The Superposition Name Date Theorem Class Reading: Floyd, Section 6-6 Objectives: After performing this experiment, you will be able to: 1 Apply the superposition theorem to linear circuits with more than one voltage source. = Construct a circuit with two voltage sources, solve for the currents and voltages throughout the circuit, and verify your computation by measurement. Summary of Theory: To superimpose something means to lay one thing on top of another. The superposition theorem is a means by which we can solve circuits that have more than one independent voltage source. Each source is taken, one at a time, as if it were the only source in the circuit. All other sources are replaced with their internal resistance. (The internal resistance of a de power supply or battery can be considered to be zero.) The currents and voltages for the first source are computed. The results are marked on the schematic, and the process is repeated for each source in the circuit. When all sources have been taken, the overall circuit can be solved. The algebraic sum of the superimposed currents and voltages is computed. Currents that are in the same direction are added; those that are in opposing directions are subtracted with the sign of the larger applied to the result. Voltages are treated in a like manner. The superposition theorem will work for any number of sources as long as you are consistent in accounting for the direction of currents and the polarity of voltages. One way to keep the accounting straightforward is to assign a polarity, right or wrong, to each component. Tabulate any current which is in the same direction as the assignment as a positive current and any current which opposes the assigned direction as a negative current. When the final algebraic sum is completed, positive currents are in the assigned direction; negative currents are in the opposite direction of the assignment. In the process of replacing a voltage source with its zero internal resistance, you may completely short out a resistor in the circuit. If this occurs, there will be no current in that resistor for this part of the calculation, The final sum will still have the correct current. Materials Needed: Resistors: One 4.7 k, one 6.8 kQ, one 10.0 k Procedure: 1, Obtain the resistors listed in Table 11-1. Measure each resistor and record the measured value in Table 11-1.Construct the circuit shown in Figure 11-1. This circuit has (wo voltage sources connected to a common reference ground. Table 12-1 Listed | Measured Value | Value 4.7kO R, 6.8 KO Sol me eka. 1002 “a 8 » Figure 11-2 Compute the total resistance, Ry, seen by the +5.0 V source. Then remove the +5.0 V source and measure the resistance between points A and B to confirm your calculation. Record the computed and measured values in Table 11-2. Use the source voltage, Vs, and the total resistance to compute the total current, 7, from the +5.0 V source. This current flows through R, so record it as J, in Table 11-2. Use the current divider rule to determine the currents in Ry and Ry. The current divider rule for I, and J is: het we) _ a) ? VR) + Ry 9 INR: + Rs) Record all three currents as positive values in Table 11~2. This will be the assigned direction of current flow. Mark the magnitude and direction of the current in Figure 11-2. Use the currents computed in step 5 and the measured resistances to calculate the expected voltage across each resistor of Figure 11-2. Then connect the +5.0 V power supply and measure the actual voltages present in this circuit. Record the computed and measured voltages in Table 11-2. Since all currents in step 5 were considered positive, all voltages in this step are also positive.7. Remove the +5.0 V source from the circuit and move the jumper from between points C and D to between points A and B. Compute the total resistance between points C and D. Measure the resistance to confirm your calculation. Record the computed and measured resistance in Table 11-2. Table 11-2 ‘Computed Computed Measured Computed | Measured Current Voltage Voltage Resistance | Resistance ve Tv |v [v1 vs 10. ‘Compute the current through each resistor in Figure 11-3. Note that the total current flows through R, and divides between R, and Rs. Mark the magnitude and direction of the current on Figure 11-3. Important: Record the current as a positive current if it is in the same direction as recorded in step 5 and as a negative current if itis in the opposite direction as in step 4. Use the currents computed in step 8 and the measured resistances to compute the voltage drops across each resistor. If the current through a resistor was a positive current, record the resistor’s voltage as a positive voltage. If a current was a negative current, record the voltage as a negative voltage. Then connect the +10 V source as illustrated in Figure 11-3 and measure the voltages. The measured voltages should confirm your calculation. ‘Compute the algebraic sum of the currents and voltages listed in Table 11-2. Enter the computed sums in Table 11-2. Then replace the jumper between A and B with the +5.0 V source, as shown in the original circuit in Figure 11-1, Measure the voltage across each resistor in this circuit. The measured voltages should agree with the algebraic sums. Record the measured results in Table 11-2. aConclusions: Evaluation and Review Questions: 1. (@)_Prove that Kirchhoff’s voltage law is valid for the circuit in Figure 11-1. Do this by substituting the measured algebraic sums from Table 11-2 into a foop equation written around the outside loop of the current. (b) Prove Kirchhoff’s current law is valid for the circuit of Figure {1-1 by writing an equation showing the currents entering a junction are equal to the currents leaving the junction. Keep the assigned direction of current from step 5 and use the signed currents computed in step 10. 2. If'an algebraic sum in Table 11-2 is negative, what does this indicate? 3. What would be the effect on the final result if you had been directed to record all currents ia step 5 as negative currents instead of positive currents? 4, In your own words, list the steps required to apply the superposition theorem. 25. Use the superposition theorem to find the current in R, in Figure 11-4, For Further Investigation: Compute the power dissipated in each resistor in the circuits shown in Figures 11-1, 11-2, and 11-3. Using the computed results, find out if the superposition theorem is valid for power. Summarize your computations and conclusion. 