Contents

Unit Page

Three Educational Psychology 2

Theories of Learning

Four Human Memory 17

Five References 24

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Unit Three

Schedules of Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement entail the pattern of consequences

to strengthen behaviour and it determines the rate at which the
behaviour will be learned as well as how resistant it will be to
extinction.

1. Fixed interval -- the first correct response after a set amount

of time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is delivered).
The time period required is always the same.

Notice that in the context of positive reinforcement, this

schedule produces a scalloping effect during learning (a
dramatic drop-off of responding immediately after
reinforcement.) Also notice the number of behaviors observed in
a 30 minute time period.

2. Variable interval -- the first correct response after a set

amount of time has passed is reinforced. After the
reinforcement, a new time period (shorter or longer) is set with
the average equaling a specific number over a sum total of trials.

Notice that this schedule reduces the scalloping effect and the
number of behaviors observed in the 30-minute time period is
slightly increased.

3. Fixed ratio -- a reinforcer is given after a specified number of

correct responses. This schedule is best for learning a new
behavior

Notice that behavior is relatively stable between reinforcements,

with a slight delay after reinforcement is given. Also notice the
number of behaviors observed during the 30 minute time period
is larger than that seen under either of the interval schedules.

4. Variable ratio -- a reinforcer is given after a set number of

correct responses. After reinforcement the number of correct
responses necessary for reinforcement changes. This schedule is
best for maintaining behavior.

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 Notice that the number of responses per time period increases as
the schedule of reinforcement is changed from fixed interval to
variable interval and from fixed ratio to variable ratio.

In summary, the schedules of consequences are often called schedules of

reinforcements because there is only one schedule that is appropriate for
administering response cost and punishment: continuous or fixed ratio of one.
In fact, certainty of the application of a consequence is the most important
aspect of using response cost and punishment. Learners must know, without
a doubt, that an undesired or inappropriate target behavior will be followed
by removal of a positive/pleasant stimulus or the addition of a
negative/aversive stimulus. Using an intermittent schedule when one is
attempting to reduce a behavior may actually lead to a strengthening of the
behavior, certainly an unwanted end result.

Premack Principle

The Premack Principle, often called "grandma's rule," states

that a high frequency activity can be used to reinforce low
frequency behavior. Access to the preferred activity is contingent
on completing the low-frequency behavior. The high frequency
behavior to use as a reinforcer can be determined by:

1. asking students what they would like to do;

2. observing students during their free time; or
3. determing what might be expected behavior for a
particular age group.

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Principles of learning

Behavioural educational psychologists have identified several principles of

learning, also referred to as laws of learning, which seem generally applicable
to the learning process. These principles have been discovered, tested, and
used in practical situations. They provide additional insight into what makes
people learn most effectively. Edward Thorndike developed the first three
"Laws of learning:" readiness, exercise, and effect. Since Thorndike set down
his basic three laws in the early part of the twentieth century, three
additional principles have been added: primacy and recency, and intensity.

These principles are widely applied in many fields, as outlined below:

Readiness

Readiness implies a degree of single-mindedness and eagerness. Individuals

learn best when they are physically, mentally, and emotionally ready to
learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for learning. Getting
students ready to learn, creating interest by showing the value of the subject
matter, and providing continuous mental or physical challenge, is usually the
instructor‘s responsibility. If students have a strong purpose, a clear
objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more
progress than if they lack motivation. When students are ready to learn, they
meet the instructor at least halfway, and this simplifies the instructor‘s job.

Since learning is an active process, students must have adequate rest, health,
and physical ability. Under certain circumstances, the instructor can do little,
if anything, to inspire in students a readiness to learn. Basic needs of
students must be satisfied before they are ready or capable of learning.
Students who are exhausted or in ill health obviously cannot learn much. If
outside responsibilities, interests, or worries weigh too heavily on their
minds, if their schedules are overcrowded, or if their personal problems seem
insoluble, students may have little interest in learning.

Exercise

The principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best
remembered. It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that
students learn best and retain information longer when they have
meaningful practice and repetition. The key here is that the practice must be
meaningful. It is clear that practice leads to improvement only when it is
followed by positive feedback.

