150 mycomplabey Please vist MyCompLab at www.mseomplab.com for more on the writing process. HIGHLIGHTS Becoming explcidy aware of their critical powers, and then learning to use tiem, may seem fan overwhelming tesk to students who are al- ready coping with other changes brought on by the first year of college. Howeve:, developing a critical awareness is one of the most Important things fits-vear students need to do to make the transition to college. hapter begins with the sometimes chal- lenging concept of being critical without being negative, Thomas Sowls provocative essay, “Student Loans,” models truly aademic critical reading. The essay is printed in ful, and itis also ‘used as an example throughout the chapters cov- erage of active reading, summarzing, and con- structing a critical response with the use of analysis, interpretation, synthesk, and evslua- 'An expanded section on "Vieweng images eit. cally discusses writing while reading an image; previewing, interpreting, analyzing, and evaluat- ing an image; and synthesizing deas about an mage. Several illustrations provide examples for this section. Finally, the chapter covers wars of communi- cating the reals of eritical thinking and reading toan audience through critical writing. Two an- ‘notated student papers, one responding to Sow ells essay and the other responding to the Time ‘magazine adtertisement, provide models of how to shape and produce coherent critical re- sponse Gomme ia ‘See page IAE-52 for companion Web site content description Instructor's Annotated Edition CHAPTER rs) Forming a Critical Perspective ‘Throughout college and beyond, you will be expected to think read, and write critically. Critical here mesns “skeptical,” “exact- ing,” “creative.” When you operate critically, you question, test, and build on what others say and what you yourself think. The word critical does not mean “negative” in this context: you ean think eriti- cally about something you like, don't like, or just view neutrally ‘You already operate eritically every day of your life, as when ‘you probe a friendship ("What did she mean by that?”) or when you discuss a movie you just saw (“Don't you think the bad guy was too ‘obvious?"). Such questioning helps you figure out why things hap- pen to you or what your experiences mean This chapter introduces more formal methods for thinking and reading critically (opposite), viewing images critically (p. 164), and writing critically (p. 172). Learning and applying these methods will both engage you in and prepare you for schcol courses, career, and life in a democratic society: = Teachers and employers will expect you to think critically. In every field, you will need to assess what you read, see, and hear and to make a good case for your own ideas. * Critical thinking helps you understand and express yourself With it, you gain insight into your actions and ideas, can weigh them against opposing views, and can persuasively articulate your reasoning and motivations. = Your very independence and freedom éepend on your ability to think, read, and write critically. An epen democracy allows as much play for stupid and false claimsas for sound ones, and the claims that seem sound often conflic: with each other. Crit- ical thinking empowers you to decide for yourself whats useful fair, and wise—and what's notInstructor's Annotated Edition ‘There's no denying that critical thinking, reading, and writing require discipline and hard work. Besides channeling your curios- ity, paying attention, and probing, you will often need to consult ex: perts, interpreting and evaluating their ideas, Such an approach also requires a healthy tolerance for doubt or uncertainty—that feeling you may have when the old rules don't seem to apply or when a change is frightening but still attractive. Out of uncertainty, though, comes creativity—the capacity to organize and generate knowledge, to explain, resolve, illuminate, play. Compared to pas- sive, rote learning, creative work is more involving, more produc- tive, and more enjoyable. [Bal] Thinking and reading critically In college much of our critical thinking wl focus on writen texts (a shor soy, ¢ poral arte, Weblog or om val objects Ga photograph a chara fm) Like all subjects worthy of eel Sonera orks operat par estas vie) what the creator actually says or shows, (2) what the creator dees not say or show but builds into the work (intentionally or not), and (3) what son think: Dicovering heft of theve levels reading fer compre, ‘study skills (see pp. 138-40). This chapter builds on the earlier mate- vial to help you discover the other two levels. The box below summa- rizes the reading techniques involved. quence: You wil nx we all of tem forall he reading sou do, On some occasions, even when a close, critical reading is required, you Techniques of critical reading For reading a work of teatur, which requites a somewhat different ap- proach, see pp. 735-42, = Writing: making nos on your reading throughout the process (next page) Previewing: geting background: skimming (p. 153) Reading: inieractng with and absorbing the text (pp. 153-54) Summarizing: dstiling and understanding content (p. 157) Forming your critical response (pp. 157-63) Analyzing: separating nto parts Interpreting: inferring meaning and assumptions Synthesizing: reassembling parts; making connections Evaluating: judging quality and value Thinking and rexding catically 151 ‘THE MEANING OF CRITICAL One ofthe greatest ficulties in teaching ert ical strategies is the problems students have with the negative connotations of the word critial ‘Brainstorm all he meanings and uses ofthe word they know; berond those implying value juds- ‘ments, some students will come up with “ritical temperature,” “eritical mass," eritical condition,” “aitical point the game,” and so on. By show- ing how these erms connect to discernment, oF Important stages of development, you can de- rmonstrate that the word need not always have ‘negative overtores and thus help students to study ese technigues witha beter atitude, ure eas152 Forming 2 critical perspective MATTHIESSEN’S MISTAKE One good anecdote to share with students ‘concerns F. 0. Matthiessen’s classe work of liter fay erilem, Anerin Renaissence. When it first appeared in 1941, i contained @ passage praising the irony in Herman Mehille’s metaphor the soiled Fish of the sea" (describing an ee) ‘When readers rushed to read the Nebvlle passage fn question, however, they found that “soiled” ‘was actualy a typographical err; the correct reading wos “clled” Matthiester’s briliant cri- ‘tique of Mehill's irony was Founded on a eype- setters mistake. Stadents find it comforting t9 now that great erties can make mistakes, too; ‘you can point out that it was in fic, people em ploying critical reading who found Matthiessen’ misreading! CHALLENGING TexTS Critical activities may provide an addtional hurdle for students whose first Imguage is not English or who come from cultwes outside the United States In many: cultures, students are taught not o challenge ideas in print such ques- tons may be considered disrespectful by some ‘who see print as an indication of authority and value. (This is especially rue ifthe text refers to religious belief.) Other student, especially those ‘who grew up in nondemosratie socletles, may know from experience how dangerous it can be to challenge the "party line” esponsed in school. ‘And depending on the rea of the United States ‘you teachin, you may fire studerts who believe in the “inerrancy ofthe word,” even if the text is not bibleal. Discuss the student right to ask ‘uestions about, respond 1o, and challenge printed ‘Works, whether in published textsor in personal manuscrips Instructor's Annotated Edition ‘may simply lack the time to preview, read, and reread. (But if your reading time is continually squeezed by your schedule, you may need to rethink your schedule.) On other occasions your reason for reading (your purpose) will determine which techniques you use. Even a publication like People magazine is open to different methods of reading for different purposes: Purpose Lear some gossip while filing time in the dentist's office. Kind of reading Quick, uncritical Purpose Examine People as an artifact of our popular culture that reflects and perhaps even molds contemporary values. Kind of reading Close, critical Course assignments, too, differ in their requirements, A