Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141 (2012) 860–865

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Journal of Ethnopharmacology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jethpharm

Ethnobotanical survey and antibacterial activity of plants used in the Altiplane

region of Mexico for the treatment of oral cavity infections
Yazmín Rosas-Piñón a,1 , Alicia Mejía a , Gloria Díaz-Ruiz b , María Isabel Aguilar a , Sobeida Sánchez-Nieto c ,
J. Fausto Rivero-Cruz a,∗
a
Departamento de Farmacia, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 México, D.F., Mexico
b
Departamento de Alimentos y Biotecnología, Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 México, D.F., Mexico
c
Departamento de Bioquímica Facultad de Química, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad Universitaria, 04510 México, D.F., Mexico

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Ethnopharmacological relevance: The ethnobotanical survey conducted in this study showed 47 plant
Received 22 December 2011 species used in the Altiplane region of Mexico for the treatment of dental diseases such as toothache,
Received in revised form 13 March 2012 dental caries, periodontal disease and gingivitis.
Accepted 15 March 2012
Materials and methods: Information was collected by performing interviews. The following data were
Available online 23 March 2012
recorded: name of the patients or herbalists with their age, sex; date and place of gathering information;
pathology of persons interviewed; name of the drug (vernacular name); parts used (leaves, bark, fruits,
Keywords:
seeds, aerial parts), mode of preparation and administration, and possible combinations.
Streptococcus mutans
Porphyromonas gingivalis
The inhibitory effects of the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the medicinal plants detected during the
Antibacterial activity survey the on the growth of Streptococcus mutans and Phrophyromonas gingivalis were determined using
Medicinal plants microdilution method. The minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) were determined from the wells
Ethnobotanical survey of microplate with no visible bacterial growth.
Caries Results: In total, tree places of the Altiplane region of Mexico were visited and five healers and 100 patients
were questioned. 47 wild and cultivated species were recorded. The most frequent uses were to treat tooth
pain, gum diseases, bad breath and cavities. Infusions were the most frequently prepared formulation.
Other applied preparations mentioned with decreasing frequency were decocts, syrups, tinctures, direct
application of the plant material without prior preparation and finally macerations.
The ethanolic extracts of Haematoxylon brasiletto, Punica granatum, Iostephane heterophyla, Bursera
simaruba, Cedrela odorata and Rhus standleyi (12.5–65.0 ␮g/mL) as well as water extracts of Haematoxy-
lon brasiletto, Punica granatum, Iostephane heterophyla, Amphipterygium adstringens, Argemone mexicana,
Cedrela odorata, Eysenhardtia polystachya, Persea americana, Syzygium aromaticum, Cinnamomun zeylan-
icum, Cnidoscolus multilobus and Rhus standleyi (10.5–78.0 ␮g/mL) showed the highest inhibitory effect
against Streptococcus mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis.
Conclusions: Many plants are used in the Mexican traditional medicine to treat oral bacterial diseases by
the healers or patients. Our study demonstrated that most of the medicinal plants showed an antibacterial
effect in vitro, and justified at least in part their use in traditional medicine. These results encourage further
investigations to extract and identify the active chemical compounds responsible for the antibacterial
effect observed.
© 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction of dental caries is caused by the colonization and accumulation

Dental caries and periodontal diseases are two main dental
pathologies affecting humankind (Marsh and Martin, 1992). These
conditions are caused by plaque forming bacteria, which reside on
oral cavity (Hamada and Torii, 1980; More et al., 2008). Formation
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +52 55 5622 5281; fax: +52 55 5622 5329.
E-mail address: joserc@unam.mx (J.F. Rivero-Cruz).
1
Taken in part from her BS Thesis.
of oral microorganisms (Gibbons, 1984). Streptococci, specially
Streptococcus mutans have been implicated as primary causative
organisms of dental caries (Hamada and Slade, 1980; Abdus-
Salam et al., 2004). Streptococcus mutans adheres and colonizes
the tooth surface, and then it associates with other oral bacteria
(i.e. Actinomyces, Actinobacillus, Prevotella) and form dental plaque
(Abdus-Salam et al., 2004). Streptococcus mutans can synthesize
water-insoluble glucan, a bacterial extracellular polysaccharide
from sucrose by the cooperative actions of glucosyltransferases
(GTFase) (Hamada et al., 1984; Wiater et al., 1999). Periodontal

