Contents

1 Algebraic identities 3
1.1 an − bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 an + bn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 (a ± b)n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Telescoping Sums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Conversion of rational expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Trignometric identities 7
2.1 Common angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Reciprocal functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Even/odd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.3 Pythagorean identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.4 Cofunction identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.5 Sum and difference of angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.6 Double angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.7 Half angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.8 Power reducing formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.9 Product to sum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1.10 Sum to product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3 Inequalities 11
3.1 Classic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1 General AM-GM Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.2 Bernoulli’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.3 Cauchy’s Inequality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 logarithmic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Binomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

4 Limits 13

5 Descrete Maths 15
5.1 Summation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1
2 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Algebraic identities

1.1 an − b n
1. a2 − b2 = (a − b)(a + b)

2. a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )

3. an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b+ an−3 b2 + · · · + bn−1 )

1.2 an + bn
1. a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )

2. if n is odd then:

an + bn = (a + b)(an−1 − an−2 b+ an−3 b2 − · · · + (−1)n−1 bn−1 )

3. a2 + b2 = (a − bi)(a + bi)
√ √
4. a4 + b4 = (a2 − 2ab + b2 )(a2 + 2ab + b2 )

1.3 (a ± b)n
1. (a ± b)2 = a2 ± 2ab + b2

2. (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b)

3. (a − b)3 = a3 − 3a2 b + 3ab2 − b3 = a3 − b3 − 3ab(a − b)

4.
n  
n
X n
(x + y) = xn−k y k
k
k=0

1.4 Miscellaneous

(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) = (ab + bc + ca)(a + b + c) − abc (1.1)

2 2 2 2 2 2
(a − b)(b − c)(c − a) = (a b + b c + c a) − (ab + bc + ca )
X X X
a−b= a2 b − ab2 (1.2)
cyclic cyclic cyclic

(1 − x)(1 − y)(1 − z) = 1 − (x + y + z) + xy + yz + xz − xyz (1.3)

2 3
(1 − ax)(1 − ay)(1 − az) = 1 − a(x + y + z) + a (xy + yz + xz) − a xyz (1.4)

3
4 CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES

These are especially useful when x + y + z = 1(or x + y + z = 1/a) as it reduces to xy + yz + xz − xyz

(a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)

1 1 1
= a2 + b2 + c2 + 2abc( + + ) (1.5)
a b c
(a − b − c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 − 2(ab − bc + ca) (1.6)
2 2 2 2 2 2
(a − b) + (b − c) + (c − a) = 2(a + b + c − ab − bc − ca) (1.7)

a3 + b3 + c3 = (a + b + c)3 − 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) (1.8)

2 2 2
= (a + b + c)(a + b + c − ab − bc − ca) + 3abc (1.9)
3 3 3 3
(a + b + c) = a + b + c + 3(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) (1.10)

if a + b + c = 0 then a + b = −c, b + c = −a, c + a = −b and 1.10 reduces to

a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc (1.11)

a4 + b4 + c4 + d4 = (a2 − b2 )2 + (c2 − d2 )2 + 2(a2 b2 + c2 d2 ) (1.12)

4 4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
a + b + c + d − 4abcd = (a − b ) + (c − d ) + 2(ab + cd) (1.13)

1 + n2 + n4 = (n2 + 1)2 − n2 = (n2 − n + 1)(n2 + n + 1) (1.14)

1.5 Telescoping Sums

1 1 1
= − (1.15)
k(k + 1) k k+1
 
1 1 1 1
= − (1.16)
k(k + m) m k k+m
 
1 1 1 1
= − (1.17)
k(k + 1)(k + 2) 2 k(k + 1) (k + 1)(k + 2)
 
1 1 1 1
= − (1.18)
k(k + 1)(k + 2) · · · (k + n) n k(k + 1) · · · (k + n − 1) (k + 1)(k + 2) · · · (k + n)

Note that k can be any expression for example

 
1 1 1 1
= −
(n2 − n + 1)(n2 + n + 1) 2n n(n − 1) + 1 n(n + 1) + 1

here we have used  

1 1 1 1
= −
k(k + m) m k k+m
with k = n2 − n + 1 and m = 2n

1.6 Conversion of rational expressions

x+1 2
=1+ (1.19)
x−1 x−1
x+n 2n
=1+ (1.20)
x−n x−n
1.6. CONVERSION OF RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS 5

1 2
= (1.21)
1 + 2 + 3 + ··· + n n(n + 1)
6 CHAPTER 1. ALGEBRAIC IDENTITIES
Chapter 2