book report may require writing, previewing, reading, and summarizing but not intense critical reading. An evaluation of a journal article, in con- trast, requires all the techniques discussed here. GiSYEYEEE The icea of reading critically may require you to make some adjustments if readers in your native culture tend to seek understanding or agreement more than engagement from what they read. Readers of English use texts forall kinds of reasons, including pleasure, reinforcement, informaton, and many others, But they also read Skeptically, critically, to see the author's motives, test their own ideas, and arrive at new knowledge. EB writing white reading Reading a work for comprehension and then for a critical ap. proach is an active process. Making notes on what you read involves you by helping you understand how the text works, why, and what ‘you think about it, The notes help you bring tothe work your own ex periences, knowledge, and questions. Tf you own the material you're reading (abook, a photocopy, or a printout}, you can make notes in the margins (see p. 154 for an example}. If you don't own the material orf your notes won't fit in the margins, make notes separately using pen ard paper or your com- puter. Many readers keep a reading journal in which they regularly work out questions and thoughts about what they read. One tech- nique for keeping such a journal is to divide a page or computer sereen into two vertical columns, the left side for the work itself, such as summary and questions, and the right side for what the ‘work makes you think, such as agreements or doubts based on your ‘own experiences, comparisons with other works, and ideas for writ ing. A two-column journal can encourage you to go beyond summa- izing what you read to interacting critically with it because theInstructor's Annotated Edition blank right column wil beckon you to respond. See the next page for an example of this technique. Note Whenever you photocopy or download a document or take notes separately from the text you're reading, be sure to record all necessary information about the text's location so that you can find it again and cite it fully if you use it. See page 569 for a list of information to record. 1 Previewing the material ‘When you'te reading a work of literature, such as a story or a poem, it’s often best to plunge right in (see pp. 736-37). But for crit- ical reading of other works, i's worthwhile to skim before reading sword for word, forming expectations and even preliminary questions. The preview will make your reading more informed and fruitful Use the questions in the box below as a guide to previewing a text NNEIENENN cece . Questions for previewing a text "= What is the work's subject and structure? Following the steps out- lined on pages 138-39, gauge length and level, ead the title and in- troduction for clues to the topic and main ideas, read the headings, note highlighted words (defined terms), examine illustrations, and read the summary ot conclusion. "= What are the facts >f publication? Does the date of publication sug- gest currency oF datedness? Does the publisher or publication special= ize in a particular kind of material—scholary articles, say, or popular books? For a Web document, who or what sponsors the site: an individ- al? a nonprofit orgenization? an academic institution? a corporation? ‘a government body: (See pp. 672 and 675 on locating the authors of ‘online sources.) "= What do you know about the author? Does a biography tellyou about the author's publications, interests, biases, and reputation in the field? For an online source, which may be posted by an unfamiliar or anony= ‘mous author, what can you gather about the author from his or her ‘words? If possible, trace unfamiliar authors to learn more about them. ‘= What is your preliminary response? What do you already know about the author's topic? What questions do you have about either the topic or the author'sapproach to it? What biases of your own might in- fuence your reception of the work—for instance, curiosity, boredom, 6 an ouitlook similar or opposed to the author's? Bl Reading Reading is itself more than a one-step process. You want to un- derstand the first level on which the text operates—what the author actually says—and begin to form your impressions. ‘Thinking and reading critically 153 ELM Seer ON GROUP PRACTICE Even after hey work through the materials in this chapter, sudents will ned to practice ert cal reading unil it becomes a familiar process Having studen's work in groups to answer pre: viewing questions or to create questions for rereading ean rake the critical approach to read: ing more accesible, and it will result in a broader range of interpvtive responses.154 Forming a critical perspective mn VE LEA\ 7 ‘COMPLEX TEXTS Choose relatively complex esay from your reader or another published colletion, Ask stu dents to work through various secions ofthe es- say in smal soups, then present ther findings to the class, Afer those presentations, students ‘might reread the essa and write an interpretive response to a shore passage from it, which they ‘again can share an critique in goups. Students am also use the esay as the basis for the appro- priate exercises in this chapter. This will give them further confidence in their ctieal skills. Instructor's Annotated E A procedure for this stage appears in the preceding chapter (pp. 139-40). To recap: Read once through fairly smoothly, trying to ap- preciate the work and keeping notes to a minimum, Then read Again more carefully, this time making detailed notes, to grasp the ideas and their connections and to pose questions. Following are examples of active reading from a student, Char lene Robinson, She was responding to Thomas Sowell’ “Student Loans,” reprinted on the next two pages. First Robinson annotated a photocopy of the essay (the first four paragraphs appear below): The first lesson of economics is scarcy: There is ) Basic never enough of anything to fully satisfy all those who | cartradeton want it panes The fist lesson of polis isto disregard the fist les- | Spates son of economics. When politicians discover iome group. that is being vocal about not having as much as they want, the “Solution” is to give them more Where do paltians get this “more”? They rob Peter lo pay Paul. —bibical IMier a wile, of course, they dicover tat Peter a trrco? doesn't have enough. Bursting with compassion, polit- +) roric and lan us othe rescue, Needs fo they do ota demise iit that robbing Peter to pay Paul was a dumb idea inthe“) "90" fist place. On the contrary, they now rob Tor, Dick, and —|polticians Harry to help Pete. For ‘The latest chapter in this long-running saya f that 4)™ Perse politicians have now suddenly discovered that many co- lege students graduate heavilyin debt. To policians iol lows, a5 the night follows the day, that the goverment should come to their rescue with the taxpayers’ money. Afier reading the text, Robinson wrote cbout it in the journal she kept on her computer. She divided the journal into two col- umns, one each for the text and her responses. Here is the portion pertaining to the paragraphs above: Text Responses Economics teaches lessons (1), and | Is econcmics ter or more reliable politics (politicians) and economics | than politics? Mare scientific? are at odds Politicians don't accept econ. limits—always trying to satishy ‘money. Is that what they'e “vocal” voters by giving them what | lected :0 do, or do they go too they want (2) far? “Robbing Peter to pay Paul” (2)— ‘rom the Bible (the Apostles)? Politicians support student loan rogram with taxpayer funds bec (of *ocal” voters (2-4): another ex. ‘of not accepting econ. limits Poltcias do spend alot of our 1 suppot the loan progam, to. ‘re poliicians being inesponsible when thay do? (Dismissive ln {guage undertined on copy.)Instructor's Annotated Edition You should try to answer the questions about meaning that you raise in your annotations and your journal, and that may take an- other reading or some digging in other sources, such as dictionaries and encyclopedias. Recording in your journal what you think the author means will help you build an understanding of the text, and a focused attempt to summarize will help even more (see pp. 140-42 and 157). Suchefforts will resolve any confusion you feel, ar they will give you the confidence to say that your confusion is