0378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2012 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jep.2012.03.020
 Y. Rosas-Piñón et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141 (2012) 860–865
diseases are those infections that affect the periodontium. The
various forms of periodontitis are associated with distinct subgingi-
val microbiota (Darveau et al., 1997; Lo Bue et al., 1999). Periodontal
diseases have been mainly linked to anaerobic Gram-negative bac-
teria (Porphyromonas gingivalis, Actinobacillus sp., Prevotella sp. and
Fusobacterium sp.) (Tichy and Novak, 1998; Jenkinson and Lamont,
2005).
Dental treatment usually is expensive and not easily accessi-
ble, specially in developing countries; therefore humans have been
turned to the use of medicinal plants to prevent dental caries
(Cowan, 1999; Limsong et al., 2004; Iauk et al., 2007; Shan et al.,
2007; Lee et al., 2011). Many plant products have been success-
fully incorporated into dentifrice or mouthwash in many countries
(Van der Weijden et al., 1998; Ohara et al., 2008; Palombo, 2011).
Not many Mexican herbs have been reported to have antibacterial
activity against Streptococcus mutans or Porphyromonas gingivalis.
Taking into account the enormous potential of Mexican medicinal
plants, the aims of this study were to obtain information on the
use of plants in the treatment of oral bacterial diseases, the plant
parts used, methods for preparing herbal antibacterial remedies,
and how it is administered, with a view to contribute to the search
of new natural antibacterial medicines and evaluate the effect of
the aqueous and ethanolic extracts of the detected plants in the
ethnobotanical survey on the growth of Streptococcus mutans and
Porphyromonas gingivalis.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Ethnobotanical survey
Ethnobotanical information was obtained from five local tra-
ditional healers or herbalists and 100 patients suffering from oral
infections and caries in three different places of the Altiplane region
of Mexico (Ixmiquilpan, Hidalgo; Aculco, Estado de México and
San Pablo Oztotepec, Mexico City). Patients interviewed have been
informed about the objective of this study. For each patient or
healer, the following information was gathered and set on an iden-
tity card: name of the patients or herbalists with their age, sex; date
and place of gathering information; pathology of persons inter-
viewed; name of the drug (vernacular name); parts used (leaves,
bark, fruits, seeds, aerial parts), mode of preparation and adminis-
tration, and possible combinations.
2.2. Plant material
Different plant parts (aerial parts, twigs, leaves, pericarp and
stem-bark) from 47 species commonly used in the Altiplane
region of Mexico for various tooth problems such as caries, tooth
decay, gingivitis and periodontitis were selected. The plants were
commercially obtained or collected and were identified. Voucher
specimens were deposited in the medicinal plant collections of
College of Chemistry and Institute of Biology (MEXU), UNAM;
Herbario Medicinal del IMSS or Herbario del InstitutoNacional de
Antropología e Historiade Morelos (INAH-M). The list of plants used
and other valuable information is found in Table 1.
2.3. Preparation of extracts
The plant material was air-dried at 25 ◦ C and ground in a Wil-
ley 4 type mill to a fine powder. The powdered material (20 g)
was extracted with 200 mL of ethanol for 72 h. After filtration,
the extracts (EEs) were evaporated under reduced pressure, below
40 ◦ C. For aqueous extracts (WEs), 20 g of each plant were extracted
using 100 mL of hot water for 30 min, filtered and concentrated
under reduced pressure.
861
