The National Academies Press: Manual On Subsurface Investigations (2019)

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Manual on Subsurface Investigations (2019)
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ISBN 978-0-309-48947-8 | DOI 10.17226/25379
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GET THIS BOOK Glenn J. Rix, Njoroge Wainaina, Ali Ebrahimi, Robert C. Bachus, Maria Limas,
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Manual on Subsurface Investigations
CHAPTER 6
Drilling and Sampling of Soil and Rock
Introduction
When formulating a plan for the subsurface exploration program, the geotechnical engineer or project
geologist must carefully evaluate the variety of equipment, methods, and procedures available for drilling
and sampling soil and rock. This careful evaluation of drilling and sampling options will assist with
optimizing this phase of the subsurface exploration program to acquire the required information at the least
cost. This chapter presents the information geoprofessionals need to accomplish this objective, focusing on
the following topics:
• Field equipment
• Methods for advancing boreholes
• Soil sampling
• Rock coring methods
• Logging borings
• Boring closure
Field Equipment
A wide variety of conventional and modified drilling equipment is available—ranging from small,
handheld portable drills and augers to large equipment for offshore use. The most common types of
equipment for geotechnical explorations include rotary drills, percussive, hydraulic push, and sonic type
systems. Selecting the most appropriate drilling equipment is an important aspect of any subsurface
exploration program. The equipment must be capable of meeting the project requirements, have sufficient
mobility, and be able to convert rapidly from one drilling technique to another. Consideration should be
given to the nature of the formations to be penetrated (e.g., soft clay, dense sand, hard rock) and the type of
sample that is required (e.g., bulk, disturbed, undisturbed). Hydraulic-feed machines are usually preferable
because they can maintain a constant advance pressure through varying formations, which minimizes
erosion and disturbance of the surrounding material. No single method of drilling is likely to prove
satisfactory and economical for all geological formations and sampling requirements. Local practices and
equipment availability will often dictate the method(s) used for many subsurface exploration programs.
6.2.1 Drilling on Land

The conventional rotary drill rig can make several types of borings (including augering and rotary
drilling); installing casing; obtaining drive samples and hydraulic-push samples; coring rock, and direct-
push placing various in situ tests. Rotary drill rigs are quite versatile and adaptable to a variety of different
geologies. The typical applications of the most common variants of rotary drill rigs are summarized in Table
6-1, and examples are shown in Figure 6-1.
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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Table 6-1. Rotary drill rigs
Type of Rig Applications

Truck-mounted Sites with easy access
All-terrain Soft ground and difficult terrain
Track-mounted Swampy soft ground and heavily wooded terrain
Skid-mounted Steep terrain
With conventional rotary methods, the drill rods are lowered down the borehole and removed repeatedly
to change drill bits and obtain samples. Drill rod lengths of 5 ft (1.5 m) and 10 ft (3 m) are common. As the
borehole advances deeper, considerable time and effort are required to repeatedly lower and remove rods
in sectional lengths not exceeding 30 ft (9 m). Wireline drilling helps facilitate field operations by using a
special cable tool to rapidly swap samplers, bits, and cores as the boring advances. An outer temporary
casing is used to maintain borehole stability, and the cable system is located internal to this casing. The
cable also transmits the rotary cutting action from the rig to the special drilling head at the bottom of the
borehole. This is especially advantageous for deep boreholes to save time and effort.
Percussive-type borings are made by repeated mechanical impacts that are transmitted to the bit. These
impacts break up soil and rock into small particles that are removed by high air pressure. An air-track-type
rig is used to quickly produce an open borehole. Percussive-type borings are often employed to define the
top of bedrock.
Direct-push sampling of soil is accomplished using special hydraulic rigs that use an internal plastic-
lined steel mandrel to capture continuous samples. Samples are obtained in incremental strokes of 5 or 10
ft (1.5 or 3 m). Two types of direct-push hydraulic rigs are shown in Figure 6-3. These rigs often have twin
anchors to provide the necessary reaction forces for thrust pushes. A single person can usually operate a
direct-push rig and achieve depths of 100 ft (30 m) in approximately one hour. Depths greater than 150 ft
(45 m) have also been achieved using direct-push rigs.
Sonic drilling rigs can obtain continuous samples of both soil and rock rapidly and efficiently,
considerably faster than rotary drilling methods. The sonic heads provide a range of vibratory motions and
vertical forces down the rods to a special cutting shoe that cuts into a wide variety of geologic materials.
The repeated cyclic loading prevents undisturbed samples from being obtained. But, continuous logging
and recovery of soil layers, lenses, and strata are possible, and penetration through hard, cemented, or
calcified seams is not hindered. With sonic drilling in soils, there is no need to introduce fluids, water, or
air during soil sampling. This can be beneficial for explorations into earth dams, levees, and embankments
where rotary drilling fluids can damage or erode the soils or in environmentally sensitive areas where water
may aggravate contaminant transport.
6.2.2 Drilling over Water

When the alignment of a highway project crosses over a body of water, special equipment may be
necessary to accomplish the borings or soundings. This commonly occurs for bridge crossings over
freshwater rivers, streams, and saltwater bays. The situation also occurs along the shores of lakes, seas, and
oceans where the highway alignment is parallel to the coastline. For shallow-water conditions where water
depths are less than approximately 6 ft (2 m), barges can be used to transport conventional drill rigs to the
borehole or sounding locations. A tugboat or other seaworthy vessel is used to move the barge.
For deeper water, depths of up to 40 ft (12 m), jack-up platform rigs are typically used. Jack-up platform
rigs often consist of a rectangular steel frame with a working deck that have four outriggers at the corners.
Like the barge setup, the frame is floated to its designated location, and a heavy-duty hydraulic system
pushes long vertical poles with spud-cans to the seafloor to act as shallow foundations. The hydraulic
system then raises the platform to the top of the long poles to allow drilling operations.
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Borehole Advancement Methods