the fault of the author, not the reader EXERCISES. eating Reprinted below is an essay by Thomas Sowell on the federal govern- rment’s student-loan program. An economist, Sowell is also @ news- paper columnist and the author of many books on economics, poli- tics, and education. This essay appeared in Sowell’ collection fs Re- ality Optional? Read this essay at least twice, until you think you understand ‘what the author is saying. Either on these pages or separately, note “your questions and reactions in writing, ‘Student Loans The first lesson of economics is scarcity: There is never enough of anything to fully satsfy all those who want i The frst lesson of poltcs is to disregard the frst lesson of econom- ics. When paltcians discover some group that is being vocal about not having as much as they want, the “solution” is to give them more ‘Where do politicians get this “more"? They rob Peter to pay Paul After a while, of course, they discover that Peter doesn’t have enough. Bursting with compassion, politicians rush to the rescue. Needless to say, they do not admit that robbing Peter to pay Paul was, @ dumb idea in the frst place. On the contrary, they now rob Tom, Dick, and Harry to help Peter. ‘The latest chapter in this long-running sage Is that politicians have now suddenly discovered that many college students graduate heavily in debt. To politicians it follows, as the night follows the day, that the government should come to their rescue with the taxpayers’ money. How big is this crushing burden of college students’ debt that we hhear so much about from politicians and media deep thinkers? For those students who graduate from public colleges owing money, the debt averages a litle under $7,000. For those who graduate from pri- vate collages owing money, the average debt is alittle under $9,000. Buying a very modestly priced automobile involves more debt than that. And a ca: loan has to be paid off faster than the ten years that college graduates get to repay their student loans, Moreover, you hhave to keep buying cars every several years, while one colege educa- tion lasts a lifetime. College graduates of course earn higher incomes than other peo- "ple. Why, then, should we panic at the thought that they have to Thinking and reading critically 155 Eyres Since students in your lass will have dlfer: cent abilities a well a different levels of expert tence with text like Sowell’, their responses 0 [Exercise 8.1 may be widely different. Having sts dents discuss their responses in small proups ots them see varety of reading and understanding strategies st work, students who hod difficulty With the passage should be encouraged 10 talc bout the part(s) that gave them trouble and ask for suggestions on how to tackle similar readings inthe future. You might ask each group to create a list of Key quotes, questions, and comments, \whieh they can later summarize forthe class. If possible, avoid giving students a “correct” response (usualy one you've written to this exer cise and the other exercises in this chapter, since it subconsciouly but powerfully reinforces the mistaken stereotype that there is one right way to read an essay—the leacher’s. ANSWERS: EXERCISE 8.1 Individual response156 Forming a critical perspective WEARING THE FILM CRITIC'S HAT ‘To help sidents understand he concept of “misreading.” try the “movie eile” exereiser 4 movie crite writes that a film is “one ofthe really reat asta flims of the decade" An ad for the Film that claims "Critic So-and.So calls this ‘one ofthe really great ....films of the doeade” ia de. iherate misreading. Ask students ty construct ce- liberate misreadings of reviews ov evtiques 2 way of tesching them what not to doin their oxen Gomer COMPARING SUMMARIES Ask students to compare their summaries in serous and ist points that are similar and differ- ent among the summaries in the group. Then, asa say of deciding how much information i= ‘needed to create an effective summary, have exch student defend the places where his oF her surn- mary dilfers from the group consensus. SUMMARY STRATEGIES Students learning standard American English may find synonsms for some kes words in the Sentences that express the main points of soures, but they may foc! insecure sbout using other sentence structures. Encourage students change the sentence structure as well as the vor cabulaty of the original in writing summaries. ‘Working collaboratively on summaries helps stu- dents see alternative ways to expres ideas; in ad dition, stronger students (and native speakers) cam help the weaker students and, nso doing, re Inforce their own writing skils. Alice Oshima land Ann Hogue, in Writing Academe English, Sr fed, (New York: Longman, 1999), include useful exercises for studenis who need additional prac: ice in summarizing RESOURCES AND IDEAS On approaches to teaching critical thinking Anson, Chris ML, ed Writing aud Response: The fry, Practice and Research Urbans. NCTE, 1989. A collection of essays that explore the practical and theoretical issucs involved in reading and commenting on stident tens Instructor's Annotated Edition repay loans for the education which gave them their opportunities? Even graduates with relatively modest incomes pay less than 10 per- cent of their annual salary on the loan the frst year—with declining percentages in future years, as their pay increases Political hysteria and media hype may facus on the low-income student with a huge debt. That is where you get your heart-rending stories—even if they are not at all typical. I reality, the soaring stu- dent loans of the past decade have resulted from allowing high: income people to barraw under government programe. Before 1978, college loans were availatle through government © programs only to students whose family ircome was below some cut-off level. That cut-off level was about double the national aver- age income, but at least it kept out the Rockefellers and the Vander: bilts. But, in an era of “compassion,” Cong'ess took off even those limits. ‘That opened the floodgates. No matter how rich you were, it stil 10 ppald to borrow money through the government at low interest rates. ‘The money you had set aside for your childten’s education could be inyested somewhere else, at higher interest retes. Then, when the stu- dent loan became due, parents could pay it off with the money they hhad set aside—pocketing the difference in interest rates. To politicians and the media, however, the rapidly growing loans 11 showed what a great “need” there was. The fact that many students welshed when time came to repay their loans showed haw “crushing” their burden of debt must be. In reality, those who welsh typically have smaller loans, but have dropped out of college before finishing, People who are irresponsible in one way are often iresponsible in ther ways No small amount of the deterioration of college standards has been due to the increasingly easy avallabilty of college to people who are not very serious about getting an education, College is nat a bad place to hang out for a few years, if you have nothing better to do, and if someone else is paying for it. its costs ae staggering, but the taxpayers carry much of that burden, not only for state universities and city colleges, but also to an increasing extent even for “private” institutions Numerous government subsidies and loan programs make it pos- 13 sible for many people to use vast amounts of rocety’s resources at low cost to themselves. Whether in money terms or in real terms, federal aid to higher education has increased several hundred percent since 1970. That has enabled colleges to raise their tuition by leaps and bounds and enabled professors to be paid more and more for doing less and less teaching. Naturally all these beneficiaries are going to create hype and hys- teria to keep more of the taxpayers’ money coming in. But we would be fools to keep on writing blank checks for trem. When you weigh the cost of things, in economics that's called “trade-offs.” in politics, t's called “mean-splited." Apparenty, if we just took a different attitude, scarcity would ge away. Thomas Sowell 2 4 isInstructor's Annotated Edition summarizing ‘Summarizing a text—distilling it to its essential ideas, in your own words—is an important step for comprehending it and is dis- cussed in detail in the previous chapter (pp. 140-42). Here, well look at how Charlene Robinson