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The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and
apply new concepts or practices after a single exposure. Students do not learn
complex tasks in a single session. They learn by applying what they have
been told and shown. Every time practice occurs, learning continues. These
include student recall, review and summary and manual drill and physical
applications. All of these serve to create learning habits. The instructor must
repeat important items of subject matter at reasonable intervals, and provide
opportunities for students to practice while making sure that this process is
directed toward a goal.

Law of effect

The principle of effect is based on the emotional reaction of the student. It

has a direct relationship to motivation. The principle of effect is that learning
is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and
that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. The
student will strive to continue doing what provides a pleasant effect to
continue learning. Positive reinforcement is more apt to lead to success and
motivate the learner, so the instructor should recognize and commend
improvement. Whatever the learning situation, it should contain elements
that affect the students positively and give them a feeling of satisfaction.
Therefore, instructors should be cautious about using punishment in the
classroom.

One of the important obligations of the instructor is to set up the learning

situation in such a manner that each trainee will be able to see evidence of
progress and achieve some degree of success. Experiences that produce
feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for
the student. If, for example, an instructor attempts to teach advanced
concepts on the initial engagement, the student is likely to feel inferior and
be frustrated. Impressing upon students the difficulty of a task to be learned
can make the teaching task difficult. Usually it is better to tell students that
a problem or task, although difficult, is within their capability to understand
or perform. Every learning experience does not have to be entirely successful,
nor does the student have to master each lesson completely. However, every
learning experience should contain elements that leave the student with
some good feelings. A student‘s chance of success is definitely increased if the
learning experience is a pleasant one.

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Primacy

Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable,
impression. Things learned first create a strong impression in the mind that
is difficult to erase. For the instructor, this means that what is taught must
be right the first time. For the student, it means that learning must be right.
―Unteaching‖ wrong first impressions is harder than teaching them right the
first time. If, for example, a student learns a faulty technique, the instructor
will have a difficult task correcting bad habits and ―reteaching‖ correct ones.

The student's first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the
foundation for all that is to follow. What the student learns must be
procedurally correct and applied the very first time. The instructor must
present subject matter in a logical order, step by step, making sure the
students have already learned the preceding step. If the task is learned in
isolation, is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if it must be
relearned, the process can be confusing and time consuming. Preparing and
following a lesson plan facilitates delivery of the subject matter correctly the
first time.

Recency

The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best
remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed time-wise from a
new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. For example,
it is fairly easy to recall a telephone number dialed a few minutes ago, but it
is usually impossible to recall a new number dialed last week. The closer the
training or learning time is to the time of actual need to apply the training,
the more apt the learner will be to perform successfully.

Information acquired last generally is remembered best; frequent review and

summarization help fix in the mind the material covered. Instructors
recognize the principle of recency when they carefully plan a summary for a
lesson or learning situation. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes
important points at the end of a lesson to help the student remember them.
The principle of recency often determines the sequence of lectures within a
course of instruction.

Intensity

The more intense the material taught, the more likely it will be retained. A
sharp, clear, vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more
than a routine or boring experience. The principle of intensity implies that a
student will learn more from the real thing than from a substitute. For
example, a student can get more understanding and appreciation of a movie

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by watching it than by reading the script. Likewise, a student is likely to gain
greater understanding of tasks by performing them rather than merely
reading about them. The more immediate and dramatic the learning is to a
real situation, the more impressive the learning is upon the student. Real
world applications that integrate procedures and tasks that students are
capable of learning will make a vivid impression on them.

In contrast to practical instruction, the classroom imposes limitations on the

amount of realism that can be brought into teaching. The instructor needs to
use imagination in approaching reality as closely as possible. Classroom
instruction can benefit from a wide variety of instructional aids, to improve
realism, motivate learning, and challenge students. Instructors should
emphasize important points of instruction with gestures, showmanship, and
voice. Demonstrations, skits, and role playing do much to increase the
learning experience of students. Examples, analogies, and personal
experiences also make learning come to life. Instructors should make full use
of the senses (hearing, sight, touch, taste, smell, balance, rhythm, depth
perception, and others).

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Learning According to Cognitive Psychologists

Introduction

Cognitive theories of learning deal with questions relating to cognition, or

knowing (Lefrancois 1988:21). Cognitive learning theories seek to explain
how the brain processes and stores new information.