A borehole (boring) is a vertical hole advanced into the ground to determine the depths, layers, zones,
types, and thicknesses of the geomaterials (soil and rock). Geotechnical borings are used for the following:
• Define geologic stratigraphy and structure
• Obtain samples for index testing and information to determine engineering properties
• Provide information on groundwater table and conditions
• Conduct in situ borehole tests
• Install instruments
• Determine the characteristics of existing geotechnical structures
This section will define the following commonly used borehole advancement and exploratory techniques:
• Manual methods
• Test pits
• Auger drilling
• Rotary drilling
• Drilling over water
The quality of information obtained from the various methods varies with the character of the subsurface
geologic conditions; therefore, careful consideration must be given when selecting a method. It may be
necessary to use more than one method in advancing a particular borehole.
6.3.1 Manual Methods

Simple manual exploratory probing and representative sampling techniques are used as preliminary or
supplementary measures to determine basic ground characteristics, typically of near-surface soils. Hand
probes are made to obtain reconnaissance information in wetland areas, concerning the thickness and lateral
extent of soft, compressible organic soils. Small-diameter, flush-coupled, steel rods are pushed into the
ground by hand to refusal in the underlying inorganic soil. There are also a variety of hand augers and
digging tools available to collect representative samples of the near-surface soil conditions. Various sizes
and styles of cutter heads are available, and extensions may be added for greater penetration depths. Small
gasoline-engine-powered hand augers will increase the depth of penetration and decrease the difficulty of
performing the work.
6.3.2 Test Pits

To examine near-surface geological conditions in detail, geoprofessionals can excavate test pits and
trenches by hand or with excavating equipment such as a backhoe. The exploratory test pit technique is
often used to determine geologic contacts and the presence of faulting. Test pits can also be used to recover
bulk samples for laboratory testing.
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) prohibits personnel to enter into a test pit
extending more than 5 ft (1.5 m) below ground surface or within any pit displaying evidence of instability,
without proper sheeting and bracing. Once the test pit has served its usefulness, it should be properly
backfilled according to standard practices for compacted fill. This will prevent possible issues later with
subsidence or settlement problems due to improperly placed fill materials.
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6.3.3 Auger Drilling

Augering is a simple method to advance a borehole. There are two types of augers: solid-flight augers
and HSAs. Augers are equipped with drill bits (e.g., finger bits or fishtail bits) at the lower end for breaking
up soil.
6.3.3.1 Solid-Flight Augers

Solid flight augers typically have a diameter of 3–8 in. (7.6 to 20 cm) and a length of 5 ft (1.5 m).
Procedures for auger borings are given by AASHTO T 306 (ASTM D1452).
Auger cuttings can indicate the soil types present at the site but cannot provide the specific depths of the
soils. If sampling is required beneath the auger bottom, the solid-flight augers must be carefully removed
so that the sampler can be inserted into the hole. This is only possible in soils that are stable, such as stiff
clays and silts or cemented sands. When using solid-flight augers, exploration depths are usually restricted
to about 10–20 ft (3–6 m) because of probable borehole instability.
6.3.3.2 Hollow-Stem Augers

HSAs have continuous flights situated around a central shaft of open cylindrical steel tubing rather than
a solid bar. Thus, HSAs do not need to be removed to collect drive or push samples from beneath the auger
bottom. Because the augers are left in place, they essentially act as a temporary casing to prevent borehole
cave-in. Two HSA systems are available: one that uses inner drill rods within the outer hollow augers and
one that relies on a wireline system to transport samples and drilling tools from top to bottom (Figure 6-1).
HSAs typically have outer diameters of 6–12 in. (15–30 cm) and inside diameters of 3–6 in. (7.6–15 cm).
Auger sections of 5 ft (1.5 m) are common, and these are easily stacked to allow the boring to extend deeper.
Boreholes made with HSA easily reach depths of up to 100 ft (30 m). Because no water is required while
using an HSA, this augering method is considered a dry borehole procedure for geotechnical explorations
that follow ASTM D6151.
97

Source: Jeff Farrar

Figure 6-1. HSA methods: drill rod (left) and wireline (right)
6.3.4 Rotary Drilling

Rotary drilling is a versatile and adaptable technique that can be used with a range of drilling equipment
and sampling devices. Figure 6-2 shows the various procedural methods for creating a borehole, including
rotary wash drilling and rotary auger procedures using either solid-flight augers or HSAs. Other borehole
methods include hydraulic push, percussive, and sonic are also shown.
Rotary drilling consists of advancing a cased or uncased borehole by applying rapid rotation and pressure
on the drill bit that cuts and grinds the materials at the bottom of the borehole into cuttings. These cuttings
are subsequently removed from the borehole by pumping air, water, or drilling mud from a surface reservoir
through the drill rods to the bottom of the borehole (Clayton et al. 2008). When the required sampling depth
is obtained, the drill string is removed from the borehole, and the desired sampling device is lowered to the
bottom of the hole.
Standard guidelines for producing boreholes by this method are given by ASTM D5782, ASTM D5783,
and ASTM D5876 for air, fluid, and wireline variations, respectively.
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Source: Paul Mayne

Figure 6-2. Rotary drilling techniques in comparison with other borehole methods
Several types of drill rods and bits are available for different types of overburden and rock materials
encountered, and the driller can change drill rods and bits as the situation demands. Two-, three-, and four-
wing carbide insert drag bits are usually used in relatively soft or loose soils, and heavier, tri-cone roller
bits are used in denser soils and several types of bedrock.
The Diamond Core Drill Manufacturers Association (DCDMA) has established standard drill rod sizes
and couplings. The sizes for some of the more common rod types are summarized in Table 6-2.
Table 6-2. Standard drill rod sizes
Size Outside Diameter Inside Diameter