2.4. Bacterial strain and culture conditions
The growth media employed were: brain heart infusion broth
(BHI) for Streptococcus mutans (ATCC 10449) and trypticase
soy broth-yeast extract medium supplemented with cysteine
hydrochloride (0.05%), menadione (0.02 ␮g/mL), hemin (5 ␮g/mL),
and potassium nitrate (0.02%) for Porphyromonas gingivalis ATCC
(33277). Streptococcus mutans strain was incubated at 37 ◦ C under
aerobic conditions and Porphyromonas gingivalis anaerobically in
GasPak jars (DB, NJ, USA).
2.5. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) determinations
The in vitro antibacterial activity of WE and EE were deter-
mined against Streptococcus mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis
according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI)
recommended minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) protocol
with modifications (Cai and Wu, 1996; CLSI, 2012). Briefly, 2-fold
dilution series were made from all tested antibacterial agents start-
ing from 2000 ␮g/mL in a 96-well plate. An aliquot of 20 ␮L of
bacterial suspension was added to 180 ␮L of antibacterial dilution.
Each well in the microtiter plate contained Streptococcus mutans
[final concentration of 5 × 105 colony forming units (CFU)/mL]
or Porphyromonas gingivalis (5 × 106 CFU/mL). The crude extracts
were dissolved in 10% DMSO. The final concentration of DMSO was
5% (v/v) and this solution was used as a negative control. Chlorhex-
idine gluconate (Sigma) and sanguinarine (Sigma) were used as a
positive control. The MIC was defined as the lowest concentration of
the test agent that had restricted growth to a level <0.05 at 660 nm
after the incubation period.
2.6. Minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) determinations
For the determination of minimum bactericidal concentration
(MBC), after having determined the MIC of the extracts, from
the wells of the microplate with no visible bacterial growth, and
using the standard loop of 6 mm, samples were removed for the
subculture in BHI agar supplemented with 5% defibrinated sheep
blood (Streptococcus mutans) or Brucella agar supplemented with
5% defibrinated sheep blood, hemin (5 ␮g/mL) and vitamin K1
(0.4 ␮g/mL) (Porphyromonas gingivalis). The lowest concentration
of the subculture with no growth was considered the minimum
bactericidal concentration.
3. Results and discussion
In the present survey, from five healers or herbalists and 100
patients interviewed 71% have dental conditions. Generally, the
percentage of use of phytotherapy was greater than 75%. We
observed that women (65%) and adults (58%) use medicinal plants
more frequently than men and young people. The main reasons
recorded for the use of medicinal plants are their accessibility and
cost. The results of the survey summarized in Table 1, provides the
following information for this species: scientific name, botanical
family, local common names, plant part used, usage and prepa-
ration procedure. In total, this study reports 47 species belonged
to 29 families and 44 genera. The most frequently used plants for
the treatment of dental diseases such as toothache, dental caries,
periodontal diseases, gingivitis, gum diseases and bad breath (hal-
itosis) were species from the genera Myrthaceae (17.8%), Punica
(15.1%), Compositae (11.3%), Asteraceae (9.7%), Piperaceae (8.6%),
Anacardiaceae (7.3%), Fagaceae (6.9%), Labiateae (5.4%), Leguminosae
(5.1%), Papaveraceae (2.6%), Meliaceae (1.8%), Burseraceae (1.5%),
Betulaceae (0.5%) and others (6.4%). From these plants, 25 are trees,
5 shrubs and 17 are herbs. The parts used are the stem-bark, flowers,
862 Y. Rosas-Piñón et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141 (2012) 860–865