summarized paragraphs 1-4 of ‘Thomas Sowell’ “Stuent Loans.” She first drafted this sentence: Draft summary [As much as politicians would tke to satisfy voters by giving them everything ‘they ask for, the goverment cannat afford a student loan program. Rereading the sentence and Sowell’ paragraph, Robinson saw that this draft misread the text by asserting that the government cannot afford student loans. She realized that Sowell’s point is more com- plicated than that and rewrote her summary: Revised summary As their support of thegovernment’ student loan progam illustrates, politicians ‘ignore tho economic reality that using resources to benefit one group (students in debt) involves taking the resources from another group (taxpayes) Note Using your own words when writing a summary not only helps you understand the meaning but also constitutes the first step in avoiding plagiarism. The second step is to cite the source when ‘you use it in something written for others. See Chapter 4 paragraph 5) to summarize the entire essay. Your summary, in your ‘own words, should not exceed one paragraph. For additional exercises in summarizing, see pp. 622-23, [Bl Developing @ critical response Once you've grasped the content of what you're reading—what the author says—then you can turn to understanding what the au- thor does not say outright but suggests or implies or even lets slip. At this stage you are concerned with the purpose or intention of the author and with how he or she carries it out. Depending on what ‘you are reading and why, you may examine evidenee, organization, ‘attitude, use of language, and other elements of the text. Critical thinking end reading consist of four operations: analyz ing, interpreting, synthesizing, and (often) evaluating. Although we'll look at them one by one, these operations interrelate and overlap. Indeed, the first three are often combined under the general label ‘analysis, and evaluation is sometimes taken for granted as a result of the proces. Thinking and reading critically 157 Brookfield, Stephen D. Developing Critial Thinkers ‘San Franchico: Jossey-Bass, 1987. Brookfield lencouragesconnections between crtial skills Adeveloped iy school and thelr applications in daily ie, Chambers, Marilyn J. “Text Cues and Stratezies ‘Suceesaful Readers Use to Construct the Gist of Lengthy Written Arguments” Reading Re- seazclt Quarterly 30 (10995); 778-807. Chat bors examines stents’ strategies for ident fying argurcent structure, claim, and evidence in Tengthy txts. Elbow, Peter. ‘Ranking, Evaluating, and Liking: Sorting Out Three Forms of Judgment.” Cot lege English 55 (1993) 187-208, Elbow's essay fs largely cencerned with these three activities as part of teacher assessment of student write ing, but it gives many ideas that ean be trans- lated into chsstoom practice Fiske, John. Jaraduction 10 Communication Stud- Jes, New York: Routledge, 1990. Fiske provides (continued om p. 158) Make Exercise 82 collaborative by asking ‘each group of students to write a collective sum- inary then sich summaries among groups and have the readas decide how effective the other roup's effort in conveying the essential infor ‘mation in Sovel, Possible answer As their support of the government's student loam program illustrates, politicians ignore the economic reality that using resources to benefit fone group (stucents in debt) involves taking the resources from another group (taxpayers). Stir dents’ average Jebt isnot even that high, and eol- Tege graduatesean afford to pay itofl. The great- ‘st attention is paid tothe graduate with a lange deb, but the lw also allows affluent students 19 Dorrow, even their parents profit and the stu- dents drop ou of school or waste time there. Funded by taxpayers, the loan program has com tributed to dedining educational standards, ris- ing tuitions, and rising professors salaries. Tax- payers should balk st funding the program ether:158 Forming a critical perspective MAGAZINE COLLECTION Encourage students to bring magazines of various kinds (0 class. Have students work in roups to brsinstarm lists similr 10 the one shown here for each magazine they collected. Each group might presen. their ost surprising ‘or revealing Findings to the cass. (continued) general overview (for students and teachers) ff the methods of cxlial critkism, with ex: plicit connections to the teachng of writing Foch, Regina Paxton, and Susan # Schiller, eds ‘The Spirlial Side of Writing: Releasing the Leaner Whole Portal. Portsmouth: Bost ton/Gook (Heinemann), 1997. 2says explor {ng how writing, learning, and teaching may be experiences that lead to spit and ethi cal awareness and growth, Golub, Jef, and the NCTE Committee on Class- ‘room Practices, ed. Activities to Promove Cit al Thing. Urbana: NCTE, 1986. The authors Ihave compiled a collection of esavs focusing ‘on practical advice and teachingstrateies. ‘ensth, Richard, “Understanding tioshima: An ‘Assignment Seqience for Freshman English.” College Composition aud Communication 40 (1989): 215-19. Jenseth descibes a course ‘wherein students focus on ane work (oF theme) for an entire semeste, considering and reconsidering issues from various critical perspectives Jones, Libby Falk. “Exploring Baiefs Through Dialectical Thinking,” In Te Critical Writing Workshop: Designing Writing Assigmments to Foster Critical Thinking, Ed. Toni-lee Capos: sella. Portsmecuth: Boynton, 1983, 17-34, This essay and the collection as 8 woe offer gen: eral discussion and practical examples of how to structure thought-provoking assignments, Kline, Naney. “Iatertesunl Trips: Teaching the Essay in the Composition Clas.” Joural of Teaching Wring 8 (1989): 15-37. Kline de scribes an “active and playful” strategy used ‘by writers of essays and suggess ways 1 help students detect and appreciate Instructor's Annotated Esition Guidelines for analysis, interpretation, and synthesis ‘= What Is the purpose of your reading? "= What questions do you have about the work, given your purpose? "= What elements does the most interesting question highlight? What elements might you ignore asa result? "= How do you interpret the meaning and significance of the ele- ‘ments? What are your assumptions about the work? What do you in- fer about the author's assumptions? "= What patterns can you see in (or synthesize from) the elements? How do the elements relate? How does this whole work relate to lother works? "= What do you conclude about the work? What does this conclusion add to the work? You can download these guidelines from abloagman.convitlebrown. Create a copy each time you're reading a work cially, and use the questions to prompt your written responses In the following pages, we use two quite different examples to show how critical reading can work: People magazine and Sowell’ “Student Loa 1 Analyzing Analysis is the separation of something into its parts or ele ments, the better to understand it. To see these elements in what you are reacting, begin with a question that reflects your purpose in analyzing the text: why you're curious about i: or what you're trying to make out of it. This question will serve as akind of lens that high- lights some features and not others. Here are some questions vou might ask adout People magazine, listed along with the elements of the magazine that each question highlights: Questions for analysis Elements Does People challenge or Stereotypes: explicit and implicit perpetuate stereotypes? stereotypes or challengesiin the magazine Does the magazine offer posi- Role mocels: text and photo- tive role models for its readers?’ graphs presenting postive of negativerole mode's Does the magazine's editorial __Encouracement of consumption: material articles and accom- references to goods and enter- ppanying photographs) en- tainment focus on consumers, ‘courage readers to consume equation of consumption with _goods and entertainment? happines or successInstructor's Annotated Edition As these examples show, a question for analysis concentrates your attention on relevant features and eliminates irrelevant features. To answer the question about Pagple’s encouragement of consumption, ‘you would focus on itens that feature consumption and the products consumed: photographs of designer clothes and celebrities’ well- appointed homes, articles on the authors of best-selling books and the stars of new movies. At the same time, you would skip over items that have little or no rdevance to consumption, stich as uplifting sto- ries about families or the physically challenged. Analyzing Thomas Sowell’s “Student Loans” (pp. 155-56), you might ask these questions: Questions for analysis Elements What is Sowell'satthude References to politicians: content, toward politicians? words, tone How does Sowell support his Support: evidence, such as statis- assertions about theloan pro- tics and examples grams costs? A difference in the kinds of questions asked is a key distinction among academic disciplines. A sociologist neatly outlined three dis- ciplines’ approaches to poverty: Political science dots a wonderful job looking at poverty as a policy issue, Economics dees an equally wonderful job looking at it from an income-clstibution perspective. But sociology asks how people in poverty live and what they aspire to. Even within disciplines, approaches may differ. The sociologist quoted above may focus on how people in poverty live, but another may be more interested in the effects of poverty on cities or the changes in the poor population over the last fifty years. (See Chap- ters 49-53 for more or the disciplines’ analytical questions.) ® Interpreting Identifying the elements of something is of course only the be- ginning: you also need to interpret the meaning or significance of the elements and of the whole. Interpretation usually requires you to infer the author's zssumptions, opinions or beliefs about what is or what could or should be. (Infer means to draw a conclusion based on evidence.) The word asstunption here has a more specific meaning than it does in everyday usage, where it may stand for expectation ("I as- ‘sume you'll pay”), speculation ("It was a mere assumption”), oF ror (‘The report was riddled with assumptions”). Defined more strictly as what a person supposes to be true, assumptions are un- avoidable, We all adhere to certain values and beliefs; we all form opinions. We live our lives by such assumptions. Thinking and reading critically 159 Marzano, Robert J. Cudkivating Thinking i Eins. lish: The Language Arts. Urbana: NCTE, 1991 Marzano ecplores strategies for enhancing stuulent leaming, emphasizing ways in which students can analyze their own values anu re- sponses to lass texts and discussions, Mauhows, Mitiord M, "The Freshman and His Dictionary.’ In About Language. Ed, William H. Roberts and Gregoire Turgeon. Boston: Houghton, 1986. Matthews outlines three cat- egories of information students can find in dictionaries useful on inference MeLeod, Susar H. “Cultural Literacy, Curricular Reform, anc Freshman Composition” Rhetorie Review 8 (1990): 270-78. MeLood argues that students can move beyond personal experience fn writing esays by reading scholarly materials and responcing to them. (contin om. 160) Wucan WEB THREADS ave students visit an online discussion group and follow a “thread” of conversation. Ask them to list some of the assumptions made by indivi wal writers, make inferences about those sites bolls, and than evaluate whether or not most of the participant: seem to share those bois NETWORKED INFERENCES, Having students summarize and draw infer ences from oneanother's work can be a sei ex- tercise for both reader and writer. Have students work in pairs (either on the computer or on ‘printed copy) to summatize, then practice reason able and delibe-ately faulty inferences of passages from each othe’s work. In each case, the writer of the passage can argue for his or her intention in ‘writing the pasiage and evaluate the effectiveness ofthe summary, while the reader ean point to ev dence or lack 0” evidence for the inference Pati: tary in a networked classroom, cach student pait ean send two passages with attached summary and inferences to another group for evaluation, andlor the instuctor can post one oF two exan ples for the ent class160 Forming a critical perspective Micski, Jerry. “Writing asa Proces of Valuing.” College Composition nnd Coneesoniation 46 (1995); 387-410. Mirskin argues that because ‘values shape meaning, teachers must learn to recognize students systems of value in order to best help them make meaninaful connec: sions within an academic envionment. Nelson, Jennie. “Resling Classrooms as Text: Ex poring Stadent Writer’ Interpretive Prac. tices." College Composition and Communica ton 46 (1995), 411-829, Nokon examines four case studies to show students’ stratopios for reading and responding to assignments, grading practices, and teacher comments. (Odell, Lee. “Strategy and Suprise in the Making ‘of Meaning." In Theory and Practice ithe Teaching of Writing: Rethinking the Disciptine. Ed, Lee Odell. Carbondale: Sauthern Ilinois UP, 1993. 213-243. This esay explores the de- bates over fostering spontaneity and intuitive Insights in the teaching of writng as opposed 1 teaching conscious control, and identifies several approaches that work edo both, Qualley, Donna. “Using Reading n the Writing Classroom’ In Nis anu? Bols: A Practical Guide 19 Teaching College Composition. Bal ‘Thomas Newkirk, Portsmouth: 3osnton, 1993. ‘Qualley lays out strategies foe integrating cite cal reading snd writing using josrals, reading conferences, and small group dkcussions. Robertson Jule Fisher, and Donna Rane Szotstak, “Using Dialogues to Develop Critical Thinking Skill A Practical Approach.” Jounal of Adeles- ‘ent an Adu Lieraey 39 (April 1996) 552-56 Robertson and Szottak describ how students can write, analyze, and perforn dialogues in ‘onder to develop iia! sinking skills ‘Shaughnessy, Mina, Brors and Expectations: A Guide for the Teacher of Basic Writing New York Oxford UP, 1977. This pathbreaking study ofthe challenges faced by basic writers reveal the connections betweet stident error and issues of ried thinking, ‘Shor, Ir. Empowering Education: Critical Teach: ing for Social Change. Chicago U of Chicago P1992, Shor promotes critic chinking as a part of pedagogy designed to empower stu ‘dents and citizens. Tierney, Robert J, Jolin E, Readence, and Emest K.Dishner, eds. Reading Strangies and Prac: tices: A Compendium, 3rd ed. Boston: Allyn ‘and Bacon, 1990. This textbock approach to reading offers a numberof exerises and work Instructor's Annotated Edition ‘Though pervasive, assumptions are net always stated out- right, Speakers and writers may judge that their audience already uunderstanes and accepts their assumptions; they may not even be aware of their assumptions; or they may deliberately refrain from stating their assumptions for fear that the audience will disagree. That is why your job as a critical thinker is to interpret what the as- sumptions are. Reasonable inferences Like an author deciding what to say in anarticle, the publishers of People magazine make assumptions that garide their selection of content for the magazine. One set of assumptions, perhaps the most important, concerns what readers want to see: as a for-profit enter prise, the magazine naturally aims to maintain and even expand its readership (currently about 3.4 million each week). If your analysis, of the magazine's editorial material reveals that much of it features consumer products, you might infer the following: Reasonable The publishers of People assume that the magazine's readers are consumers who want to see and hear about goods and entertainment. Nowhere in People will you find a statement of this assumption, but the evidence implies it. Similarly, Thomas Sowell’s “Student Loans” (pp. 155-56) is based on certain assumptions, some obvious, some not so obvious, If you were analyzing Sowell’s attitude toward politicians, as sug- gested earlier, you would focus on his statements about them. Sowell says that they “disregard the first esson of economics” (paragraph 2), which implies that they ignore important principles (knowing that Sowell is an economist himself makes this a reason- able assumption on your part). Sowell also says that politicians “rob Peter to pay Paul,” are “TbJursting with compassion,” “do not admit a dumb idea,” are characters in a “lorg-rumning saga,” and arrive at the solution of spending taxes “as the night follows the day”—that is, inevitably (paragraphs 2-4). From these statements and others, you can infer the following: Reasonable Sowell assumes that politicians become compassionate when a cause is loud and popular, not necessrily just, and they act irresponsibly by tying to solve the prob lem with other people's (taxpayers’) money. Unreasonable inferences Interpreting assumptions gives you greater insight into an au- thor's intentions. But it's crucial that inferences fit the evidence of the text, as those above about People and Sowell’s essay do. Some- times it’s tempting to read too much into the text, as in the next ex- amples:Instructor's Annotated Edition Faulty Peoples publishers deliberately skew the magazine's edi- torial material to promote products on which they receive kickbacks. [The inference is far-fetched, even absurd. It would be reasonable only if there were hard evidence of kickbacks.) Faulty Sawellthinks that politicians should not be entrusted with running the country. [The inference misreads Sowell Although he does not outline @ solution for politicians’ irresponsibiity, there's no evidence that he would over- hhaul our democratic potical system.) Faulty inferences like “hese are often based on the reader's ow as- sumptions about the text or its subject. When thinking and reading critically, you need to ‘ook hard at your ideas, too. & synthesizing If you stopped at analysis and interpretation, critical thinking and reading might leeve you with a pile of elements and possible ‘meanings but no vision of the whole. With synthesis you make con- nections among parts or among wholes. You create a new whole by drawing conclusions about relationships and implications. The following corelusion pulls together the earlier analysis of People magazine's editorial content and the interpretation of the publisher's assumptions about readers: Conclusion People magazine appeals to its readers’ urge to con- sume by displaying, discussing, and glamerizing con- sumer goods. The statement below zbout Thomas Sowell’ essay “Student Loans” connects his assumptions about politicians to a larger idea also Im- plied by the essay: Conclusion Sowells view that politicians are iresponsible with tax- payers money reflects his overall opinion that the laws of ‘economics, not politics, should drive government. ‘Synthesis may involve working within the text, as in the preced- ing examples, or it may take you outside the text to the surround- ings. (This emphasis is important in research writing, as discussed fon pp. 610-11.) The following questions can help you investigate the context of a work: * How does the work compare with works by others? For in- stance, how does 2eople's juxtaposition of articles and advertise ments compare with that in similar magazines, such as Us Weekly, Entertainment Weekly, and Interview? Or how have other writers respondec to Sowell’s views on student loans? = How does the werk fit into the context of other works by the same author or group? What distinguishes People from the ‘Thinking and reading critically 161 sheets that help to focus students on particu- Tar aspects of the reading process. ‘Toulmin, Stephen, Richard Rieke, and Allan “ani. A Introduction to Reasoning, 2nd ed New York: Macmillan, 1984, Toulmin et al detail the -easoning processes involved in ‘making claims, supplying evidential backing and preparing for rebuttal Tripp, Ellon L. ‘Speak, Listen, Analyze, Respond! Problem-Solving Conferences.” Teaching Eng lish inthe Two-Year Collage 17 (1990) 183-86 Tripp suggests collaborative and individual activites te be completed before students ‘write final yapers proposing solutions, ‘Wiley, Mark. “How to Read a Book: Reflections ‘on the Ethics of Book Reviewing.” Journal of ‘Advanced Composition 13 (1993): 477-82. Wi ley discusses communities of inquiry and why ‘we grant some readers more authority over texts than olers (On writing and critical reading Berrent, Howard I. “Open to Suggestion: OF RATS—A Note-aking Technique." Jounal of Recaling 27 (1984): 548-50, This essay ou lines a ussfal note-taking strategy to comple ‘ment critical reading. erthoff, Ann E. "A Curious Triangle and the Double-Eniry Notebook: Or, How Theory Can Help Us Teach Reading and Writing.” The Making of Meaning: Metaphors, Models, and Maxims for Writing Teachers. Upper Mont lait: BoyrtonCook, 1981. BertholT shows how use of a double-entry journal can help students improve critical reading skills Emig, Janet. “Viiting as a Mode of Learning.” Cot lege Compton and Communication 28 (197) 122-28. A seminal analysis of the ways in which writing facilitates mental processes like intuition, reformulation, and the construc tion of meaningful relationships between ideas Greene, Star, and John M. Ackerman. "Ex- panding tie Constructivist Metaphor: A Rhetorical Perspective on Literary Research and Practice.” Review of Educational Research 15 (Winter 1995): 383-420. This review essay evaluates a number of constructivist explana- tions ofthe relationship between reading and ‘writing as learning model Price, Gayle B "A Case for a Modem Common- place Book” College Composition and Coma nication 31 (1980): 175-82. Price suggests us- {ng classic kehniaues for commonplace books Imconjunetion with other journal activities.162 Forming a critical perspective Walsh, John A. “Circle Diagrams for Narrative Essays.” Journal of Reading 32_ (1989): 366-68, Use ofa graphic technique of concen: ‘ric circles (Similar to Venn dagrams) helps students comprehend and ansivze narrative events, relationships, and signilicane, (On discourse communities Carter, Duncan. “Critical Thinking for Weiter: ‘Transferable Skill or Discipline Specific Strategies?” Composition Sites: Fresomat Englss News 21 (1993) 86-93. Carter explores the question of whether critical thinking skills are tansferble sero discourse communities. Killingsworth, M. Jimmie. "Discourse Communi tiesGlabal and Local.” Rhetrte Review 1 (Fall 1992) 110-22, Kilingsworth makes read crs aware that they are members of both kinds of communities, and he suggests ways ‘to negotiate the bridge(s) between the two. Morris, Barbara S, Disciplinary Ferspectves om ‘Thiokore and Wtig. Ann Anbar: U of Michi szan English Composition Bowrd, 1989. This essay collection demonstrates different modes ‘of inquiry and acceptable resyonses among. Various dieiplines, Williams, ames D,, David Huntley aud Christine Hanks. The fncnlsciptinary Reader: A Cole: tion of Student Writing. New York: Harper Collins, 1992, The eitors provikea collection of student essays from various disciplines, ac ‘companied by ertiques of thet effectiveness in wating critically for particalar discourse ‘communities. (On summaries Carella, Michael J. “Philosophy as Literacy ‘Teaching College Students to Read Critically and Write Cogently” College Camposiion and Comonnicarion 34 (1983): 57-61. Carella ar ‘Bucs that students can be taight not only to summarize complex argamerts but to re. spond ertcally to them, Lambert, Judith R, “Summaries: Focus for Ba sie Writers” Jounal of Developmental Educa: Hon 8 (1984) 10+. Lambert weviews advan: tages of teaching stents to summarize ‘Sherrard, Carol. "Summary Wriing: A Topo- ‘eraphical Stay.” Writen Covnmmunication 3 (1986): 324-43. Sherrard shows that assigning Tonger sammaries forces students to use their ‘ovwn words instead of cpsing fm the source. Instructor's Annotated Eat many other magazines published by Time Inc., such as Time magazine, Sports Mlustrated, Faynily Circle, and Fortune? How do ‘Sowell’s views on student loans typify, or not, the author's other ‘writings on political and economic issues? = What cultural, economic, or political forces influence the work? Why, for instance, are People and other celebrity maga- zines increasingly popular with readers? What other examples might Sowell have given to illustrate his view that economics, not politics, should determine government spending? = What historical forces influence the work? What changes does People reflect in the ways readers choose magazines? How has the indebtedness of college students changed over the past four decades? To create links among the elements of a work or between a work and its context, it helps (again) to wrte while reading and thinking. The active reading recommended earlier is the place to Start, as you note your questions and opinions about the text. You can also ereate connections with a combiration of writing and drawing: start with your notes, expand them as needed to take ac- count of context, and draw connections between related thoughts with lines and arrows. (On a word processor you can use the High- light function or different colors to link related ideas, or use the ‘Comment funetion to annotate