Jean Piaget‘s Theory of Development

Piaget

Definition

Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is renowned for

constructing a highly influential model of child development and learning.
Piaget‘s theory is based on the idea that the developing child builds cognitive
structures–in other words, mental ―maps,‖ schemes, or networked concepts
for understanding and responding to physical experiences within his or her
environment. Piaget further attested that a child‘s cognitive structure
increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate
reflexes such as crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities.

Discussion

Piaget‘s theory identifies four developmental stages and the processes by

which children progress through them. The four stages are:

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth - 2 years old)–The child, through physical

interaction with his or her environment, builds a set of concepts about
reality and how it works. This is the stage where a child does not know
that physical objects remain in existence even when out of sight (object
permanance).
2. Preoperational stage (ages 2-7)–The child is not yet able to
conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations.
3. Concrete operations (ages 7-11)–As physical experience accumulates,
the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that
explain his or her physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is
also possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be
solved with numbers, not just with objects.
4. Formal operations (beginning at ages 11-15)–By this point, the child‘s
cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual
reasoning.

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Piaget outlined several principles for building cognitive structures. During all
development stages, the child experiences his or her environment using
whatever mental maps he or she has constructed so far. If the experience is a
repeated one, it fits easily–or is assimilated–into the child‘s cognitive
structure so that he or she maintains mental ―equilibrium.‖ If the experience
is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters his or her cognitive
structure to accommodate the new conditions. This way, the child erects more
and more adequate cognitive structures.

How Piaget‘s Theory Impacts Learning

Curriculum–Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum

that enhances their students‘ logical and conceptual growth.

Instruction–Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences–or

interactions with the surrounding environment–play in student learning. For
example, instructors have to take into account the role that fundamental
concepts, such as the permanence of objects, play in establishing cognitive
structures.

VYGOTSKY LEVY‘S THEORY ON EDUCATION

Levy maintained a broader view of development than other theorists: how did
humans come to develop higher psychological processes in the first place?
How do children come to possess the cognitive functions they exhibit later in
life?

Individual development cannot be understood without reference to the social

and cultural context within which it is embedded. Higher mental processes in
the individual have their origin in social processes.
Mental processes can be understood only if we understand the tools and signs
that mediate them.
In higher forms of human behaviour the individual actively modifies the
stimulus situation as a part of the process of responding to it.
No single principal can account for human development.
Appropriate methods for studying intellectual development are:
 Emphasis on experimentation/observation in natural, authentic
settings
 Cross-species comparisons
 Social-historical factors that mediate development

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 The social Origins of Higher Mental Processes

Development does not proceed toward socialisation; development is the

conversion of social relations into mental functions.
Every function in the child‘s cultural development appears twice: first, on the
social level, and later on the individual level; first between people, then
inside the child.

The diversity of symbols across cultures leads to differences in the kinds of

mental functions that are developed. Thus, universal stages of psychological
development across cultures cannot be identified.

The child converts social relations into psychological functions through

mediation. Mediation occurs through a link tool or sign. A tool is defined as
something that can be used in the service of something else (iconic, symbolic).
It is psychological tools that enable us to bridge the gap between lower and
higher mental functions. These psychological tools include:
various systems for counting; mnemonic techniques; algebraic symbol
systems; works of art; writing; schemes, diagrams, maps, and technical
drawings; all sorts of conventional signs, and so on. (Vygotsky, 1982:137,
cited in Cole & Wertsch)

Of the psychological tools that mediate our thoughts, feelings, and

behaviours, language is the most important.

Language is the most important kind of sign use in acquisition of higher

psychological processes, because it frees children from the constraints of their
immediate environment (decontextualisation).

For example, a small child can respond only to its immediate needs or
feelings- hunger, thirst, pain, fear. But as adults, we can use language to
regulate our behaviour beyond our immediate needs or environment.

Summary

KEY COMPONENTS OF THEORY:

 Cognitive development and language are shaped by a person's

interaction with others.
 Children's knowledge, values, and attitudes develop through
interaction with others.
 Social interactions that assist in learning increase a child's level
of thinking.

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Vygotsky‘s Work and Education

Instruction should lead to development. It should be targeted at the ―leading

edge of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). ZPD is defined as the
difference between problem-solving the child is capable of performing
independently, and problem-solving s/he is capable of performing with
guidance.
This defines the area in which maturation/development is currently taking
place and suggests the appropriate target for instruction.