Table 1
Medicinal plants used in the Altiplane region of Mexico.

Scientific name and family species Common name Cultivated/wild Plant part Medicinal use Administration Yield (%) Voucher
used number

WE EE

Amphipterygium adstringens Schiede ex Cuachalalate W Stem CR, GD, I, BB I,D,M 2.6 6.7 AM001
Schlechter (Anacardieaceae) bark
Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae) Chicalote blanco W Leaves CR, GD M 10.6 18.6 AM002
Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. Palo mulato W Stem CR, GD, I I, D, M 2.5 5.0 AM003
(Burseraceae) bark
Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth Nanche C Stem CR, GD M 2.7 2.3 AM004
(Malpighiaceae) bark
Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) Cedro W Stem CR, GD, I I, M 1.6 9.9 AM005
bark
Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) Cedro W Seeds CR, GD, I I, D 2.0 4.8 AM006
Cirsum mexicanum DC. (Compositaee) Cardo santo W Aerial CR, GD I, D 6.5 7.8 AM007
parts
Croton draco Schlechtendal Sangre grado W Stem CR, GD, I M 3.6 2.2 AM008
(Euphorbiaceae) bark
Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae) Toloache W Aerial A, I, GD M 6.7 3.4 AM009
parts
Eysenhardtia polystachya (Ort.) Sarg. Palo azul W Wood I, CR, GD I, D 1.5 2.6 AM010
(Leguminosae)
Haematoxylon brasiletto Karst Palo Brasil W Stem CR, GD, A, I I, D, M 2.0 5.0 AM011
(Leguminosae) bark
Lysiloma candidum Brandegee Palo blanco W Wood GD M 0.7 1.3 AM012
(Leguminosae)
Milleria quinqueflora L. (Compositae) Cocolmeca W Stem CR, GD I, D 3.5 12.5 AM013
bark
Olneya tesota Gray (Fabaceae) Palo fierro W Wood GD I, D 0.2 9.7 AM014
Prunus serotina var. capuli Karst Capulín C Leaves I M 1.9 2.0 AM015
(Rosaceae)
Prunus serotina var. capuli Karst Capulín C Stem I I, M, S 2.3 4.1 AM016
(Rosaceae) bark
Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) Guayaba C Leaves CR, GD, I I, D, M 4.6 5.8 AM017
Quercus elliptica Nee. (Fagaceae) Encino W Stem GD M 6.2 15.2 AM018
bark
Rhus standleyi Barkley. (Anacardiaceae) Zomaque W Aerial CR, GD M 2.2 1.6 AM019
parts
Spondias purpurea L. (Anacardiaceae) Ciruelo rojo C Seeds I M 15.7 20.8 AM020
Spondias purpurea L. (Anacardiaceae) Ciruelo rojo C Leaves GD, I M 15.2 4.9 AM021
Tournefortia hartwegiana Standley. Clachichinol W Aerial CR, GD I, M 2.0 1.2 AM022
(Boraginaceae) parts
Iostephane heterophylla (Cav.) Benth. Raíz del manso W Roots CR, GD, I I, D, M 4.5 7.0 17986
(Compositae)
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl Níspero C Leaves CR, GD I, M 6.2 17.2 AM024
(Rosaceae)
Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae) Aguacate C Leaves CR, GD, I, BB I, D, M 4.5 8.2 AM025
Verbena carolina L. (Verbenaceae) Verbena W Leaves GD I, M 2.1 4.8 AM026
Heterotheca inuloides Cass. Árnica del país W Aerial CR, GD, I, A, T I, D, M 3.1 5.1 AM027
(Compositae) parts
Coreopsis mutica DC. (Compositae) Jarilla W Aerial CR, GD, BB I, D, M 2.3 7.5 AN001
parts
Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae) Pimienta C Leaves CR, GD I, M 4.5 6.9 MM001
Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae) Granada C Pericarp CR, GD, AU, MS S 10.5 16.1 JR001
Selaginella nothohybrida Valdespino Siempreviva W Aerial GD I,M 4.3 6.4 SN-0805
(Selaginellaceae) parts
Selaginella lepidophyla (Hook. & Grev.) Siempreviva gruesa W Aerial GD I, M 5.6 7.8 SL-0909-01
Spring (Selaginellaceae) parts
Justicia spicigera Schlechtendal Muicle W Aerial GD I 4.5 6.6 IMSS-
(Acanthaceae) parts 15,532
Alnus acuminata Kunth (Betulaceae) Aile W Stem CR, GD, I I, D, M 2.6 5.8 INAHM-
bark 2018
Chiranthodendron pentadactylon Lam. Flor de manita W Flowers ND I 1.2 3.4 IA001
(Sterculiaceae)
Calendula oficinalis L. (Compositae) Flor de muerto W Flowers CR, GD, I, T, BB I, D, M 1.5 2.7 JR011
Drymaria gracilis Cham. & Candelilla W Leaves CR, GD M 2.1 2.8 JR012
Schehlechtendal (Caryophyllaceae)
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry Clavo C Fruits CR, GD, T, I, A I, D, M, L 1.8 6.5 JR013
(Myrtaceae)
Cinnamomun zeylanicum Ness. Canela C Bark CR, GD I, D 2.3 4.6 JR014
(Lauraceae)
Mentha viridis L. (Labiateae) Hierbabuena C Aerial CR, GD, T I, D, M, L 1.4 0.9 AM028
parts
Mentha × piperita L. (Labiateae) Hierbabuena C Aerial CR, GD, T I, D, M, L 0.7 1.8 AM029
parts
 Y. Rosas-Piñón et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141 (2012) 860–865 863

