Lesson 1.

1: Effective Stress

In soils, stresses are separated into (1) intergranular – stress resulting from particle-to-particle
contact, and (2) pore-water – the stress induced by water pressures. The former is commonly
referred to as effective stress, while the latter is frequently termed neutral stress (or neutral
pressure). The sum of the effective stress and neutral stress is called the total stress (Cernica,
1995).

Intergranular Stress, Pore Water Pressure, and Total Stress

Intergranular or effective stress, 𝜎 ′ , is the stress resulting from particle-to-particle contact of

soil. The effective stress acting on the soil element shown in Figure 1 is calculated by:

𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑑 ℎ1 + 𝛾𝑏 ℎ𝑤 (eq. 01)

Pore water pressure or neutral stress, 𝑢, is the stress induced by water-pressures.

𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ𝑤 (eq.02)
For soils above water table, 𝑢 = 0.
Total stress is the sum of the effective and neutral stresses.
𝜎 = 𝜎′ + 𝑢 (eq. 03)

Figure 1. Stresses in a soil element

Stresses in soil considering the effect of surcharge and drainage conditions in soil

The construction of building and other structures will impose surcharge loads on the soil
element which will affect in the calculation of the stresses. Drainage which is the removal of
surplus water can also increase or decrease stresses acting in soil.
Stress in soil without seepage (Gillesania, 2006)

Consider the soil layers shown in Figure 2, we calculate the stresses at pts A, B, and C.

Figure 2. Soil layers with surcharge and without seepage

At point A:
Total stress, 𝜎 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ4 + 𝑞
Neutral stress, 𝑢=0
Effective stress, 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
At point B:
Total stress, 𝜎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡1 ℎ5 + 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝑞
Neutral stress, 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ6
Effective stress, 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
or 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑏1 ℎ5 + 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝑞
At point C:
Total stress, 𝜎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡2 ℎ3 + 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡1 ℎ2 + 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝑞
Neutral stress, 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ6
Effective stress, 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢
or 𝜎 ′ = 𝛾𝑏2 ℎ3 + 𝛾𝑏1 ℎ2 + 𝛾𝑚 ℎ1 + 𝑞

Stress in Saturated Soil with Seepage

Upward Seepage

Figure 3. Soil with upward seepage

Hydraulic gradient, 𝑖 = ℎ⁄𝐻
2

ℎ1 = 𝑖 𝑥 𝑧1 = 𝑖 (ℎ⁄𝐻 )
2

At point A:
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1 𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = 0
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1

At point B:
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑧1 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1 𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑏 𝑧1 − 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 (𝐻2 + 𝐻1 + ℎ)
The seepage force per unit volume of soil is:
𝐹 = 𝑖𝛾𝑤

Downward Seepage

Figure 4. Soil with downward seepage

Hydraulic gradient, 𝑖 = ℎ⁄𝐻

2

ℎ1 = 𝑖 𝑥 𝑧1 = 𝑖 (ℎ⁄𝐻 )
2

At point A:
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝜎′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = 0
At point B:
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝑧1 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 (𝑧1 + 𝐻1 − ℎ1 )
𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑏 𝑧1 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ1
At point C:
𝜎 = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 𝐻2 + 𝛾𝑤 𝐻1
𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 (𝐻2 + 𝐻1 − ℎ)
𝜎 ′ = 𝜎 − 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑏 𝐻2 + 𝛾𝑤 ℎ

Effect of Capillary Rise to Soil Stress (Gillesania, 2006)

Capillary rise in soil is demonstrated in Figure 5. A sandy soil is placed in contact with water.
After a certain period, water rises and the variation of the degree of saturation with the height
of the soil column caused by capillary rise is approximately given in the figure.

Figure 5. Capillary rise in soil

The degree of saturation is about 100% up to a height, ℎ1 . Beyond the height ℎ1 , water can
occupy only the smaller voids, hence the degree of saturation is less than 100%.
The approximate height of capillary rise is given by Hazen as:
𝐶
ℎ2 = (eq. 04)
𝑒𝐷10

where D 10 = effective grain size, e = void ratio, and C = a constant that varies from 10 to 50
mm2.
The pore water pressure, u, at a point in the layer of soil fully saturated by capillary rise is:
𝑢 = −𝛾𝑤 ℎ (eq.05)
where h is the height of the point under consideration measured from the ground water table.
If a partial saturation is caused by capillary action, the pore water pressure, u, can be
approximated as:
𝑢 = −𝑆𝛾𝑤 ℎ (eq. 06)
where S is the degree of saturation at the point under consideration.
Consider the soil layer shown in Figure 6:
 Figure 6. Soil with capillary rise

