KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING IN SOCIETY (CENG 291)

ADDRESSING THE PROBLEM OF INTERMITTENT WATER SHORTAGES IN

RURAL AREAS
(CASE STUDY: AGOGO ASANTE-AKIM)

KWARKO-KYEI JOSEPH

9718513

AUGUST, 2014.

Page 1 of 27
Contents

1.1. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................................................ 3

2. METHODOLOGY. ......................................................................................................................................... 6
2.2. WATER TREATMENT ............................................................................................................................. 8
2.3. USES OF WATER .....................................................................................................................................10
2.4 Findings. ......................................................................................................................................................11
2.5 Civil engineering and its branches ...................................................................................................13
Result from the questionnaire ..................................................................................................................12
3. CONCLUSION ...............................................................................................................................................16
4. RECOMMENDATION .................................................................................................................................17
6.2 Efficient use of water .............................................................................................................................19
References .........................................................................................................................................................21
APPENDICES .....................................................................................................................................................22

List of figures

Figure 1 Map of Agogo Asante-Akim ....................................................................................................... 4

Figure 2 the water cycle ............................................................................................................................... 7
Figure 3 Water treatment plant ................................................................................................................ 8
Figure 4 A water tanker ................................................................................................................................. 9
Figure 5 A model house to harvest and supply rain water ...........................................................18

List of charts

Chart 1 A chart showing the available source of water consumed ……………………………12

Chart 2 A chart showing the results of the aspects discussed in the questionnaire …......12
Chart 3 A chart showing 2011 rainfall distributions in Agogo Asante-Akim ………………14
Chart 4 A chart showing the Rainfall frequency per month in 2011 …………………………..18

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Abstract

This Report covers one of the oldest, yet recurring menaces in the many one
communities in Sub- Saharan Africa.

In this report, Agogo Asante-Akim, a town in the Asante Akim North District in
the Ashanti Region of Ghana, West Africa is used as case study.
Water shortages was identified amongst the numerous problems in the town.
Safe water is an essential commodity as many deem, yet its availability is no
guaranteed in many communities, and Agogo Asante-Akim is no exception
According to data collected, it was revealed that climatic factors is very
influential, rounded up by human activities like water pollution

Agogo Asante-Akim lies in the forest belt of Ghana and east of Ashanti Region.
With streams flowing through most of its valleys, they dry up during the dry
season. This report covers the how people the menace of water shortage in
Agogo Asante-Akim and how it is indigenously approached.

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1.2. Area of study

Agogo Asante Akim is a town in the newly created Asante Akim North District in
the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Geographically sited on longitude 01’ 05W and
latitude 06’ 47N.
The area geographically is endowed with relief features, hence nick-named the
naturally walled town.
It is a small town with an area of 371m km² and a population 36,797, Agogo is
situated in a suburban setting, and the major occupation of the people is farming.
Few people here are either employed in white-collar jobs or are involved in
private businesses.

Figure 1 Map of Agogo Asante-Akim

Source; Google maps

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1.3. Brief background to the Engineering in Society

The course Engineering in Society (ceng291), is a course introduced by the

College of Education, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi.
The course is to sensitize young engineering students in the college to be able to
identify problems concerning engineering their communities, for example,
problems concerning inadequate water for drinking, erratic electricity supply,
difficulty of travelling from one town to another due to lack of transport, etc and

Page 5 of 27
2. METHODOLOGY.

2.1 DEFINITION OF TERMS

Important water scarcity terms

2..1.1 Water Defined.

Water is a transparent fluid which forms the world’s streams, lakes
oceans, and rain, and is the major constituent of living things.
As a chemical compound, a water molecule contains one oxygen and two
hydrogen atoms that are connected by covalent bonds.
Water is liquid at standard ambient temperature and pressure, but co-
exists on Earth with its solid state, ice; and gaseous state, steam (water
vapour).

2..1.2 Water Scarcity

This is the absence of (lack of) water, or inadequate safe water in any
geographic area for human, animal and environmental use. In many
places, there may be water not far off, but there is simple very little
resources (money and ability) to bring it home, and makes it very
expensive. This can be called economic water scarcity. On the other hand,
there could be physical scarcity, which means there is no water at all (or
just not enough).

2..1.3 Water stress

This is usually confused with water scarcity. In a way, water stress is the
result of scarcity, in the sense that the demand for water far exceeds the
available amount. This causes deterioration of fresh water and results in
drought.