(in.) (in.)
EW 1 3/8 1 5/16
AW 1 3/4 1 1/4
BW 2 1/8 1 3/4
NW 2 5/8 2 1/4
HW 3 1/2 3 1/16
Note: Rod lengths are generally available in 1 ft, 2 ft, 5 ft, and 10 ft; (b) all have 3 threads per in.
Source: Acker Drill Company
6.3.5 Measuring While Drilling

Measuring (or monitoring) while drilling (MWD) uses continuous measurements of drilling-related
parameters to evaluate subsurface stratigraphy and estimate soil and rock characteristics. Though widely
used during oil and gas drilling, it is an emerging technology in geotechnical drilling. It is more widely
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used in Europe than in the United States at present and is described in an International Organization for
Standards (ISO) standard (ISO 22476-15).
MWD is predominantly used with rotary or rotary-percussive drilling methods. The measurements are
performed using a drill parameter recorder (DPR) installed on a drill rig. The DPR comprises sensors that
measure the following:
• Downward axial force (or crowd),
• Torque,
• Vertical penetration rate,
• Rotation speed,
• Fluid (or mud) pressure ( ) and flow rate ( )
These quantities are typically plotted as a continuous function of penetration depth. It is also possible to
calculate compound parameters that are derived from the basic measurements. For example, the specific
energy (i.e., the amount of energy required to remove a unit volume of material) can be calculated (Teale
1965):
2
= +
where
= cross-sectional area of the borehole
Karasawa et al. (2002a, 2002b) defined the drillability strength, :
64
=
where
= diameter of the borehole
Laudanski et al. (2012) provide a summary of additional compound parameters developed for use with
MWD.
Because MWD provides continuous profiles of measured and compound parameters, it is useful for more
accurately defining subsurface stratigraphy and evaluating variability in site conditions. In soils, Sadkowski
et al. (2010) found that MWD was able to reduce the frequency and number of split spoon samples taken
and ultimately increased the efficiency with which the borings were completed. MWD is also useful for
identifying voids and thin, weak layers that may be missed during conventional drilling, and it can provide
a continuous profile in ground conditions where CPT tests are infeasible, such as partially weathered rock.
In rocks, variations in MWD drilling parameters may be interpreted to indicate the presence of fractures,
changes in lithology, and competency of the bedrock. For example, Sadkowski et al. (2010) used MWD
data collected during bedrock coring to select zones in fractured rock to conduct packer tests to measure
the hydraulic conductivity of the fractured bedrock formation.
MWD parameters can also be used to estimate soil and rock engineering properties. For example,
Rodgers et al. (2018a, 2018b) used MWD to evaluate the unconfined compressive strength of limestone
during drilled shaft construction for quality control purposes. They suggested that the MWD-based
estimates unconfined compressive strength may lead to higher LRFD resistance factors and decreased
construction costs compared to the use of conventional strength tests on cores. MWD parameters have also
been empirically correlated to components of the RMR system (Lindenbach 2016).
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Soil Sampling
Soil sampling devices are divided into two broad categories based on the condition of the samples they
recover:
• Disturbed samples
• Undisturbed samples
6.4.1 Split-Spoon (Disturbed Samples)

The SPT uses an open-ended drive sampler (i.e., split-spoon or split-barrel sampler) with a shoe having
an outer diameter of 2 in. (50 mm), an inner diameter of 1.38 in. (35 mm), and a length of 24 in. (610 mm).
The split-spoon sampler components are shown in Figure 6-3.
Source: Kulhawy and Mayne (1990)

Figure 6-3. Geometry of split-spoon sampler
Split-spoon (split-barrel) sampling and the SPT are conducted per AASHTO T 206 (ASTM D1586). An
impact hammer system having a weight of 140 lb (623 Newtons [N]) and a drop height of 30 in. (76 cm) is
used to drive the split spoon three successive increments of 6 in. (15 cm), for a total driven vertical distance
of 18 in. (45 cm). Occasionally, four increments are driven for a total of 24 in. (61 cm) so that additional
soil material can be recovered for laboratory testing.
Split-barrel samplers can be outfitted with a plastic liner to help collect representative soil particles. In
the United States, however, it has become standard practice to not use these liners. If necessary, a plastic
basket or catcher sleeve can be added within the shoe of the sampler to assist with retaining the sample
during recovery, which is often helpful for sampling loose sands.
The principal advantages of using split-spoon samplers are their simplicity of construction and operation
and their relative economy for estimating in situ soil parameters through empirical correlations with the
SPT N-value. In addition, split-spoon samplers recover representative specimens suitable for classification
and for certain simple laboratory testing, such as grain size and plasticity.
6.4.2 Direct-Push Sampling (Disturbed Samples)

Several direct-push sampling techniques have become available in the past two decades: (i) continuous
hydraulic, (ii) continuous sonic drilling, (iii) cone penetrometer sampling, and (iv) vibracore. General
guidelines for direct-push sampling are given by ASTM D6282.
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6.4.2.1 Continuous Hydraulic Push Samplers

Using an anchored hydraulic pushing system, geoprobe or powerprobe rigs can direct push a long steel
mandrel in strokes of 2–6 ft (0.6–1.8 m) to obtain continuous soil samples (Figure 6-4). The mandrel is
lined with plastic tubing that captures the soil sample. This produces long soil samples that generally have
a diameter of 1–3 in. (2.5–7.6 cm). The primary advantages of using continuous hydraulic push sampling
over rotary sampling methods are that direct-push methods produce no spoil and add no water or air to the
ground; they are minimally intrusive to the environment. Additionally, the process is faster than
conventional augering or rotary methods, thus, higher production rates are achieved. Both single-tube and
dual-tube systems are available. With the dual-tube system, the outer tube acts as a casing.
Source: Paul Mayne