At point A:
Total stress, 𝜎 = 𝛾1 𝐻1 + 𝛾2 𝐻2
Pore water stress, 𝑢 = −𝑆1 𝛾𝑤 ℎ3
At point B:
Total stress, 𝜎 = 𝛾1 ℎ1 + 𝛾2 ℎ
Pore water stress, 𝑢 = 0
At point C:
Total stress, 𝜎 = 𝛾1 ℎ1 + 𝛾2 ℎ + 𝛾3 ℎ4
Pore water stress, 𝑢 = 𝛾𝑤 ℎ4

Sample Problems:
Example 01:
A clay layer of 4 m thick with 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 19.62 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 is overlain by a 4 m sand with 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
18.64 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 and 𝛾𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 16.19 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3 , the top of this layer being the ground surface. The
water table is located 2 m below the ground surface. The clay layer is underlain by a sand
stratum that is in artesian conditions with the water level in a standpipe being 4 m above the
ground surface. Calculate the effective vertical stresses at the top and the base of the clay
layer. If the dry sand is excavated, in what depth the effective stress at the bottom of the clay
layer will become zero?

Solution:

At the top of the clay layer ℎ = 4𝑚:

𝜎 = (16.19 𝑥 2 + 18.64 𝑥 2) = 69.66 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑢 = 9.81 𝑥 2 = 19.62
𝜎 ′ = 69.66 − 19.62
𝜎 ′ = 50.04 𝑘𝑃𝑎
At the base of the clay layer ℎ = 8 𝑚:
𝜎 = 16.19 𝑥 2 + 18.64 𝑥 2 + 19.62 𝑥 4 = 148.14 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝑢 = 9.81 𝑥 (8 + 4) = 117.72 𝑘𝑃𝑎
𝜎 ′ = 148.14 − 117.72
𝜎 ′ = 30.42 𝑘𝑃𝑎

Depth the effective stress will be zero:

Assume D is the depth of excavation in the sand layer, thus at the base of the clay layer:
𝜎 = 148.14 − 16.19 𝑥 𝐷
𝜎 ′ = 148.14 − 16.19𝐷 − 117.72 = 0
𝐷 ≅ 1.88 𝑚 < 2.0 𝑚 (the thickness of of the dry sand layer).

Example 02:
A clay layer 10 m thick has a density of 1.75 Mg/m3 and is underlain by sand. The top of the
clay is the ground surface. An excavation in the clay layer failed when the depth of the
excavation reached to 6.5 m from the ground surface. Calculate the depth of water in a
standpipe sunk to the sand layer.

Solution:

Calculate the total vertical stress at the base of the clay:

𝜎 = 1.75 𝑥 9.81 (10.0 − 6.5) = 60.1 𝑘𝑃𝑎
The pore pressure on the boundary of sand and clay is:
𝑢 = 9.81 𝑥 ℎ𝑤 , where ℎ𝑤 is the height of water above the boundary.
Set the effective vertical stress at the base of the clay to zero:
𝜎 ′ = 60.1 − 9.81 ℎ𝑤 = 0
ℎ𝑤 = 6.13 𝑚
Depth of piezometric level from the ground surface = 10 − 6.13 = 3.87 𝑚

Example 03:
A sample was obtained from point A in the submerged clay layer shown. It was determined
that it had 𝑤 = 54% and 𝐺𝑠 = 2.78. What is the effective vertical stress at point A.

Solution:

Effective stress at point A:

(𝐺 +𝑒)𝛾𝑤
𝜎 ′ = 𝛾 ′ ℎ = (𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 )ℎ = {[ 𝑠 ] − 𝛾𝑤 } ℎ where 𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
1+𝑒
(𝐺𝑠 + 𝑤𝐺𝑠 )𝛾𝑤 〈2.78 + (0.54𝑥2.78)〉9.81
𝜎 ′ = {[ − 𝛾𝑤 ]} ℎ = {[ ] − 9.81} (15)
1 + 𝑤𝐺𝑠 1 + (0.54 𝑥2.78)
𝝈′ = 𝟏𝟎𝟒. 𝟕𝟐 𝒌𝑷𝒂