Table 1 (Continued)

Scientific name and family species Common name Cultivated/wild Plant part Medicinal use Administration Yield (%) Voucher
used number

WE EE

Liquidambar macrophylla Ocotzoquahuitl W Leaves GD M, L 2.5 3.8 JR002

(Hamamelidaceae)
Sedum dendroideum Moc & Sessé Siempreviva gruesa W Leaves GD I, M 3.9 6.9 JR003
(Crassulaceae)
Cnidoscolus multilobus (Pax.) I.M. Ortiga W Leaves GD M 2.5 4.1 JR004
Johnston (Euphorbiaceae)
Senecio sessilifolius (H. et A.) Hemsley Peyote W Aerial CR, GD, T M 3.4 5.8 JR006
(Compositae) parts
Sambucus mexicana Presl Sauco W Leaves T M 2.3 6.9 JR007
(Caprifoliaceae)
Prosopsis juliflora (Swartz) DC. Mezquite W Fruits GD, T I, M 0.7 2.3 JR008
(Leguminosae)
Piper sanctum (Miq.) (Piperaceae) Hierba santa C Leaves CR, GD, T, I I, D, M 2.7 6.4 AM028
Tagetes lucida (Asteraceae) Pericon W Aerial CR, GD, T, I I, D, M, L 3.1 2.7 JR005
parts

Legend: C: caries; W: wild; CR: caries; GD: gum diseases; I: inflammatory conditions; A: anesthetic; T: toothache; AU: aphthous ulcers; MS: mouth sores; BB: bad breath; I:
infusion; D: decoction; M: mouthwash; L: local application; S: syrup.