Figure 6-4. Direct-push samples of soil
6.4.2.2 Continuous Sonic Samplers

Sonic rigs obtain continuous samples of soil and rock through a combination of cyclic resonant
vibrations, twisting, and downward vertical forces. No water or air or drilling muds are introduced during
sonic drilling operations in soil. The primary advantages of sonic samplers are their speed (they obtain
samples much faster than conventional rotary drilling or augering methods) and how little waste they
produce (sonic drilling produces 70–80 percent less waste than conventional rotary methods).
Sonic drilling is conducted according to ASTM D6914 and can achieve depths of up to 1,000 ft (304 m)
in certain geologic settings. Sonic drilling uses hollow casings that have outside diameters ranging from
4.5 to 12.5 in. (11 to 31 cm) to obtain core sizes that range from 4 to 10 in. (10 to 30 cm). By using sonic
energy transmitted through the drill rods, the core barrel can be advanced into all types of geomaterials. An
outer casing is then forced over the core barrel to provide borehole stability. The core barrel is removed
from the casing, and the sonic core is pulled to the surface to extract the samples of soil and rock in
continuous lengths.
Due to the excessive vibrations and repeated cyclic loading, soil and rock samples are likely to be
disturbed and, therefore, unsuitable for many laboratory tests that require undisturbed specimens. Sonic
drilling often generates considerable heat, so the measured moisture content of recovered samples may be
in error. Sonic drilling may also pulverize cobbles, rock fragments, and boulders, altering the grain size
distribution of the samples. An example of the continuous disturbed soil sampling by sonic methods is
shown in Figure 6-5.
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Source: Boart Longyear

Figure 6-5. Example of recovered sonic soil samples
6.4.2.3 Vibracore Samplers

Vibracoring is a simple means to obtain soil samples at the bottom of a body of water. An open hollow
casing is dropped vertically through the water. The freefall (fall using gravity only) allows the casing to
penetrate the sediment. At least 20 ft (6 m) of water is needed to use vibracore samplers. Casing lengths of
3.3–6.6 ft (1–2 m) are common, with open inside diameters of 4 in. (10 cm) or larger. The casings can be
made of steel or transparent plastic. The transparent casing allows the soil layers and lithology to be seen
once retrieved (Figure 6-6). Vibracoring provides a continuous core for examination and index testing.
Source: Wessex Archaeology

Figure 6-6. Consecutive vibracore samples showing changes in stratigraphy
6.4.3 Thin-Wall Tube Sampling (Undisturbed Samples)

Thin-wall tube sampling is a method of obtaining medium-to-large undisturbed samples of soil for
laboratory testing. This method consists of pressing thin seamless tubing into soft-to-firm fine-grained soils.
Although loose granular soils may also be sampled with this method, sample retention may be a problem
unless the sampling device is equipped with a piston that creates a vacuum to help retain the sample in the
tube. Standard guidelines for thin-wall sampling have been established by AASHTO T207 (ASTM D1587).
The thin-wall tubing may be used with a variety of sampling devices to obtain representative and
relatively undisturbed samples. As with any sampling device or method, variations in design, operation,
and ability to recover the sample depends on the character of the materials being sampled. The following
are some of the more common thin-wall tube sampling devices:
• Shelby tubes
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• Laval samplers
• Piston samplers
• Rotary core samplers
6.4.3.1 Shelby Tube Thin-Wall Open Sampler

The thin-walled sampling method, more commonly referred to as Shelby tube from the manufacturer's
tradename, may be any thin-wall tubing or casing that is beveled to form a tapered cutting edge. The tubes
are usually available in diameters ranging from 2 to 5 in. (5 to 12 cm) with lengths ranging from 24 to 36
in. (61 to 91 cm). A common size Shelby tube is made from 16-gauge tubing with a wall thickness of 0.065
in. (1.7 mm) that has an outer diameter of 3 in. (7.6 cm) and a length of 36 in. (91 cm). These tube samplers
are constructed of steel that is often galvanized to mitigate rusting. Brass or stainless steel tubes are also
available.
6.4.3.2 Laval Sampler

The Laval sampler is a special high-end, thin-walled, open-tube sampler having an outer diameter of 8.6
in. and an inner diameter of 8.2 in. (22 cm). This sampler has a special screw-type head valve that applies
a vacuum at the top of the sample to aid in sample recovery (La Rochelle et al. 1981). After the open tube
is pushed into virgin soils, an outer coring tube with a diameter of 10.7 in. (27 cm) is rotated above the open
tube. Laval samples are obtained within a rotary boring using drilling fluids such as bentonitic slurries.
With a wall thickness of 0.2 in. (5 mm), the diameter-to-wall thickness ratio of D/t = 42 results in a very
high-quality undisturbed condition (Clayton et al. 2008).
6.4.3.3 Piston Samplers

A piston sampler is a modified thin-walled open-tube sampler that has a piston at the upper head for
obtaining higher quality undisturbed samples. The piston keeps the front end of the sampler closed until the
desired sample depth is reached and maintains a seal during sample recovery to the ground surface. Several
types of piston samplers are available, including fixed piston and Osterberg (Clayton et al. 2008).
Fixed (Stationary) Piston Sampler. The fixed (or stationary) piston sampler is a significant
improvement over conventional Shelby tubes in that it decreases sample disturbance and improves recovery
(Long 2002). Procedures are given in ASTM D6519. A fixed or stationary piston sampler is constructed
similarly to the thin-wall open-tube sampler but includes a sealed piston and locking cone in the head
assembly to prevent the piston from moving downward (Figure 6-7). The apparatus is more complicated
and time consuming to operate than open-tube samplers. However, samples can be taken in uncased
boreholes.
104