2..1.4 Potable water

This is water that is considered safe enough for human consumption with
little risk of short and long term harm. It is usually known as' wholesome'
water. Water can be called drinkable or safe only after experts test and
confirm that the water complies by specific standards set by the
authorities.

2..1.5 Irrigation
Irrigation is the application of water to crop farms to provide the plants
with water to grow. Irrigation can increase yields of most crops by 100 to
400 %. Farmers who switch from surface irrigation to localized irrigation
can cut their water usage.

2..1.6 Waterborne diseases

These are diseases which are transmitted by drinking contaminated
water. Examples of such diseases include Typhoid fever, Malaria,
Hepatitis A, Cholera, Bacillary Dysentery/Shigellosis.

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2..1.7 Aquifer
Beneath the earth's surface are rocks. Some of these rocks are porous and
permeable and allows water and gases to flow through them freely. These
water bearing rocks are called aquifers. Water from aquifers tends to be
very pure if not exposed to soil pollution.

2..1.8 WATER CYCLE

Water is a renewable resource. Its’ Cycle (also known as the hydrologic cycle) is
simply the journey water takes as it circulates from the land to the atmosphere
and back again. With the help of the diagram below, let us see how the cycle
works:

Let us start this cycle with precipitation. This is water that start as tiny water
droplets, and become larger drops that fall from the sky (atmosphere) in the
form of Snow, rain and due. Precipitation creates run-off, which adds to flowing
water and end up in rivers, streams, lakes, lagoons and seas. Some of the water
also percolates (seeps through the soil) and into underground water. The
collected surface water then evaporates (turns into gas) and end up as water
vapour in the atmosphere. Condensation occurs and the water vapour it turned
into rain-bearing clouds. In addition to that, plants absorb moisture, which also
evaporates from the leaves into the atmosphere. This means there is more
evaporation in regions with more water bodies and massive vegetation and tend
to have more rain bearing clouds. Rain bearing clouds then release the water in
the form of precipitation and the cycle begins again.

Figure 2 the water cycle

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 Renewable Water Supplies are made up of surface runoff plus infiltration into
accessible freshwater aquifers

2.2. WATER TREATMENT

How is water treated for use in homes?

All over the world, fresh water is treated differently at a treatment center before
it is sent to your home. Surface water is more often treated rigorously than
underground water, as it has less contaminant.
The diagram below show a basic water treatment process for surface water.

Figure 3 Water treatment plant

source: www.cof-cof.ca

2..2.1. Coagulation stage.

Alum and other chemicals are added to the water at this stage. Suspended
particles get stuck to the chemicals to form 'floc'.

2..2.2. Sedimentation Stage.

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 As particles get stuck they become heavy and sink to the bottom of the
chamber. At this stage, most of the particles are stuck to form sediments,
sinking to the bottom. The water is passed onto the Filtration chamber.

2..2.3. Filtration stage.

As water passes slowly through this chamber, finer particles (sediments)
are filtered out over layers of sand, charcoal and gravel.

2..2.4. Disinfection stage.

Chlorine or other kinds of disinfection methods is applied to kill any
bacteria and other living organisms that may be in the water. It is very
normal and natural for fresh water to contain living organisms.

2..2.5. Storage stage and Distribution stage.

The water is then passed into large storage tanks and left for a while for
the action of disinfection to be complete. At the tail end of this storage
tanks, huge pipes are connected to transport water to our homes and
work places.

Figure 4 A water tanker

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 2.3. USES OF WATER

Renewal of water takes time the rate at which we are now using water makes
conservation necessary. Human water use has been increasing about twice as
fast as population growth over the years, as people discover new things to utilize
water with, but impact varies with location.

Water use is divided into domestic use, agricultural use, industrial use and
public and or commercial use.

2..3.1. Agricultural Water Use

Worldwide, agriculture claims about two-thirds of total water withdrawal
and 85% of consumption. In fish farming, farmers who use artificial fish
ponds do regular water refills of fish pond, vegetable farmers opt for
irrigation during dry seasons. Animal farmers provide drinking water to
their farm animals as well as carrying out other practices like drenching
requires water.

2..3.2. Worldwide, domestic water use accounts for about one-fifth of water
withdrawals. Domestic Water Use includes water for drinking, cooking,
laundering, bathing and other household functions. In homes that use
showers and water closets, the bathroom is one place known to take most
of the water that reaches the home. –A five minutes shower wash uses 35-
45 litres of water, 8 - 20 litres to flush a water closet and over 300 litres of
water is loss to leaky taps and faulty plumbing fittings.