Trignometric identities

2.1 Common angles

Degrees 0◦ 30◦ 45◦ 60◦ 90◦

π π π π
Radians 0
6 4 3 2
√
1 1 3
sin 0 √ 1
2 2 2
√
3 1 1
cos 1 √ 0
2 2 2
1 √
tan 0 √ 1 3
3

2.1.1 Reciprocal functions

1
cot x =
tan x
1
csc x =
sin x
1
sec x =
cos x

2.1.2 Even/odd

sin(−x) = − sin x
cos(−x) = cos x
tan(−x) = − tan x

2.1.3 Pythagorean identities

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x

7
8 CHAPTER 2. TRIGNOMETRIC IDENTITIES

2.1.4 Cofunction identities

π π
sin( − x) = sin(x + ) = cos x
2 2
π π
cos( − x) = cos(x − ) = sin x
2 2
π
tan( − x) = cot x
2
π
cot( − x) = tan x
2
π
sec( − x) = csc x
2
π
csc( − x) = sec x
2

2.1.5 Sum and difference of angles

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

sin(x − y) = sin x cos y − cos x sin y
cos(x + y) = cos x cos y − sin x sin y
cos(x − y) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y
tan x + tan y
tan(x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y
tan x − tan y
tan(x − y) =
1 + tan x tan y

2.1.6 Double angles

sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x

cos(2x) = cos2 x − sin2 x
= 2 cos2 x − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 x
2 tan x
tan(2x) =
1 − tan2 x

2.1.7 Half angles

r
x 1 − cos x
sin = ±
2 2
r
x 1 + cos x
cos = ±
2 2
x 1 − cos x
tan =
2 sin x
sin x
=
1 + cos x

2.1.8 Power reducing formulas

1 − cos 2x
sin2 x =
2
2 1 + cos 2x
cos x =
2
2 1 − cos 2x
tan x =
1 + cos 2x
2.1. COMMON ANGLES 9

2.1.9 Product to sum

1 
sin x sin y = cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)
2
1 
cos x cos y = cos(x − y) + cos(x + y)
2
1 
sin x cos y = sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)
2
tan x + tan y
tan x tan y =
cot x + cot y
tan x + cot y
tan x cot y =
cot x + tan y

2.1.10 Sum to product

x + y x − y
sin x + sin y = 2 sin cos
2 2
x + y x − y
sin x − sin y = 2 cos sin
2 2
x + y x − y
cos x + cos y = 2 cos cos
2 2
x + y x − y
cos x − cos y = −2 sin sin
2 2
sin(x + y)
tan x + tan y =
cos x cos y
sin(x − y)
tan x − tan y =
cos x cos y
10 CHAPTER 2. TRIGNOMETRIC IDENTITIES
Chapter 3

Inequalities

3.1 Classic
3.1.1 General AM-GM Inequality
a1 + a2 + · · · + an
(a1 a2 . . . an )1/n ≤
n

3.1.2 Bernoulli’s Inequality

If x > −1, then for all n ∈ N
(1 + x)n ≥ 1 + nx

3.1.3 Cauchy’s Inequality

If n ∈ N and a1 , a2 , . . . , an and b1 , b2 , . . . , bn are real numbers then:

(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn )2 ≤ (a21 + a22 . . . a2n )(b21 + b22 + · · · + b2n )

or in summation notation: !2 ! !
n
X n
X n
X
ak bk ≤ a2k b2k
k=1 k=1 k=1

3.2 logarithmic
1. For x > 1 we have
1 ln x
< <1
x x−1
2.
q+1 1 1 1 q
ln < + + · · · + < ln
p p p+1 q p−1
3.  n  n+1
1 1
1+ <e< 1+
n n
4.  n
1 3
e− 1+ <
n n

3.3 Binomial
1. For n = 1, 2, 3, . . . we have
 n  n+1
1 1
1+ < 1+
n n+1
and  n+2  n+1
1 1
1+ < 1+
n+1 n

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12 CHAPTER 3. INEQUALITIES

2. If 0 ≤ a < b; then
bn+1 − an+1
(n + 1)an < < (n + 1)bn
b−a
Chapter 4

Limits

1. Let
1 1 1
Hn = + + ··· +
n+1 n+2 2n
and
1 1 1 1
Tn = 1 − + − + ··· −
2 3 4 2n
then Tn = Hn and
lim Tn = lim Hn = ln 2
n→∞ n→∞

2.  x n
ex = lim 1+
n→∞ n
3. √
n
lim n=1
n→∞

13
14 CHAPTER 4. LIMITS
Chapter 5

Descrete Maths

5.1 Summation
1. Distributive law of double summation
n X
X n n
X n
X
ai bj = ai bj
i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1

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