Source: AASHTO
Figure 6-7. Components of a fixed-piston sampler
The piston can be locked and fully sealed at the bottom of the thin-wall tube so that it can be lowered
into the borehole without contamination. Once the sampler is in position, the piston, through a series of
small-diameter inner actuating rods, is locked to the drill rig or the casing, and pressure is applied to the
outer drill rods. The pressure forces the thin-walled tube down from the stationary piston. When the full
press is completed following a stroke of 24 in. (61 cm), any pressure buildup is released through a small
hole in the actuating rods. The tight seal of the piston also creates a vacuum on the sample that helps retain
the sample. The sampler is rotated two full turns to shear off the soil at the bottom of the tube and then
withdrawn very carefully from the borehole. A short waiting period before and after shearing allows
105

additional skin friction to develop between the sample and the tube, which minimizes potential for sample
loss during recovery.
Osterberg Sampler. The hydraulic Osterberg sampler is a fixed-piston sampler designed to obtain
undisturbed samples of soft and potentially sensitive soils in uncased boreholes. The internal design of the
sampler is considerably more complex than a standard fixed-piston sampler, in that it consists of an inner
thin-wall sampler tube and outer pressure cylinder (Figure 6-8). In the sampling position, a movable piston
is attached to the top of the sampling tube, and a fixed piston rests on the soil to be sampled. The sampler
is activated by pumping fluids or gas through the pressure cylinder, which drives the upper piston and
sampling tube down over the lower piston into the soil a fixed distance. Then the piston and the sample are
withdrawn from the borehole.
The Osterberg sampler is available with specially designed thin-wall sampling tubes with a diameter of
either 3.2 or 5.1 in. (8 or 13 cm). The self-contained and very portable aspects of this hydraulic piston
sampler make it an ideal sampling device in swamps and areas where access would be difficult for large
conventional drilling equipment.
Source: Chris Clayton

Figure 6-8. Osterberg piston sampler
6.4.3.4 Rotary Core Sampling

A variety of core barrels, which were originally developed for drilling and sampling bedrock, have been
modified or adapted to obtain undisturbed overburden samples in very dense or partially cemented soils.
These core barrels are used when the more conventional thin-wall samplers cannot penetrate the selected
geological unit, usually because the geomaterials are too hard. There are many local variations in the types
106

and mechanics of these core barrels, which are commercially available under a variety of trade names.
Denison and Pitcher samplers are discussed in the following sections.
Denison Sampler. The Denison sampler is designed to recover undisturbed thin-wall samples in dense
sand and gravel soils, hard clays, partially cemented soils, or soft weathered rock. The sampler consists of
a double- or triple-tube, swivel-type core barrel with a nonrotating inner steel or brass thin-wall liner
designed to retain the sample during penetration and subsequent transport to the laboratory. The basic
components are shown in Figure 6-9. The Denison sampler is designed for use with water, mud, or air with
rotary drilling and is available in five outside diameter sizes, ranging from 2.94 to 7.75 in. (7.5 to 20 cm)
The inner liner tube of the Denison has a sharp cutting edge that can be varied to extend up to about 3 in.
(7.6 cm) beyond the outer rotating cutter bit. The extension variation is achieved by the options of
interchangeable sawtooth cutter bits. These sawtooth cutter bits are preselected depending on the
anticipated formation that will be sampled. The maximum extension is used in relatively soft or loose soils,
and a cutting-edge flush with the coring bit is used in hard or cemented formations.
An important feature of the Denison sampler is a system of check valves and release vents that bypass
the hydrostatic pressure buildup within the inner sampling tube. These check valves and release vents
improve sample recovery and minimize pressure disturbance of the sample.
The Denison sampler is not practical for sampling loose sands or soft clays; the sample retention devices
are usually inadequate for these materials. Cobbles and boulders will present major difficulties for
penetration and recovery. Moreover, the sawtooth bit, with which the Denison is usually equipped, is not
capable of coring hard boulders that may collapse the inner sampler tube if it is in an extended position.
Source: Chris Clayton

Figure 6-9. Denison triple-tube core barrel sampler
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Pitcher Sampler. The Pitcher rotary core barrel sampler is a modification of the Denison sampler and
consists of a single-tube, swivel-type core barrel with a self-adjusting, spring-loaded inner thin-wall sample
tube that telescopes in and out of the cutter bit as the hardness of the material varies. This telescoping aspect
eliminates the need to preselect a fixed inner barrel shoe length as is necessary with the Denison sampler.
The inner steel or brass thin-wall liner tube has a sharp cutting edge that projects a maximum of 6 in. (15
cm) beyond the sawtooth cutter bit in its normal assembled position.
As the sampler enters the borehole, a sliding valve directs the drilling fluid through the thin-wall sample
tube to thoroughly flush the borehole. When the sample tube contacts the bottom of the borehole, it
telescopes into the cutter barrel and closes the sliding valve. The closed sliding valve diverts the drilling
fluid to an annular space between the sample tube and the cutter barrel. This sliding valve arrangement
allows the drilling fluid to circulate which removes the borehole cuttings during sampling and prevents the
drilling fluid from disturbing the recovered sample.
The spring-loaded inner sample tube automatically adjusts to the density of the formation being
penetrated. In very soft materials, the tube will extend as much as 6 in. (15 cm) beyond the cutter bit. As
the formation density increases, the sample tube telescopes into the outer core barrel and compresses the
control spring, which in turn, exerts a greater force on the tube to ensure adequate penetration.
The Pitcher sampler is rotated into the formation in the same manner as conventional rock coring in either
a cased or mudded borehole. The sampler is designed to be used with either water or mud and is available
in four sizes that have outside diameters ranging from 2.5 to 5.8 in. (6 to 14.7 cm).
In extremely dense formations or obstructions, the sample tube will retract completely into the outer core
barrel to allow the cutter bit to penetrate the obstruction. The Pitcher sample’s telescoping liner is a major
advantage in highly variable formations, since it prevents the sample tube from collapsing. The Pitcher
sampler, like the Denison, is not capable of coring hard cobbles and boulders.
Rock Coring Methods