2..3.3. Commercial and industrial demands include water for stores, offices,
hotel laundries, restaurants, washing bays and processing and
manufacturing plants.

2..3.4. Public demand of water includes water for fire fighting, swimming pools
for recreational and sporting purposes and monumental water fountains
which beautify our surroundings.

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2.4 Findings.

Questionnaire.

Interviews conducted in the community raised many mattered the topic in

questions. Data collection revealed that the terrain of the town could be
sectioned into suburbs; thus, according to their available source of water.

Higher water table

Far from the banks
of river or stream
Available source of
water to Lower water table
consumers
At the banks of
river or stream

The questionnaires were given to people of different age groups in various

suburbs of Agogo, it proved that:

Consumers living at the banks of streams and rivers rely mostly on this source of
water. Thus, consumers use stream water for many house hold activities but
drinking.
Consumers living in the middle of the town, thus the old community, have more
access to community pipe borne water than people living at the outskirts of the
town.
Consumers here harvest rain water. The main source of water here is not ground
water; as this side of the town is relatively higher above sea level and with a
lower water table. Most houses here have rain gutters that harvest rain into
barrels, tanks or reservoirs; which are later drawn for domestic use.

People with reservoirs take advantage of the long raining season and use
harvested rain water via the following ways;

1. reservoirs to poly tank via motor

2. reservoirs to house via motor
3. reservoir to consumer, thus hand drawn

The questionnaire revealed that almost the whole population relied on at least
one of the categorized sources of water available in the town, thus; pipe borne
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water, ground water (streams, river, and well), and rain water. Also, data
collected showed that people here relied mostly on pipe borne water.

Result from the questionnaire

Available source of water consumed

70

60

50
Places along banks or with
40 higher water table
Old community
30

20 New community

10

0
Pipe borne water Ground water Rain water

Chart 1 A chart showing the available source of water consumed

40

35

30

25 very poor
20 poor
fair
15
good
10 very good
5

0
Water conservation Quality of available Efficiency of water
measures water supply

Chart 2 A chart showing the results of the aspects discussed in the questionnaire

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 2.5 Civil engineering and its branches

What is Civil Engineering?

Civil engineering is the branch of engineering that design, builds, operate, and
maintain the structures and infrastructure that forms our modern society. These
facilities include buildings, bridges, highways, water supply systems,
environmental protection systems, ports, railroads, dams, flood control works,
airports, and many others

Branches of Civil Engineering

Civil engineering is a very broad profession that encompasses a wide range of

activities, so we divide it into various branches, as follows:

2.5.1 Environmental Engineering

Environmental engineering focuses on engineering works that clean and
protect the environment. These projects can include designing facilities to
safely handle solid waste, industrial waste, or municipal wastewater..It also
can include identifying and remediating existing pollution, such as
underground contaminant plumes. It has been said that civil engineers have
saved more lives than doctors, and much of this benefit has come from
environmental engineering.
2.5.2 Geotechnical Engineering
Geotechnical engineers focus on soil, rock, and underground water, and their
relation to the design, construction, and operation of civil engineering
projects. This work includes providing adequate foundations for structures,
preventing or repairing landslides, identifying and remediating liquefaction
hazards, and other similar activities.
2.5.3 Structural Engineering
Structural engineers work on buildings, bridges, towers, and other structures.
They are responsible for designing these structures in a way that will be safe
and economical. One of the most important aspects of structural engineering
in California is earthquake-resistant design
2.5.4 Transportation Engineering
Transportation engineers provide fast, efficient, and safe transportation
facilities. These include highways, railroads, ports, airports, and other similar
projects. Transportation facilities are essential to society, and improving our
transportation infrastructure is a high priority for the coming decades, all of
which requires civil engineers with expertise in transportation engineering.

2.5.5 Water resources engineering

Water resources engineering includes the various civil engineering projects
needed to provide safe drinking water and flood control works. These

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 projects include aqueducts, pipelines, water treatment plants, dams, levees,
and other similar works.