leaves, seeds or the whole plant (aerial parts). Plants were pur-
chased or collected between March and June, depending on the
availability.
Infusion was the most dominant preparation followed by
decocts. Most of the remedies are prepared using a single plants
or occasionally mixture of plants, for example, Tagetes lucida (per-
icón) with Syzygium aromaticum (clavo) or Quercus elliptica (encino)
with Persea americana (aguacate). Hot water is recommended by
the healers to prepare the remedies. In some cases, the part of the
plant was chewed, as a mouthwash or used to fill the cavities, for
example, Syzygium aromaticum (Argueta et al., 1994).
Table 2 shows the MIC (␮g/mL soluble extract) and MBC (␮g/mL
soluble extract) values of the extracts against Streptococcus mutans
and Porphyromonas gingivalis. The MIC values obtained in this study
from all the plant extracts tested ranged from 10.5 to the limit
concentration of 1000 ␮g/mL, while MBC values varied from 125
to >1000 ␮g/mL. The ethanolic extracts of Haematoxylon brasiletto,
Punica granatum, Iostephane heterophylla, Bursera simaruba, Cedrela
odorata and Rhus standleyi showed the highest inhibitory effect
against Streptococcus mutans with MICs and MBCs values rang-
ing from 10.5 to 65.0 ␮g/mL and 125 to 1000, respectively. Among
the WE, the most active extracts were of Haematoxylon brasiletto,
Punica granatum, Iostephane heterophylla, Amphipterygium adstrin-
gens, Argemone mexicana, Cedrela odorata, Eysenhardtia polystachya,
Persea americana, Syzygium aromaticum, Cinnamomun zeylanicum,
Cnidoscolus multilobus and Rhus standleyi with MICs ranging from
10.5 to 78.0 ␮g/mL. On the other hand, the EE and the WE of Cirsum
mexicanum, Selaginella nothohybrida, Selaginella lepidophyla, Justi-
cia spicigera, Alnus acuminate and Chiranthodendron pentadactylon
showed weak activity with MIC values higher than 1000 ␮g/mL.
Compared with sanguinarine, a natural product used as a posi-
tive control, the extracts of Punica granatum, Syzygium aromaticum,
Cinnamomun zeylanicum, Cnidoscolus multilobus and Haematoxylon
brasiletto inhibited the growth of Streptococcus mutans with MICs in
the same range of activity, but when compared with the antibiotic
chlorhexidine the MICs are considerably higher.
To the best of our knowledge this study represents the first
directed work to test the in vitro activity against Streptococcus
mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis of medicinal plants used in
Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of caries, tooth
decay, periodontitis and gingivitis. It also reports for the first time
the strong anti-Streptococcus mutans activity of the EE of Rhus stand-
leyi, Argemone mexicana, Cedrela odorata, Eysenhardtia polystachya,
Persea americana and the WE of Rhus standleyi, Cedrela odorata
and Tournefortia hartwegiana. On the other hand, Punica granatum,
Menta piperita, Syzygium aromaticum, Cinnamomun zeylanicum and
Psidium guajava have also been reported to be used for caries, tooth
decay and gum inflammation in other parts of the world (Cai and
Wu, 1996; Limsong et al., 2004; Shan et al., 2007; Palombo, 2011).
This fact suggest their efficacy in oral infections.
Of the 50 ethanolic extracts tested in this study, eleven exhib-
ited good antibacterial activity against Streptococcus mutans and
Porphyromonas gingivalis with minimum inhibitory concentrations
(MIC) values ranging from 12.5 to the limit concentration of
1000 ␮g/mL. Methanolic extracts of Punica granatum were effective
against Streptococcus mutans, Streptococcus mitis, Candida albi-
cans, Listeriamono cytogenes (Vasconcelos et al., 2006; Al-Zoreky,
2009). The extracts and essential oils of Menta piperita, Syzygium
aromaticum, Cinnamomun zeylanicum had significant inhibitory
properties against Streptococcus mutans and Porphyromonas gingi-
valis (Cai and Wu, 1996; Cowan, 1999; Rasooli et al., 2008). Other
species used in this work, have previously been tested against both
bacteria. The hexanes, ethyl acetate, methanol and ethanol extracts
of Psidium guajava leaves resulted to have good activity against
the bacteria with MIC values ranging from 0.076 to 0.152 ␮g/mL
(Jabashree et al., 2011). It has also been reported the antiplaque
activity of the tender leaves of Psidium guajava (Prabu et al.,
2006). The methanolic extract of Haematoxylon brasiletto resulted
to have strong activity against a panel of 12 bacteria (Rivero-Cruz,
2008). The anti-Streptococcus mutans activity of Amphipterygium
anstringens bark and its components has been published recently
(Rivero-Cruz et al., 2011). Also, the 95% ethanol extracts of Syzygium
aromaticum and Cinnamomun zeylanicum resulted to have moder-
ate activity against Streptococcus mutans with MIC/MBC values of
390/780 and 195/390 ␮g/mL, respectively (Khan et al., 2009).
In the present study, Streptococcus mutans was the most sensi-
tive to the extracts, while Porphyromonas gingivalis was the most
resistant. This was consistent with the previous studies on other
medicinal plants (Cai and Wu, 1996; Katsura et al., 2001; Sofrata
et al., 2008; Rivero-Cruz et al., 2011). The highest sensitivity of
Streptococcus mutans may be due to its cell structure and outer
membrane (Gao et al., 1999); this was consistent with the pre-
vious studies on other medicinal and edible plants (Shan et al.,
2007). The resistance of Gram-negative bacteria toward antibac-
terial substances is related to the hydrophilic surface of their
outer membrane rich in lipopolysaccharide molecules, present-
ing a barrier to the penetration of antibacterial substances and
is also associated with enzymes in the periplasmic space, which
are capable of breaking down the molecules introduced from out-
side (Stevens et al., 1992; Gao et al., 1999; Shan et al., 2007).
864 Y. Rosas-Piñón et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141 (2012) 860–865