The primary objective of rock coring is to obtain continuous undisturbed samples of the in situ rock mass
that includes the sectional pieces of intact rock, as well as the joints, discontinuities, cracks, fissures, and
any infillings or other features. These facets are important for evaluating the rock mass characteristics that
will affect its performance as a foundation-bearing medium, as well as the stability for highway construction
involving slopes, excavations, tunnels, and as a construction material such as rock fill or aggregate in
pavements and concretes.
It is essential to any site investigation program to carefully examine and log the recovered core. Logging
the recovered core must be completed on-site immediately after the core has been extracted, since exposure
to the air, moisture, humidity, sunlight, and ambient temperature may change the rock characteristics. In
some cases (e.g., fissile clay shales), the alterations in characteristics can result in significantly different
properties and features than what the actual in situ geomaterials possess.
Rock coring and sampling by rotary drilling methods are detailed in ASTM D2113. Rock coring includes
four components: (i) core bit, (ii) core barrel, (iii) drill rod, and (iv) drilling fluids. These components are
described in detail in the following sections.
6.5.1 Core Bits

Because diamond is the hardest natural material, it serves as an excellent means to cut into rock. The
selection of the diamond size, bit crown contour, and number of water ports depends on the characteristics
of the rock mass. Using an incorrect bit can be detrimental to the overall core recovery. Generally, fewer
and larger diamonds are used to core soft formations, and more numerous, smaller diamonds mounted on
the bit crown are used in hard formations. Special impregnated diamond core bits have been recently
developed for use in severely weathered and fractured formations where bit abrasion can be very high.
108

6.5.2 Core Barrel Types

Core barrels are manufactured in three basic types: single tube, double tube, and triple tube (Figure 6-10)
with diameters that range from 1 to 10 in. (2.5 to 25 cm). These basic units all operate on the same principle
of pumping drilling fluid through the drill rods and core barrel as the core bit cuts the rock. Fluids cool the
diamond bit during drilling and carry the borehole cuttings to the surface. Fluids also maintain low
temperatures that help protect the rock core and barrel from thermal expansion under high-speed rotation.
A variety of coring bits, core retainers, and liners are used in various combinations to maximize the recovery
and penetration rate of the selected core barrel. Of the three basic types of core barrels, the double-tube core
barrel is most frequently used in rock core sampling for geotechnical engineering applications. The triple-
tube core barrel is used in zones of highly variable hardness.
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Source: AASHTO
Figure 6-10. Primary types of rock core barrels; (a) single tube; (b) rigid double tube; (c) swivel
double tube; (d) triple tube
6.5.2.1 Single-Tube Core Barrel

The simplest type of rotary core barrel is the single tube. The single-tube core barrel consists of a case-
hardened, hollow steel tube with a diamond drilling bit attached at the bottom. The diamond bit cuts an
annular groove or kerf in the formation to allow drilling fluid and cuttings to travel up the outside of the
core barrel. However, the drilling fluid must pass over the recovered sample during drilling. The single-
tube core barrel cannot be used in formations that are subject to erosion, slaking, or excessive swelling. The
single-tube core barrel, because of its sample recovery and disturbance problems, is used infrequently.
6.5.2.2 Double-Tube Core Barrel

The most popular and widely used rotary core barrel is the double tube. The double-tube core barrel is
an outer tube barrel connected to the bit with an inner liner that holds the cut rock core. It is available with
either a rigid or swivel inner liner. In the rigid types, the inner liner is fixed to the outer core barrel so that
it rotates with the outer tube. In contrast, the swivel type is supported on a ball bearing carrier that allows
the inner tube to remain stationary, or nearly so, during rotation of the outer barrel—a major improvement
over the rigid type for sampling overburden materials.
The sample or core is cut by rotation of the diamond bit. The bit is in constant contact with the drilling
fluid as it flushes out the borehole cuttings. The addition of bottom discharge bits and fluid control valves
109

to the core barrel system minimizes the amount of drilling fluid and its contact with the sample which
further decreases sample disturbance.
Numerous sizes of cores can be obtained in rock, with the most common size for geotechnical
explorations from rotary wash being NX with a diameter of 2.16 in. (5.5 cm) and wireline drilling at NQ
with a diameter of 1.87 in. (4.7 cm). Figure 6-11 shows a section of rock core that is 10 ft (3 m) long
obtained from rock coring operations. The recovered core is contained in a cardboard box for storage.
A wide variety of core barrel designs and sizes are available. Table 6-3 provides a listing of several
common sizes available for the swivel type double-tube core barrel design.
Source: Paul Mayne

Figure 6-11. Recovered rock core in gneissic granite bedrock
Table 6-3. Core sizes from WG swivel type double-tube core barrel
Size Rock Core Diameter Outer Tube Diameter

(in.) (in.)
EWG 7/8 1 7/16
AWG 1 1/8 1 13/16
BWG 1 5/8 2 9/32
NWG 2 1/8 2 29/32
HWG 3 3 3/4
Sources: Acker Drill Company (2015)
6.5.3 Triple-Tube Core Barrel