2.6 CAUSES OF WATER SCARCITY

After a long search of the causes of water scarcity in the district, the results was
sectioned into

1. Changes in climatic pattern as a result of global warming.

Irregular distribution of rainfall in Agogo is one of the major causes of water
scarcity. Over the years, there has been changes in the rainfall pattern in the
region; as the years pass there has being shifts it the when and how it rains.
Thus, there has been late occurrence of the Harmattan season and, or early
occurrence of the rainy season or vice versa. Moreover, there has been the
effect of the wet months getting wetter, and the dry months getting drier.
2011 rainfall distribution in Agogo Asante Akim

300

250

200
rainfall values (mm)

150 total rainfall(mm)

100

50

Chart 3 A chart showing 2011 rainfall distributions in Agogo Asante-Akim

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2. Water stress.
Groundwater i.e. Hand dug wells is one of the major source of fresh water for
both domestic and agricultural purposes, on a local level, over withdrawing
water or on a well than it can be replenished leads to a cone of depression in
the water table.

3. Depleting Groundwater
Salt Water Intrusion is a potential way ground water can be polluted. The
existence of chemicals like cyanide, and or high amount of fluoride in
water does not make the water safe for drinking. For instance, boreholes
that were constructed in some part of Agogo were closed due to high
amount of fluoride concentration in the water.

4. Dams and Diversions

Amidst the merits of dam and bridge construction are Provision of cheap
hydroelectric power, jobs, reduction of flooding and many more. Yet this
necessary doing can pose great threat to safe water, the ecosystem and as we
endanger some species during the cause of construction. Dam and bridge
construction can deplete sections of the river, thereby cutting supply to
people, livestock and farmlands downstream.

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3.0 CONCLUSION

The study sought to address water scarcity in Agogo brought to light

There is also high confidence that many semi-arid areas will suffer a
decrease in water resources due to climate change. Water bodies are undergoing
decrease in volume over the years due to the unregulated lumbering in the
community. This is likely to result in drought as increase demand of water
increases along with the increasing population.

The catchment of pipe network for pipe borne water supply in community
was seen to be limited. With improvement of the catchment in the town, people
in the community save time for having water open to their homes. They would
not cut their sleep to search for potable water which has serious bitter effects on
the society and government as a whole.
Workers would not report to work very late, and students would not follow their
parents and other siblings to search for water and for that matter miss precious
study hours. There are other dangers when children or even parents walk on the
highway and even in caves and mountains in villages in search of water.
Also improved water supply systems would improve sanitation at homes, clinics,
hospitals and other places of interest. On health, there would be complete
eradication of waterborne diseases such as bilharzia, and diarrhoea by constant
provision of potable water supply for the people

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 4. RECOMMENDATION

The varied solutions revealed the complexity of coping with water scarcity.
Population growth, urban development, farm production and climate change are
increasing competition for fresh water and producing shortages. Below are some
needed solutions

4.1.1 Educate to change consumption and lifestyles

Changing the face of this crisis involves education to motivate new
behaviours. Consumers should be enlightened on how to conserve water.
Coping with the coming era of water scarcity will require major service of all
forms of consumption, from individual use to the major consumers like food
processing industries. Already facing the freshwater crisis, the most critical
task is making sure the problem is much better understood by the
consumers.

4.1.2 Invent new water conservation technologies

In areas where aquifers are drying up and rainwater is increasingly
unpredictable, innovation is needed. But as we attempt to cope with
freshwater scarcity and develop conservation technologies, energy
consumption is an important consideration. Natives have to consider
improving the roofing styles by fixing rain gutters to harvest rain water for
domestic use.

4.1.3 Reusing grey water

Grey water is waste water from our sinks, bathrooms and laundries. Using
grey water can cut down our water usage. There are advanced technologies
that cleanse wastewater for other uses. Reusing grey water save us water for
other purposes.

4.1.4 Improve irrigation and agricultural practices

More than 70 percent of the world’s freshwater is used for agriculture.
Improving irrigation can help close supply and demand gaps. In certain cases
wasteful irrigation practices meant for an earlier era has weakened the
ability of farmers to provide food to a growing world. Experts suggest
agricultural systems like the drip method of irrigation,

4.1.5 Improve water catchment

Water catchment systems are essential for areas with no other reliable water
sources. Some people living at the outskirt of Agogo contend with the worst
effects of water networking, use rainwater harvesting systems. These efforts
provide independent control of water resources. Yet, there is the need to
extend pipelines to ever-growing outskirts of towns.