In an instructional setting, social ―partners‖ should be at different levels of

development and they should jointly construct the problem solution. This
helps to insure that the teacher or more advanced student can assist the less
advanced one and that they will be operating within his/her ZPD.

Instruction should provide learner with real situations in which they must
resolve dilemmas.

Instruction should focus on tasks and goals that are relevant to the child.

Individual testing can give only a partial picture of the child‘s capabilities
since it fails to account for the ZPD.

 Students will learn best through activity.

 Students should be encouraged to communicate frequently with
self and with teacher.
 Using a higher level of language will help students to increase
their language levels.
 Assisted problem solving creates learning.

 Teachers should use interactive methods of teaching such as

hands on activities and group work.
 Teachers should present students with challenges to increase
problem solving abilities.
 Teachers should frequently use a high level of language.
 Teachers should use scaffolding to increase students' cognitive
abilities.

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Jerome Bruner

Bruner‘s Work on Cognition and Constructivism

Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner demonstrated how thought
processes could be subdivided into three distinct modes of reasoning. While
Piaget related each mode to a specific period of childhood development,
Bruner saw each mode as dominant during each developmental phase, but
present and accessible throughout. Bruner‘s model of human development as
a combination of enactive skills (manipulating objects, spatial awareness),
iconic skills (visual recognition, the ability to compare and contrast) and
symbolic skills (abstract reasoning) has influenced psychological and
educational thought over the past 50 years.

Bruner‘s work came at a time when psychological

thought was dominated by behaviourism, which was popular because a
measurable response could be observed to a defined stimulus. This satisfied
the need for scientific rigour, but explained learning without accounting for
mental processes that were assumed to be not measurable. Bruner was able
to apply a similar scientific rigour to unobservable mental processes. Bruner
was instrumental in the move from behaviourism to cognitivism in 1950s and
1960s mainstream psychology. An important work in the early days of the
cognitive movement was A Study in Thinking which Bruner published in
1956 with Jacqueline Goodnow and George Austin, and where they defined
cognitive processes as ―the means whereby organisms achieve, retain and
transform information.‖

Bruner suggested that people remember things ―with a view

towards meaning and signification, not toward the end of somehow
‗preserving‘ the facts themselves.‖ This view of knowledge – and memory –
as a constructed entity is consistent with constructivism, with which Bruner
is also closely associated.

A constant theme in Bruner‘s work is that education is a process

of discovery. As a structural theorist, Bruner believes that information or
knowledge is most effectively gained by personal discovery, and then
classified enactively, iconically or symbolically. Bruner advocated that if
students were allowed to pursue concepts on their own they would gain a
better understanding. Within the education system, a teacher would then
engage students in active dialogue and guide them when necessary so that
students would progressively build their own knowledge base, rather than be

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‗taught‘. New information would be classified and understood based on
knowledge already gained.

Implications and Applications of Bruner‘s Theories

Bruner‘s theory of how children construct knowledge

involves three basic modes of instruction.

In their very early years, young children rely

extensively upon enactive modes to learn. As a child learns to roll
over, sit up or walk, they are learning to do so through their own
actions. While this mode is present in people of all ages it is more
dominant when a person is young. An example of this dominance
is the way a young person can often learn to play a musical
instrument more quickly than an older person.

Iconic representation normally becomes dominant

during the next stage of childhood years. Children learn to
understand what pictures and diagrams are and how to do
arithmetic using numbers and without counting objects.

Later – usually around adolescence - the symbolic

mode of learning becomes most dominant. Students can
understand and work with concepts that are abstract.

According to Bruner, developmental growth involves

mastering each of the increasingly more complex modes - enactive
to iconic to symbolic. Mastering this incorporates becoming more
skilled in translating between each mode. An example of this sort
of translation could be a discussion (symbolic mode) of what
students had learned from an experiment (iconic mode).

An implication of Bruner‘s developmental theories is

that children should be provided with study materials, activities,
and tools that are matched to and capitalise on their developing
cognitive capabilities. For example, a teacher wanting to help
children learn about dinosaurs could use all three modes.
Students could be asked to construct models of dinosaurs
(enactive); they might watch a film about, or involving, dinosaurs
(iconic); or they could consult reference texts and then discuss
their findings (symbolic).