Table 2
Antibacterial activity of aqueous extracts (WE) and ethanol extracts (EE) of Mexican plants.

Scientific name Streptococcus mutans Phorphyromonas gingivalis

MIC (␮g/mL) MBC (␮g/mL) MIC (␮g/mL) MBC (␮g/mL)

WE EE WE EE WE EE WE EE

Amphipterygium adstringens Schiede ex Schlechter (Anacardieaceae) 67.5 250 >1000 >1000 500 250 1000 1000
Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae) 78 125 500 625 500 250 500 500
Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Burseraceae) 100 62.5 500 750 1000 500 >1000 >1000
Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth (Malpighiaceae) 112 250 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) 156 500 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) 60 32.5 500 250 500 250 >1000 >1000
Cirsum mexicanum DC. (Compositaee) >1000 >1000 ND ND >1000 >1000 ND ND
Croton draco Schlechtendal (Euphorbiaceae) 125 250 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000
Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae) 100 125 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000
Eysenhardtia polystachya (Ort.) Sarg. (Leguminosae) 78 125 500 500 1000 1000 >1000 >1000
Haematoxylon brasiletto Karst (Leguminosae) 10.5 12.5 125 125 125 125 125 250
Lysiloma candidum Brandegee (Leguminosae) 625 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Milleria quinqueflora L. (Compositae) 625 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Olneya tesota Gray (Fabaceae) 250 500 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Prunus serotina var. capuli Karst (Rosaceae) 312 625 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Prunus serotina var. capuli Karst (Rosaceae) 125 250 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Psidium guajava L. (Myrtaceae) 500 250 >1000 >1000 500 500 1000 1000
Quercus elliptica Nee. (Fagaceae) 125 250 625 500 250 500 1000 1000
Rhus standleyi Barkley. (Anacardiaceae) 32.5 65 125 250 250 250 >1000 1000
Spondias purpurea L. (Anacardiaceae) 250 250 >1000 >1000 625 1000 >1000 >1000
Spondias purpurea L. (Anacardiaceae) 500 125 >1000 500 1000 750 >1000 1000
Tournefortia hartwegiana Standley. (Boraginaceae) 112 62.5 500 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Iostephane heterophylla (Cav.) Benth. (Compositae) 67.5 125 125 250 125 250 250 250
Eriobotrya japonica (Thunb.) Lindl (Rosaceae) 250 500 >1000 >1000 1000 500 >1000 1000
Persea americana Mill. (Lauraceae) 32.5 65 125 500 500 500 >1000 1000
Verbena carolina L. (Verbenaceae) 125 500 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Heterotheca inuloides Cass. (Compositae) 125 32.5 500 125 500 500 >1000 >1000
Coreopsis mutica DC. (Compositae) 250 62.5 >1000 >1000 500 250 >1000 >1000
Piper nigrum L. (Piperaceae) 125 250 >1000 >1000 1000 1000 >1000 >1000
Punica granatum L. (Punicaceae) 12.5 62.5 125 250 250 125 250 250
Selaginella nothohybrida Valdespino (Selaginellaceae) >1000 >1000 ND ND >1000 >1000 ND ND
Selaginella lepidophyla (Hook. & Grev.) Spring (Selaginellaceae) >1000 >1000 ND ND >1000 >1000 ND ND