connections.) You want to open up your thinking, so experiment freely With synthesis, you create something different from what you started with. To the supermarket shopper reading People while standing in line, the magazine may be entertaining and inconse- quential. To you—after a critical reading in which you analyze, interpret, and synthesize—the magazine is (at least in part) a sig nificant vehicle of our consumer culture. The difference depends entirely on the critical reading. = Evaluating Many critical reading and writing assignnents end at analysis, interpretation, and synthesis: you explain your understanding of what the author says and doesn't say, Only. you are expected to evaluate the work will you state and defend the judgments you've ‘macle about its quality and its significance. You'll inevitably form judements while reading the work: What a striking series of images or That just isn’t enough evidence. In evalu- ating, you collect your judgments, determine hat they are generally applicable and are themselves not trivial, and turn them into asser- tions: The poet creates fresh, intensely vivid images. The author does nnot summon the evidence to support his case. And you support these statements with citations from the text.Instructor's Annotated Edition Evaluation takes a certain amount of confidence. You may think that you lack the expertise to cast judgment on another's writ- ing, especially if the text is difficult or the author well known. True, the more informed you are, the better a critical reader you are. But conscientious reading and analysis will give you the internal author- ity to judge a work as it stands and as it seems to you, against your ‘own unique bundle of experiences, observations, and attitudes. The box below gives questions that can help you evaluate many kinds of works. There's more on evaluation (including evaluation of ‘online sources) on pages 599-609. For arguments and in academic disciplines, youl require additional, more specific criteria. See Chap- ters 9, 11, and 49-53, NNN Te . Guidelines for evaluation "= What are your reactions to the work? What in the wark are you re- sponding to? "= How sound are the work's central idea and evidence? '= How well does theauthor achieve his or her purpose? How worth- while i the purpose? ‘= How authoritative, trustworthy, and sincere Is the author? "= How unified and coherent is the work? Do its parts all support a central idea and clesrly relate to one another? "= What do color, graphics, or (online) sound or video contribute to the work? Do such elements add meaning or merely decoration? "= What is the overall quality and significance of the work? = Do you agree or dsagree with the work? Can you support, refute, cor extend i? You can download these guidelines from ablongman.com/tlebrown, Create a copy each time you're evaluating a work, and use the questions to prompt your written responses. EXERCISE 8.3 Thinking critically aA PETE Following are somestatements about the communications media, Use systematic citcal thinking to understand not only what the statement says but also why its author might have said it. As in the example, do. your thinking in witing: the act of writing will help you think, and ‘your notes will help you discuss your ideas with your classmates, (You an do this exercise online at ablangman.com/litlebrown.) Example: Statement: Every year sees the disappearance of more book pub- lishers because ‘he larger companies gobble up the smaller ones. “Analysis: Why cid the author make this statement? Certain words reveal the authcr’s purpose: disappearance of more book publishers; because; larger companies gobble up smaller anes. ‘Thinking and reading critically 163, Eo Zz tar ARNING ‘When students have completed Bxercses 8.3, 8.4, and 8.5 intividually, itis beneficial t have them share analyses in small groups so that they are able o note and discuss. the difering conelusions that each student may have reached. Ina networkee classroom, this sharing can take place by e-mai, which encourages dialogue and Thelps students deepen their critical analyses. Possible answers 1. Anaissis: What isthe basis for the author's ‘comparison of print and televised journal- ism? The sey words are demand reading, not st viewing Interpation: Are beer... chan implies a value judgment. Demand reeding, not just viewing reveals the author's assumption that ewing is somehow less worthy than read ‘ng, perhaos because viewing s more passive. ‘Synthesis: This author prefers print jour- nalism ar disparages television Journalism Ubecaiee ofthe different activites nome to partake of them, Evaluction: This statement shows the author's tas in favor of written news and Implies some contempt for TV news. The author’ rsons for preferring reading over iewing are not evident and require expla- nation. Some other questions: Are people who get their news from TV less well- informed than those who get It from read- ing? Even f television news is inferior, isnt it better an no news at all (for those who ‘won't or cant read)? Might television news bbe preferable for its immediacy? 2. Analysis: What is the author's parpose? The Key words are rue, democratic, giving voice 10, and people ofall persuasions. Inierpetation: Democratic means “of or for the people.” Thue democratic foram ‘means that there are competing, perhaps misleading, forums. Giving voice to people appeals tc sense of fair play and belief in free speech, while all persuasions implies ‘opensminledness. The author assumes thet people ned a public forum where they ean voice their opinions. Because itis immed ate, radio pives people the freedom to say ‘what they want. Other forums may censor ‘or restrict who can say what164 Forming 2 critical perspective ‘Synthesis: The writer vals radio callin shows for affording all kines of people & chance 19 express themselves without cen Sorhip Evaluation: This writer evileny believes that adi fs somehov fos hn other Paces for people to speak tele mink, What other forums fr fee speech ae tha? Does radio censor oral ts opinions expesse? (What about te time dls for obtonable ln- ‘age? Are pople fall persion relly Calling soch shows. or jst sone kinds of peo lc? Are unedited, inexpert pions a demos fre necessity? 3. Anabsss: What is the authors attiude to ‘ward online communication? The key words are threaten, andermit, ability, and Interact fc fae Tnerrettion: Dhratn an adenine imply danger: bili and ioe face 1 face imply that facetoface communication f 8 ind of slr alent. Together the wor in ply that the sl or talent vlnerabl, sub Jectto some kind of destton, The authors sumptions Online and Tae-t-fsce com rriniaton are diferent Fac-o-ace inter clon es anita al. Online comm ication. dave nn meth valve. Com: touneating onlin dimnishesthis vale. Swthesir The author bolioves that something valuable will be lest t0 online ‘omimuniation vali This statmeat indicates a preference for face-to-face teraction over Glin commmunlestion anda concern about the Tater overwhelming the former, But whiacexacty spec abou lace-toface i teraction? What des it provide tht online connnicaion doesn? Wor people com tinge to meet fae to face even if they also communicate online? Will om ne comm ation necesarly undermie face-to-face ttucracion? Might online communication also contbute something postive of its ‘wn, adding to rather han sutactng from the ways people interact? ANSWERS: EXERCISE 8.4 Inividval response. ANSWERS: EXERCISE 8.5 Individual response Instructor's Annotated Edition Interpretation: More book publishers means others have disap- peared. Because specifies cause. Gobble ep implies consumption, predator to prey. Author’s assumptions: Large publishers behave like predators. The predatory behavior of large companies causes the disappearance of small companies. Tre more pualishing com- paries there are, the better. ‘Synthesis: The author objects to the predatory behavior of larye pub- lishing companies, which he or she holds responsible for eiminating small companies and reducing the total runnber of companies. Evaluation: This biased statement against large publishers holds them responsible for the shrinking number of book publishers. But are the large companies solely responsible? And why isthe shrink ing necessarily bad? 1. Newspapers and newsmagazines are better news sources than television because they demand reading, 10t just viewing. 