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Gestalt Psychologists view on Learning

The Gestalt approach emphasizes that we perceive objects as well-organized

patterns rather than separate component parts. According to this approach,
when we open our eyes we do not see fractional particles in disorder. Instead,
we notice larger areas with defined shapes and patterns. The "whole" that we
see is something that is more structured and cohesive than a group of
separate particles.

Gestalt psychology can be understood by experiencing the Gestalt Laws of

Organization, which describe the ways we organize our experiences in a
simple and coherent way. These laws are:

 Proximity: We tend to group things together that are close

together in space.
 Similarity: We tend to group things together that are similar
 Good Continuation: We tend to perceive things in good form
 Closure: We tend to make our experience as complete as
possible
 Figure and Ground: We tend to organize our perceptions by
distinguishing between a figure and a background
 Law of Pragnanz (Goodness of a figure): This law states that
every psychological experience has a potential of being
meaningful.
 Law of common fate: It states that aspects of perceptual field
that move or function in a similar manner will be perceived
as a unit.

(Benjafield, 1990: 173).

Wolfgang Kohler‘s Research on Apes

Kohler (1925) carried out a series of experiments based on the behaviour of

apes.

In one study, an ape was placed in a cage. A banana attached to a piece of

string leading to the cage was placed outside the cage. The ape remained a
sitting or lying position as it studied the situation. When it came to an
insight as to how to get the banana, it pulled the string, thus pulling the
banana into the cage.

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In another experiment, bananas were placed high above and out of the reach
of the ape. Within the cage were a number of boxes. After studying the
situation for a while, the ape had and insight and resolved to pile the boxes
on top of one another. When it had done this it climbed onto the newly
arranged boxes and was able to reach the bananas with ease.

In yet another experiment a banana was placed outside the cage beyond the
reach of the ape. Two short pieces of bamboo were placed outside the cage,
but within the ape‘s reach. Neither of the two pieces of bamboo was long
enough to reach the bananas. A brighter ape made an attempt to get the
banana by pushing one piece pf bamboo as far as possible and then using the
second piece to push the first even further, but without success. Later on the
ape played with the bamboo, and as it did so, it came to the insight that
joining the two pieces of bamboo might be the solution to getting the
bananas. The ape joined the two pieces of bamboo and successfully pulled the
bananas into the cage.

(Extracted from Mwamwenda, T.S (1988) Educational Psychology: An African

Perspective, Nairobi, Nesco)

Applications of Gestalt Psychology to Education

 A student must view the whole situation before he/she is able to have
insight into a problem and its solution.
 Learning is creative, it involves an interaction of the organism and the
environment in which the situation is remade, reconstructed, or
transformed, thus leading to a new set of information and insight.
 Writing on chalkboard, charts must clearly be distinguished by their
background.
 There are huge differences between the objects in the real world and
the stimulus energies that transmit information about them. Stimulus
in the environment may be interpreted differently by learners.
 Similar ideas must be presented together, say, in the same topic.
 Considerable time must be given to student to facilitate insight.
Failure to find a solution does not mean a student is incapable of
learning.
 Structure tasks from simple to more complex ones
 Several concepts detailed in Gestalt psychology/therapy appear to have
a close relationship with many concepts being applied in education.
The primary contribution of Gestalt psychology to learning theory is an
emphasis on perception and reintegration of relationships within an
organized whole. To the teacher this means that learning activities
must combine the elements of the three basic domains of learning
(cognitive, affective, and psychomotor) in an approach based on

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 confluent education (merging feelings and thinking into one holistic
learning experience).
 The key to confluent education is the interactive process that takes
place between the cognitive and affective domains in any given
learning experience; this interactive process becomes the "gestalt" of
the learning experience. The influence of Gestalt psychology education
can be utilized to promote the idea of the totally integrated person. If
the student is to function as a whole, with the potential to develop and
expand his/her horizons to include a wider range of society, he/she
must be allowed to function in an environment which will promote
such growth..
 A background in Gestalt psychology classroom teachers seems to be a
step in the right direction in understanding how experience influences
present interpretation of stimulus.

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Unit Four

MEMORY

Memory is a psychological concept, a mental record of past experiences in our

heads. It is the ability to reproduce at some later time what we have
experienced earlier.
The memory record is cumulative, that is, each new experience adds to the
existing record.