4.1.6 Improve rain water harvesting systems

Due to the long raining season in Agogo, as depicted in Fig 5 below,
consumers can harvest rain and by using the model proposed in Fig 6 in the
next page. This will help consumers to be self reliant with water issues.
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 Rainfall frequency per month in 2011
25

20

15
Frequency

10

0
Janua Febru Marc Augus Septe Octob Nove Dece
April May June July
ry ary h t mber er mber mber
Series1 0 5 8 8 14 10 12 6 15 20 2 0

Chart 4 A chart showing the Rainfall frequency per month in 2011

Figure 5 A model house to harvest an supply rain water

Page 18 of 27
4.1.7 Develop and enact better policies and regulations
Most people say it is up to the government to ensure communities have
access to clean water. As water scarcity complicates food security and
pollution, governments need to redefine their role. The government should
consider expanding the clean water access to ensure continuous flow of
water annually. Legislative acts should be passed to protect our water bodies
from lumbering; to reduce evaporation, and activities of illegal miners, like
polluting water bodies with harmful chemicals like mercury.

4.1.8 Climate change reduction

Climate change and water scarcity go hand-in-hand to cause some of the
biggest contemporary challenges to the human race. These issues have a
reciprocal relationship.

4.1.9 Population growth control

For the reason that of the accelerating growth in global population, parts of
the world could see a higher supply-demand gap in water resources in the
near future. Currently, more than one billion people don’t have access to
clean water as estimated by the United Nations, and with 70 percent of the
world’s freshwater used for agriculture, water’s critical role in food
production must be considered as climate and resource conditions change.

4.2 Efficient use of water

4.2.1 In our homes.

Water usage as tackled above can be further be utilized to the full benefit of
man. From our toilet to the tubs all the water we use is about 60% of water
used in the home is used in the bathroom For example, a family of four uses
about 392 Litres of water per week just to flush their toilet. We can save
water in our home

The water we waste daily these are some of the things we can do to cut down
consumption in a meaningful way;

i. Do not leave running while washing dishes. Close the outlet of the sink to fill
the sink or use a basin of water to wash dishes.

ii. Taps: Running water while shaving or brushing teeth, wastes more water
than what one person needs for an entire week. Install aerators on taps to
give less water flow but similar flow pressure

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 iii. Laundry: The washing machine accounts for 21.7% of typical water use.
Replace old washer with water saver models, as new models use less gallons
of water as compared to older machines. We also should only wash full loads..
Homes that do not use washers can conserve water by washing clothes
weekly. Water used for washing our clothes can also serve the purpose of our
scrubbing gutters.

iv. Plumbing fittings: Leaks can account for more than 10% of a typical family
water bill. Dual plumbing method can be used. Dual plumbing is a process of
recycling water by having to separate drainage lines to the city utility or
sewage tanks.
Grey water is domestic waste water from sinks, tubs, and clothing washers
that is used for lawn care and other purposes like scrubbing floors and
gutters. This will keep your plants and lawn thriving in the Harmattan
season. Grey water provides lots of organic materials for the plants as well,
but care must be taken about ingredients in laundry soaps and detergents,
some can harm plants.

v. Showers: Take shorter showers replace shower head with water savers or
low flow water heads that use less water per minute. Do not take baths in
tubs, as tubs need a lot of water for each bath.

vi. Toilets: Use water saver water closets toilets. They can save several litres of
water per year. Add bricks or two liter bottles filled with water to your tank
to displace enough water, thus reducing the volume of water per flush. A
better alternative can be a dry closet or the KVIP toilet

vii. Using the garden hose: Use a spray nozzle that will cut off water flow when
not in use. Moreover, check regularly for leaks. A 15 minutes car wash uses
100 gallons of water. To save some water, use a bucket of water and rag
instead or go to a commercial car wash.

viii. Watering you lawn less frequently is better for it. It encourages the roots to
grow deeper into the ground and thus reach more underground moisture.
Lawn watering can be done between midnight and early morning when the
sun is not up to reduce evaporation. Drought tolerant species of grass may be
helpful.

4.2.2 Industrial water: The waste water from industries should be treated before
discharged. Hot waste water should be cooled and waste water discharged on
the ground or underground should be treated as they can find their way into
near by aquifers.