The third and most complex type in rotary core barrel design is the triple-tube core barrel, which adds
another separate, nonrotating liner to the double-tube core barrel. This liner, which retains the sample,
consists of a transparent plastic solid tube or a split, thin metal liner. Each type of liner has its distinct
advantages and disadvantages; however, both can increase sample recovery in inferior quality rock or
partially cemented soils, with the additional advantage of minimizing sample handling and disturbance
during removal from the core barrel.
6.5.4 Logging Borings

Field logging soil and rock core borings is an important part of documenting the soil and rock conditions
that exist at the project site. Field logging is best handled by an independent field engineer or geologist. A
typical field log includes all the relevant information for the specific and unique boring that was completed.
Relevant information includes the boring identification number, date of drilling, GPS coordinates, depths
110

of samples taken, types of samples (drive or tube), how the boring was advanced (auger, rotary wash, or
direct push), hammer type, raw SPT N-values, and personnel on-site, as well as any other information that
is deemed pertinent. In the field log, each sample is also identified by a unique designation, labeled, and
classified per the visual-manual method ASTM D2488. While field logs have traditionally been recorded
on standardized paper forms, commercial products are available that use an electronic tablet for digital entry
of information. The digital entry of field information avoids the need to re-enter the same information later
and is an important component of an effective strategy to manage geotechnical site characterization data as
described in Appendix D.
6.5.5 Soil Boring Logs

The field log, in situ test results, and laboratory testing results on recovered samples are used to produce
the boring log, which is an engineering record. The boring log is interpretive and provides the permanent,
technical documentation of the geomaterials encountered during drilling, sampling, and coring. The
geotechnical engineer or geologist may group consecutive samples together based on color, soil type,
corrected N-values (i.e., N60), and laboratory test results to form a layer or stratum that is consistently found
in the adjacent companion borings from the site. An example of the engineering boring log is shown as
Figure 6-12.
In the final engineering boring logs, the soil types of the various layers are categorized according to a
preselected soil classification system. The common soil classification systems in the United States are (i)
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) per ASTM D2488, (ii) AASHTO system, and (iii) U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA). In addition to the soil types (e.g., clay, silt, sand, gravel), the color and
consistency of the sample should be identified, as well as any additional facets or features that may be
deemed important. These additional features might include organics, shells, calcareous nodules, peaty
fibers, mottling, fabric, or natural markings that can help to identify the layer or strata during construction
or excavation.
111

Source: Geosyntec Consultants, Inc.

Figure 6-12. Example engineering boring log
112

6.5.6 Logging Rock Core

The recovered rock core is logged in the field using at least three measures: (i) rock type, (ii) core
recovery, and (iii) rock quality designation (RQD).
The rock type should be identified by a qualified engineering geologist or geotechnical engineer familiar
with the local geologic setting. A selection of common rock types is given in Table 6-4 according to grain
size and origin: sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous. Special attention should be given to rocks that are
soluble (e.g., limestone, some dolomites, and other carbonate geomaterials), since the possible dissolution
and formation of sinkholes, caves, voids, and channels can cause movements, shifting, collapse, and scour
(Sowers 1996).
In addition to the basic rock types, special attention should be given to additional minerals or aspects
found in the rock core and along and between the joints and discontinuities. These additional minerals
include mica, fluorite, galena, asbestos, hematite, halite, and others.
Table 6-4. Basic rock types
Sedimentary Metamorphic Igneous

Grain Clastic Carbonate Foliated Massive Intrusive Extrusive
Aspects
Coarse Conglomerate Limestone Gneiss Marble Pegmatite Volcanic
Breccia Conglomerate Granite Breccia
Medium Sandstone Limestone Schist Quartzite Diorite Tuff

Siltstone Chalk Phyllite Diabase
Fine Shale Calcareous Slate Amphibolite Rhyolite Basalt

Mudstone Mudstone Obsidian
Source: Paul Mayne
When coring rock, an attempt is usually made to collect a certain length of rock in the core barrel. This
is called the core run and is often done in 5-ft or 10-ft lengths. The total length of the rock recovered divided
by the core run is the core recovery, typically reported as a percentage.
The RQD is a modified core recovery and is the sum of all pieces of rock that are at least 4 in. long,
divided by the total core recovered, also reported as a percent. Thus, core recovery ≥ RQD. The RQD is
normally obtained on core having a nominal diameter of about 2 in. and thus includes NX, NQ, and NW
core bits. The RQD serves as a simple measure of the quality of the rock mass comprising the intact pieces
of (often) hard rock material and the network of joints, fissures, and discontinuities in the native formation.
Table 6-5 provides a rating system for the rock mass based on the measured RQD. Figure 6-13 presents a
rendering of the determination on RQD from a hypothetical section of recovered rock core.
Table 6-5. Rated quality of rock mass based on RQD
Measured RQD Quality

0 to 25% Very Poor
25% to 50% Poor
50% to 75% Fair
75% to 90% Good
113

Measured RQD Quality

90% to 100% Excellent
Source: Goodman (1989)
Source: Paul Mayne

Figure 6-13. Evaluation of RQD from recovered core
In addition to its use in field logging of rock cores, RQD is also used as an input parameter for rock mass
classification schemes as described in Section 10.4.
6.5.7 Sample Protection

The obtained soil and rock samples should be properly sealed and protected from the environment (e.g.,
exposure to hot sun, freezing temperatures, high winds). Samples should be placed in moisture-controlled
containers and temperature-controlled environments to minimize alterations. During transport to the
laboratory, the samples should not be subjected to excessive shaking, vibration, or rolling.
Thin-walled tubes should be sealed using paraffin wax or plastic O-ring inserts or both. The samples
should be kept vertical throughout transport from the field to the laboratory until specimens are extracted
for laboratory testing. Split-spoon samples should be retained in plastic or glass jars with proper caps to
prevent moisture loss. Recovered rock cores should be placed in secured wood boxes or cardboard core
containers. Any missing rock core should have a placer or plastic insert to prevent the core sections from
shifting during transport.
Boring Closure
Upon completion, the drilled borehole should be sealed in accordance with local, state, or federal
regulations. In some instances, specific borehole closure laws mandate the borehole be sealed to protect
against groundwater contamination and to provide protection for aquifer resources. The closure methods
generally involve placing or injecting sealants (e.g., grouts, bentonites, concrete, other additives) into the
open hole by means of freefall drop, tremie pipe placement, pressurized pumping, or use of special probes
114

with expendable tips and other technologies. A review of the various techniques is given by Lutenegger et
al. (1995).
115