THE PROCESSES OF MEMORY

ENCODING
For an event in the environment to change from something physical to
something mental, an encoding process is required to create mental
representations of actual events.

STORAGE
The process of encoding on its own would not be meaningful. For memory to
endure, mental representations must be stored over time so that they can be
available for use on later occasions.

RERIEVAL
Encoding and storing memories aren‘t enough. What good is a stored memory
if you can‘t access it? For memory to have impact later, it must be retrievable
from storage.

LEARNING AND MEMORY

Learning and memory are interdependent

Without the ability to encode, store, and retrieve information from memory,
you can‘t learn or build on that information in subsequent experiences. And
without acquiring new information learning, there is nothing to store in
memory.

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THE LEVELS OF MEMORY

Sensory memory
It is the initial representation of proximal stimuli within a sensory system
and lasts for a moment.

Short-term memory
It is more long lasting, but still temporary. The contents of short-memory
typically are available to consciousness for only 15 to 20 seconds after initial
input, unless they are repeatedly refreshed or rehearsed. For example; it
would be necessary to repeat an unfamiliar phone number over and over to
study yourself to keep it in short term memory long enough for you to dial it.

Long-term memory
It lasts indefinitely. It consists of all of a person‘s stored knowledge and past
experiences.

FACTORS THAT FACILITATE MEMORY

Memory plays an important role in the lives of teachers and their pupils. This
calls for an examination of some of the factors that facilitate the retention of
information and the following variables are discussed below:

Recognition

Recognition is the product of two sets of information- one being the stimulus
and the second information related to the stimulus already existing in long-
term memory.

Rehearsal

When the information received in the sensory region is selected or further

processing, the processing, and the process set in motion is known as
rehearsal. There are two types of rehearsal, namely maintenance rehearsal
and elaborative rehearsal. If the information need be remembered for only a
short time maintenance rehearsal is used. If the information need be
remembered for a longer period of time elaborative rehearsal is used.

Organisation

Information to be learned is must well organised. One way of organising

information is by breaking it into smaller units and trying to link these to

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each other in the way they relate to each other so that remembering one unit
can lead to remembering yet another unit.

Meaningfulness

If the information being learned has meaning, it will be retained in long-term

memory.

Mnemonic devices
These are special Phrases or symbols which may be used to group
information.

Ridiculous Associations
Learning is facilitated when the unknown is associated with the known. E.g.
Bupe may be associated with Gift.

Activity

Spending some time discussing what has been learnt or putting it into
practice may also help retain information in the long-term memory.

Emotional States

It is easier to learn something if you are feeling positive and cheerful than if
you are feeling pessimistic or depressed. When you are feeling happy, you are
more likely to remember happy thoughts, happy past events. Likewise, if you
are feeling depressed, you are more likely to remember depressing thoughts,
depressing events.

FORGETTING

Forgetting is failure to salvage information from memory when it is needed.

What causes forgetting?

This question may be responded to if the following theories are visited:

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Passive Decay

Passive decay is the oldest explanation used to account for forgetting. It is

important to note that every time a person experiences something that is
processed and stored in his memory, a memory trace is formed. A memory
trace may be described as a mark or representation of an experience stored in
one‘s brain or nervous system.

We forget previous experience as a result of the passage of time and due to

not being able to make use of the experience frequently.

Systematic Distortions of Memory Trace

People may remember things that may either never have taken place or
occurred in a way different from the way they are reported/ According to the
theory of systematic distortion, forgetting occurs at the time an event is
perceived rather than over time. The way we perceive an event when it
occurs determines whether our memory of the event will be clear and explicit
or distorted and blurred. It is possible to retell certain experience with a
considerable amount of distortion.

Interference Effect

This theory proposes that forgetting occurs as a result of what happens

between point A, when the information is learned, and point B, when the
person is required to show what to show what he learned a while ago.
There are two types of interference called retroactive inhibition and proactive
inhibition. In the former, new learning affects old learning so that as more
learning is acquired, the old learning fades away or is forgotten. The latter
means that prior learning, that is old learning, may interfere with new
learning.

Motivated forgetting (Repression)

Some memories are suppressed because if they were to surface to the
conscious level, feelings of anxiety or guilt or discomfort or pain would be
activated. Everyone probably has certain unpleasant past experiences that
he/she would rather forget to spare himself/herself the pain of reliving them.
We forget certain events as a matter of choice.

