural defenses against the effects of climate change
like sea-level rise.
Greenhouse Effect and Sea Level Rise
The climate change and sea-level rise is a conundrum. Sea level is the manifestation
of climate change. Tide gauges or mareograph (also called marigraph) are
instruments/ sensors used to measure fluctuations in sea level worldwide.
Greenhouse Effect, Global Warming, and Climate Change Connection
Climate change is not an instant event. It did not happen just yesterday or years
ago. It was a result of hundreds of years of unprecedented pursuit by mankind for
economic progress at the expense of the environment.
Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are naturally present in the earth's atmosphere. They
are responsible for making our planet habitable. However, too much of these GHGs
would turn our planet's atmosphere like that of planet Venus which is too hot and
hellish.
Our atmosphere acts as an "insulating blanket" not too thin and not too thick. It traps
the right amount of solar energy in the form of visible light and ultraviolet radiation.
The cycle of absorption- emission- absorption is what keeps the earth warmer. 
Global Warming and Farm Animals
Plants produce fewer flowers, their growth is stunted, their leaves are small, and fruit-
bearing trees produce less fruit. Animals are also sensitive to temperature rise. They
produce less offspring, are thinner and leaner, and easily get sick.