Chapter 6 References
Clayton, C.R.I., N.E. Simons, and M.C. Matthews. 2008. Site Investigation. Second Edition, Halsted Press, Technology &
Engineering, London.
Farrar, J. 1999. Standard Penetration Test: Driller's/Operator's Guide. Report DSO-98-17, Bureau of Reclamation, Dam
Safety Office, U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Denver, Colorado.
Goodman, R.E. 1989. Introduction to Rock Mechanics. Second Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Karasawa, H., T. Ohno, M. Kosugi, and J.C. Rowley. 2002a. “Methods to estimate the rock strength and tooth wear while
drilling with rollerbits. 1: Milled-tooth bits.” Journal of Energy Resource Technology, Vol. 124, No. 3, pp. 125–132.
Karasawa, H., T. Ohno, M. Kosugi, and J.C. Rowley. 2002b. “Methods to estimate the rock strength and tooth wear while
drilling with rollerbits. 2: Insert bits.” Journal of Energy Resource Technology, Vol. 124, No. 3, pp. 133–140.
Kulhawy, F.H. and Mayne, P.W. 1990. Manual on Estimating Soil Properties for Foundation Design. Report EL-6800,
Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California.
La Rochelle, P., J. Sarrailh, F. Tavenas, M. Roy, and S. Leroueil. 1981. "Causes of Sampling Disturbance and Design of a
New Sampler for Sensitive Soils." Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp.52–66.
Laudanski, G., P. Reiffsteck, J.-L. Tacita, G. Desanneaux, and J. Benoît. 2012. “Experimental Study of Drilling Parameters
Using a Test Embankment.” Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Geotechnical and Geophysical Site
Characterization, ISC’4, Porto de Galinhas-Pernambuco, Brasil, pp. 435–440.
Lindenbach, E.J. 2016. “Improving Investigations with Drill Parameter Recorder Technology.” American Society of Civil
Engineers, Biennial Rocky Mountain Geo-Conference, Golden, Colorado.
Long, M. 2002. “Quality of Continuous Soil Samples.” Geotechnical Testing Journal, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp. 234–253.
Lutenegger, A.J., D.J. DeGroot, C. Mirza, and M. Bozozuk. 1995. NCHRP Report No. 378: Recommended Guidelines for
Sealing Geotechnical Exploratory Holes. Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
Rodgers, M., M. McVay, C. Ferraro, D. Horhota, C. Tibbetts, and S. Crawford. 2018a. “Measuring Rock Strength While
Drilling Shafts Socketed into Florida Limestone.” Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol.
144, No. 3.
Rodgers, M., M. McVay, D. Horhota, and J. Hernando. 2018b. “Assessment of Rock Strength from Measuring While
Drilling Shafts in Florida Limestone.” Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 55, No. 8, pp. 1154–1167.
Sadkowski, S.S., K.P. Stetson, J. Benoît, and J.T. Roche. 2010. "Characterizing Subsurface Conditions Using Drilling
Parameters for a Deep Foundation Project in Boston, MA, USA." Proceedings of GeoFlorida: Advances in Analysis,
Modeling, and Design (GSP 199), ASCE, Reston, Virginia. pp. 1132–1141.
Sowers, G.F. 1996. Building on Sinkholes: Design and Construction of Foundations in Karst Terrain. ASCE Press, Reston,
Virginia.
Teale, R. 1965. “The Concept of Specific Energy in Rock Drilling.” International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences. Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 57–73.
116

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Drilling and Sampling of Soil and Rock

6.2.1 Drilling on Land

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Table 6-1. Rotary drill rigs

Type of Rig Applications

6.2.2 Drilling over Water

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Borehole Advancement Methods

6.3.1 Manual Methods

6.3.2 Test Pits

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6.3.3 Auger Drilling

6.3.3.1 Solid-Flight Augers

6.3.3.2 Hollow-Stem Augers

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Source: Jeff Farrar

6.3.4 Rotary Drilling

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Source: Paul Mayne

Table 6-2. Standard drill rod sizes

Size Outside Diameter Inside Diameter

6.3.5 Measuring While Drilling

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Karasawa et al. (2002a, 2002b) defined the drillability strength, :

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6.4.1 Split-Spoon (Disturbed Samples)

Source: Kulhawy and Mayne (1990)

6.4.2 Direct-Push Sampling (Disturbed Samples)

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6.4.2.1 Continuous Hydraulic Push Samplers

Source: Paul Mayne

6.4.2.2 Continuous Sonic Samplers

Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Source: Boart Longyear

6.4.2.3 Vibracore Samplers

Source: Wessex Archaeology

6.4.3 Thin-Wall Tube Sampling (Undisturbed Samples)

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6.4.3.1 Shelby Tube Thin-Wall Open Sampler

6.4.3.2 Laval Sampler

6.4.3.3 Piston Samplers

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Copyright National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Source: Chris Clayton

6.4.3.4 Rotary Core Sampling

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Source: Chris Clayton

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Rock Coring Methods

6.5.1 Core Bits

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6.5.2 Core Barrel Types

(a) (b) (c) (d)

6.5.2.1 Single-Tube Core Barrel

6.5.2.2 Double-Tube Core Barrel

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