8Name . Ds 12 Thevenin’s Theorem Css Reading: Floyd, Section 6-7 Objectives: After performing this experiment, you will be able to: 1. Change a linear network containing several resistors into an equivalent Thevenin circuit. 2. Prove the equivalency of the network in objective 1 with the Thevenin circuit by comparing the effects of various load resistors. Summary of Theory: In Experiment 10, you solved series-parallel circuits by developing equivalent circuits. Equivalent circuits simplify the task of solving for current and voltage in a network. The concept of equivalent circuits is basic to solving many problems in electronics. ‘Thevenin’s theorem provides a means of reducing a complicated, linear network into an equivalent circuit when there are two terminals of special interest (usually the output). The equivalent Thevenin circuit is composed of a voltage source and a series resistor. (In ac circuits, the resistor may be represented by opposition to ac called impedance.) Imagine a complicated network containing multiple voltage sources, current sources, and resistors, such as that shown in Figure 12—1(a). Thevenin’s theorem can reduce this to the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 12-1(b). The circuit in Figure 12—1(b) is called a Thevenin circuit. A device connected to the output is a load for the Thevenin circuit. The two ciscuits have identical responses to any load. o » Figure 12. ‘Two steps are required in order to simplify a circuit to its equivalent Thevenin circuit. The first step is to measure or compute the voltage at the output terminals with any load resistors removed. This open-circuit voltage is the Thevenin voltage. The second step is to compute the resistance seen at the same open terminals if sources are replaced with their internal resistance. For voltage sources, the internal resistance is usually taken as zero, and for current sources, the internal resistance is infinite (open circuit). An example of this process is illustrated in Figure 12-2. 95ae 4 Lookin tom tn ep tein Yn" %s (RETR) Her + 9) m= important: The equations developed in his example are given tills a procedure and are valid only for he ‘example: they cannot be applied ooter ccs, inclusing the circuit inthis experiment Figure 12-2 Materials Needed: Resistors: One 150 9, one 270 0, one 470 , one 560 0, one 680 2, one £20 One 1 k® potentiometer Procedure: 1. Measure and record the resistance of the 6 resistors listed in Table 12-1. The last three resistors will be used as load resistors and connected, one at a time, to the output terminals. Table 12-1 Rg Listed | Measured 208 Bae Component | Value | Value 5 Or R 2709 oon iso R 500.0. . Ry 680.0. Figure 12-3 Ri | 1600 Ra | 400 [Rs | 200 2. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 12-3. Points A and B represent the output terminals. Calculate an equivalent circuit seen by the voltage source. Figure 12—4 illustrates the procedure. Use the equivalent circuit to compute the expected voltage across the load resistor, V,.. Do not use Thevenin’s theorem at this time. Show your computation of the load voltage in the space provided. For the first load resistor, your computed result should be approximately 1.19 V.Ryo Ry Simo Ryley ® » Figure 12-4 Measure the load voltage to verify your calculation. Enter the computed and measured load voltage in Table 12-2. Replace Ry, with R,2. Using a new equivalent circuit, compute the expected voltage, Vz2y across the load resistor. Then measure the actual load voltage. Enter the computed and measured voltage in Table 12-2. Repeat step 4 using R;; for the load resistor. Remove the load resistor from the circuit. Calculate the open circuit voltage at the A-B terminals, This open circuit voltage is the Thevenin voltage for this circuit. Record the open circuit voltage in Table 12-2 as Vir. Mentally replace the voltage source with a short (zero ohms). Compute the resistance between the A-B terminals. This is the computed Thevenin resistance for this circuit. Then disconnect the voltage source and replace it with a jumper. Measure the actual Thevenin resistance of the circuit. Record your computed and measured Thevenin resistance in Table 12-2. In the space provided, draw the Thevenin equivalent circuit. Show on your drawing the measured Thevenin voltage and resistance,‘Table 12-3 FRI computed | Measured Yor Via Vis Vw Roy 9. For the circuit you drew in step 8, compute the voltage you expect across each of the three load resistors. Since the circuit is a series circuit, the voltage divider rule will simplify the calculation, Enter the computed voltages in Table 12-3. 10. Construct the Thevenin circuit you drew in step 8. Use a 1 k® potentiometer to represent the Thevenin resistance. Set it for the resistance shown on your drawing. Set the voltage source for the Thevenin voltage. Place each load resistor, one at a time, on the Thevenin circuit and measure the load voltage. Enter the measured voltages in Table 12-3. 11, Remove the load resistor from the Thevenin circuit. Find the open circuit voltage with no load. Enter this voltage as the computed and measured Vy, in Table 12-3. Enter the measured setting of the potentiometer as Rry, in Table 12-3. Conclusion: Evaluation and Review Questions: ‘Compare the measured voltages in Tables 12-2 and 12-3. What conclusion can you draw about the two circuits? Compute the load current you would expect to measure if the load resistor in Figure 12-3 were replaced with a short. Then repeat the computation for the Thevenin circuit you drew in step 8.3. What advantage does Thevenin’s theorem offer for computing the load voltage across each of the load resistors tested in this experiment? 4. Figure 12-5(a) shows a circuit, and Figure 12-5(b) shows its equivalent Thevenin circuit. Explain why R, has no effect on the Thevenin circuit. Figure 12-5 5. Draw the Thevenin circuit for the circuits shown in Figure 12-6. Vee +0 t Rm ay 10K 10Ke @ cy Figure 12-6 For Further Investigation: Sometimes it is useful to compute a Thevenin equivalent circuit when it is not possible to measure the Thevenin resistance directly. The Thevenin resistance can still be determined for a source by placing a known load resistor on the output terminals and observing the loaded and unloaded output voltage. A simple method is to use a variable resistor as a load resistor and adjust it until the load voltage has dropped to one-half of the open circuit voltage. The variable load resistor and the internal Thevenin resistance of the source will then be equal. Use this method to measure the Thevenin resistance of your signal generator. Report your results and explain why this is a valid method for determining the Thevenin resistance.