4.2.3 Agricultural water: Globally, agriculture takes a lion share of the water
withdrawn. Wasteful gravity irrigation can be replaced with drip irrigation.
Drip irrigation may be argued to be financially demanding, but we are for
water conservation, drip irrigation becomes our first choice. Aside its
Page 20 of 27
 conservative nature with water, it does not cause flooding as compare d to
the gravity irrigation. Sprinklers have high evaporation. Drip irrigation
releases water near roots, conserving water. Irrigation can be inefficient.
Flood irrigation, half of water can be lost through evaporation. Flood
irrigation used to remove salts from field, but salt contaminates streams

References

1. Anon. 214, “Water Crisis” www.circleofblu.org/waternews Accessed on 25th

June, 2014
2. Anon. 2014, “Water scarcity Solutions” www.waterscaritysolutions.org
Accessed on 25th June, 2014
3. Anon. (2014)” Water use and management”,www.slideshare.net/hecrod/water-
use-and-management-3922108 Accessed on 25 June, 2014
4. Anon. (2014),” Water”, www.wikipedia.org/wiki/water Accessed on 27 June,
2014
5. Anon.(2014), “Purification of Town water Supplies”,
www.freechemistryonline.com/purification-of-town-water-supplies.html
Accessed on 19th July, 2014
6. Anon. 2014, “Water treatment plant flow diagram” www.cof-cof.ca/surface-
water-plant-flow-diagram Accessed on 3rd July, 2014
7. Anon. 2014, “Civil engineering and it branches”
www.csupomona.edu/~ce/WhatIs/Index.html Accessed on 18 August, 2014
8. Ghana Meteorological Agency, “Records book”, Pocket register of meteorological
observation, Agogo. Ref. 0601/003/20.

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APPENDIX 1

Page 22 of 27
APPENDIX 2

WATER QUESTIONNAIRE

1. What type of water do you have or use?

Pipe borne water
Rain water
Ground water (well, stream, river)

2. How do you wash your utensils?

Under running tap
In a basin of water

3. While brushing your teeth, do you,

Let water run
Use a glass of water
Either, it depends

4. How do you get washed or take your bath?

Using a bucket of water
Taking a shower

5. While taking your shower, do you,

Let the water run all the time
When I am shampooing or soaping, I turn it off
Either it depends

6. What kind of toilet do you use?

Water closet
Kumasi Ventilated-Improved Pit (KVIP) latrine
Dry closet

7. Do you experience water shortages?

Intermittently Rarely
1 2 3 4 5

8. How do you evaluate the quality of your drinking water?

very poor very good
1 2 3 4 5

Page 23 of 27
APPENDIX 3.

Rainfall distribution in Agogo Asante-Akim during 2011

january february march april may june july august septemberoctober november december
0 11.8 5.4 4.5 6.1 30.6 5.7 0.7 6.3 20.3 0.8 0
0 27.9 6.2 5.7 0.6 20.4 1 0.8 20.8 3.5 2.9 0
0 3.7 22.4 3.5 1.6 10.1 0.6 5.6 28.6 10.9 0 0
0 17 23.6 29.6 10.5 8.6 18 24.6 19 6.1 0 0
0 14.4 5.9 1.1 1 30.1 6.9 55.4 7.4 16.9 0 0
0 0 34.2 43.1 6.3 4 5 1.1 3.7 2.1 0 0
rainfall distribution(mm)

0 0 0.7 10.4 30.6 1.5 10.9 0 3.5 28.2 0 0

0 0 7.5 10.1 20.4 1.6 1.3 0 7.1 14.4 0 0
0 0 0 0 10.5 2.6 26.8 0 22.9 22.3 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 6.5 1 0 4 10.6 0 0
0 0 0 0 6.3 0 70.1 0 10.1 1.7 0 0
0 0 0 0 30.6 0 0.6 0 4.8 0.5 0 0
0 0 0 0 33.4 0 0 0 41.3 0.4 0 0
0 0 0 0 44.7 0 0 0 1.7 4.8 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 50.1 9.2 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 36.1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 45.2 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 11.5 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.9 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

total rainfall(mm) 0 74.8 105.9 108 203.6 116 147.9 88.2 231.3 248.6 3.7 0
mean rainfall(mm) 0 2.57931 15.47586 3.724138 6.786667 4 4.93 2.94 7.975862 8.286667 0.123333 0

Data source; Ghana Meteorological Agency, Pocket register of meteorological

observation, Ref. 061/003/20

Page 24 of 27
Rain water harvesting from the roof
to a reservoir.

A girl fetching harvested water from a

poly tank

Page 25 of 27
An elevated poly tank with pipe
network to supply a house.

A tricycle loaded with gallons of water to

supply town’s people

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A well near the basin of River
Akogya, at the outskirts of Agogo

A well at Kusibo, a suburb at Agogo

with a high water table

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