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Duplex Theory

There are two memory storage mechanisms, namely short-term memory

(STM) and long-term memory (LTM). The STM storage mechanism is used to
store information that has just been perceived, whereas the LTM stores
information that has been established as a result of repeated practice over
trials.

Incoming information is transmitted to STM for a certain period, during

which it is easily retrievable. However, information is only stored in STM for
a short time due to a limited amount of space. As more information enters the
chamber, existing information is pushed out or passed on to LTM so as to
create room for new information. While information is in STM it may be
coded and transferred to LTM. If this does not happen, the information in
this chamber is not easily forgotten, and with the appropriate cues can be
retrieved when required.

In other words forgetting occurs only if information is inadequately processed

while in short-term memory. If it is adequately processed by means of
practice and rehearsal and then passed on to long-term memory, it will be
retained for an indefinite period.

Consolidation Theory

The premise of consolidation theory is that the change that occurs in the
nervous system following learning depends on time. The memory trace
undergoes a consolidation phase after learning has occurred. During this
phase the memory trace is rather unstable and subject to obliteration should
there be interference. Once the memory trace is interfered with, their will be
loss of memory of what has been learned. On the other hand, if there is no
interference while the information is processed, the memory trace will not
only be consolidated, but also become resistant to extinction.

This position may be supported by the fact that people who have sustained
head injuries are unable to remember events which occurred immediately
before the injury, although they have no problem remembering events that
occurred before this. This form of forgetting is known as retrograde amnesia.

Cue-dependent forgetting Theory

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Cue-dependent forgetting or retrieval failure, is the failure to recall a
memory due to missing stimuli or cues that were present at the time the
memory was encoded.. It states that a memory is sometimes temporarily
forgotten purely because it cannot be retrieved, but the proper cue can bring
it to mind. A good metaphor for this is searching for a book in a library
without the reference number, title, author or even subject. The information
still exists, but without these cues retrieval is unlikely. Furthermore, a good
retrieval cue must be consistent with the original encoding of the
information. If the sound of the word is emphasized during the encoding
process, the cue that should be used should also put emphasis on the phonetic
quality of the word. Information is available however, just not available
without these cues.

State—Dependent Theory

The state of mind is like an additional memory cue. Information is

remembered well when the person is in the same mental, emotional, or drug-
induced state as when it was learned. Each state of mind a person may
experience has a unique network of stimuli which may be involved in the
encoding stage. If this is so, returning to that state of mind will add as an
additional retrieval cue in re-obtaining the memory.(Benjamin, Hopkins, &
Nation, 1994. p.270-71) (Horton & Mills, 1984; Lowe, 1987).

This association between the memory cues and the state of mind is one
reason why many successful programs designed to help people quit smoking,
to overcome bad eating habits, or to cope with alcoholism, use behavior
modification that will avoid tempting them with memory cues.

Knowing this information can help you begin to influence or to manage your
own emotions or tendency to feel discouraged. Renew yourself with positive
and supportive memory cues.

Attitude and Motivation (Remembering Well, p. 41; Wong, 2000, p.38)

Your attitude about learning also plays an important role in memory. If you
take a negative attitude toward having to memorize something, it is going to
be much harder to learn. However, if you approach your task with a positive
outlook, you will have a better chance for success, not to mention, you'll have
a lot more fun! The more motivated you are to learn, the more fun it will be,
and the more you will remember.

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Sleep Consolidates Memories

It is controversial as to whether or not people can learn from tapes in their

sleep. According to the theory of state-dependent memory, one might only
remember the information if asleep, which wouldn't do much good. However,
in a way, we do learn in our sleep. It is when we sleep that our brain is busy
imprinting and consolidating memories in long term storage.

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References

 Fuchs, A. H. and Katharine S. M. (2003). "Psychology as a Science", in

Weiner, Irving; Donald K. Freedheim: Handbook of Psychology. New
York: Wiley.
 Hilgard, E and G. Bower (1966). Theories of Learning. New York:
Appleton Century-Crofts.
 Seligman, M. 1970. On the generality of the laws of learning.
Psychological Review, 77, 406-418.
 Thorndike, E [1913] (1999). Education Psychology. New York:
Routledge.
 Thorndike, E. (1932). The Fundamentals of Learning. New York:
Teachers College Press.

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