Justicia spicigera Schlechtendal (Acanthaceae) >1000 >1000 ND ND >1000 >1000 ND ND
Alnus acuminata Kunth (Betulaceae) >1000 >1000 ND ND >1000 >1000 ND ND
Chiranthodendron pentadactylon Lam. (Sterculiaceae) >1000 >1000 ND ND >1000 >1000 ND ND
Calendula oficinalis L. (Compositae) 125 250 500 500 250 250 1000 1000
Drymaria gracilis Cham. & Schehlechtendal (Caryophyllaceae) 67.5 250 500 >1000 500 500 1000 >1000
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & Perry (Myrtaceae) 25.0 62.5 250 125 125 250 250 250
Cinnamomun zeylanicum Ness. (Lauraceae) 62.5 125 250 250 250 250 500 500
Mentha viridis L. (Labiateae) 125 125 1000 1000 250 250 >1000 1000
Mentha × piperita L. (Labiateae) 125 125 1000 1000 250 125 1000 >1000
Liquidambar macrophylla (Hamamelidaceae) 125 67.5 500 500 500 500 >1000 >1000
Sedum dendroideum Moc & Sessé (Crassulaceae) 125 125 >1000 >1000 1000 500 >1000 1000
Cnidoscolus multilobus (Pax.) I.M. Johnston (Euphorbiaceae) 62.5 15.6 250 <250 500 500 >1000 >1000
Senecio sessilifolius (H. et A.) Hemsley (Compositae) 125 125 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Sambucus mexicana Presl (Caprifoliaceae) 500 500 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Prosopsis juliflora (Swartz) DC. (Leguminosae) 500 500 >1000 >1000 >1000 >1000 ND ND
Piper sanctum (Miq.) (Piperaceae) 125 62.5 500 <500 500 250 1000 500
Tagetes lucida 125 62.5 500 250 1000 1000 >1000 >1000
Sanguinarinea 2.1 12.5 19.5 32.5
Chlorhexidine gluconatea 1.2 2.7 6.5 12.5
Dimethyl sulfoxide 5% NA NA NA NA

ND: not determined; NA: not active.

a
Positive control.

Gram-positive bacteria do not have an outer membrane and cell
wall; for this reason the antibacterial substances can easily destroy
the bacterial cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane and result in
a leakage of cytoplasm and its coagulation (Kalemba and Kunica,
2003).
at least in part their use in traditional medicine. According with
Ríos et al. (1988), plant extracts with MICs lower than 100 ␮g/mL
when using a microplate dilution method could be considered to
have good antimicrobial potency label. These results encourage
further investigations to extract and identify the active chemical
compounds responsible for the antibacterial effect observed.

4. Conclusions
An ethnobotanical study on the traditional use of medicinal
plants to treat dental diseases such as toothache, dental caries,
periodontal diseases and gingivitis was carried out in the Altiplane
region of Mexico. Our study demonstrated that most of the medic-
inal plants showed an antibacterial effect in vitro, and justified
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank all the informants and healers for their
patience and willingness to provide the valuable knowledge and
time in the interviews. The work was supported by PAPIIT 205709
(National Autonomous University of Mexico).
 Y. Rosas-Piñón et al. / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 141 (2012) 860–865
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