2. Radio call-in shows are the true democratc forum, giving voice to ppecplle of all persuasions. 3. Online communication threatens to undeimine our ability to inter- act face to face. EXERCISE 6.4 Reading an essay critically Reread Thomas Sowell’s "Student Loans” (fp. 155-56) in order to form your ow cial response tat, Fllow the guidelines for analysis, interpretation, synthesis, and evaluation in tye boxes on pages 158 and 163. Focus on any’ clements suggested by your question about the text possblties are assumptions, eviderce, organization, use of language, tone, authority, vision of education or students, Be sure to vite while reading and thinking; your notes wil help your analysis land enhance your creativity, and they will be essental fr vrting bout the selection (Exercise 8.10, p. 178) “EXERCISE S.5 Reading a magazine critically Do your own critical reading of People or another magazine, What do you see beyond the obvious? What questions does your reading raise? Let the guidelines on pages 158 and 163 direct your response, and do your wark in writing, (BBY Viewing images critically ey ay 0 eke a verde ll ao cscnc on ter Santee Ir te lovin, seta eel Gar lormevana pers and textbooks, to name just a few examples. Most images slide Tercui pera Gkig Tae ooo HERR ER age or times even more than text, can influence us covertly. Their creators ate Panos, SS Wee ag HW ngInstructor’s Annotated Edition purposes requires critcal reading. The method parallels that in the previous section for reading text critically: write while reading, pre- view, read for comprehension, analyze, interpret, synthesize, and (often) evaluate. Writing while reading an image Writing as you read an image helps you view it deliberately and allows you to record your impressions precisely. If possible, print a ‘copy of the image or scan it into your reading journal, and write your ‘comments in the image margins or separately. The example on the next page shows how ene student annotated an image he was reading, [22] Previewing an image Your first step in exploring an image is to form initial impres- sions of the work’s origin and purpose and to note distinctive features. “This previewing process is like the one for previewing a text (p. 153) eA Questions for previewing an image 1 What do you see?What is most striking about the image? What ists subject? What Is the gist of any text or symbols? What is the overall effect of the image? "= What are the facts of publication? Where did you first see the image? Do you think the image was created especially for that location or for fothers as well? What can you tell about when the image was created? "= What do you know about the person or group that created the image? For instance, was the creator an arts, scholar, news organiza tion, or corporation? What seems to have been the creators purpose? |= What is your prefminary response? What about the image inter ests, confuses, or dsturbs you? Are the form, style, and subject faril- lar or unfamiliar? How might your knowledge, experiences, and val- ues influence your reception of the image? [Bl Reading an image Reading an image requires the same level of concentration as reading a text, Plan tospend more than one session working with the image to absorb its meaning and purpose and then to analyze and maybe challenge its essage, Try to answer the following questions about the image. If some ‘answers aren't clear a: this point, skip the question until later ‘= What is the purpose of the image? Is it mainly explanatory, conveying information, or is it argumentative, trying to con- vince readers of something or persuade them to act? What infor- mation or point of view does it seem intended to get across? Viewing images critically 165 THE ONION It may help students to understand preview ing if they think of an onion. Their job in looking at the image i to work their way’ from the out: side (the most striking elements ofthe image, the publication axd authorship information, and their fst response) to deeper, internal lavers of meaning Erna LIST OF READING QUESTIONS Students may want t0 use the questions on this page and the next about purpose, audience, ‘words and syribos, subject, and form as a guide- lime to help them in their notetaking, These ques- tions would aso be helpful if students are ereat- ing annotated ists of images,166 Forming a critical perspective (CHANGE THE CAPTION To help students understand hove images and Seats er topeten, as them to wre some al ‘erative captions forthe Time magazine photo. The class can then discuss how the new captions help influence the meaning ofthe visual image Instructor's Annotated Edition * Who is the intended audience for the image? What does the source of the image, including its publication facts, tell abou the image creator's expectations for readers’ knowledge, inter- ests, and attitudes? What do the features of the image itself add to your impression? = What do any words or symbols add to the image? Whether lo- cated on the image or outside it (such as in a caption), do words or symbols add information, focus your attention, or ale ter your impression of the image? = What people, places, things, or action does the image show? Does the image tell a story? Do its characters or other features tap into your knowledge, or are they unfamiliar? = What is the form of the image? Is ita photograph, advertisement, painting, graph, diagram, cartoon, or something else? How do its content and apparent purpose and audience relate tits form? The following notes by a student, John Latner, illustrate the re- sults of asking questions like those above. Reading an advertise- ment for Time magazine, Latner first annotated a copy of the image and then filled out his ideas in his reading jounal, Annotation of an image jent checking boy's body or neoponst Sign = airport security area Blond kd n preppy clothes =ypical Anorican child? ‘Red Time cover = target: Red with boys clothes = USA Intereoting question crux of eontroty ‘Author and source both = ‘oleae me cite Time mag, Why dees Time promote leoaltto people. Who ae already reading? ‘Advertisement appearing in Time magazine, October 7, 2002Instructor's Annotated Edition Image details Red Time border positoned ‘over boy's chest and around seanning wand Boy with blond hatr and blue eyes, USA colors in clothes and Time border Caption asking “At what point do national security and common sense colide?” [Bl Analyzing an image 1 Elements for anaysis Responses ‘The framing of the wand makes this clearly 8 story about airport (and homeland) secu- rity, not about the boy o the guard ‘The boy isa stereotyped all-American ki almost coll-tike. Most American kids don't look tke this, though, How would the ad be diferent if the kid looked citfeent? The position of the wand seems to imply that the point af collision i in the middle cof the boy or maybe the moment when an Jnnocent-looking kid is treated asa security ‘neat. (But aren’ tere lots of kids ‘thoughout history who have become sol- dirs or were used by adults as weapons? Is it completely logical to consider kids as potentially dangerous?) "Common sense” seems to mean taking things at face value. Is that the view of people wi read Time? Wouldnt be just the oppasite—people ‘buy the mag, Because they know there's more to the story than meets the eye? Confusing. As when analyzing a writen work, you analyze an image by idlentifying its elements. The image elements you might consider ap- pear in the box belew. Keep in mind that an image is a visual composition whose every element likely rellects a deliberate effort to fe, Still, fav images include all the elements, and you can narrow the list furthe- by posing a question about the image you are reading, as illustrated on the next page. Elements of images ‘= Emphasis: Most images pull your eyes to certain features: a graph line moving sharply upward, a provocative figure, bright color, thick lines, light against shadow, and so on. The cropping of a photograph cr, say, the date range in a chart vill also reflect what the image cre- ator considers mos important. = Narration: Most mages tell stories, whether in a sequence (a TV ‘commercial ora graph showing changes over time) or at asingle mo- ‘ment (a photograph, a painting, or a pie chart). Sometimes dialog or a ttle or caption contributes to the story. (continued) Viewing images critically 167 SUGGESTED READINGS George, Diana “From Analysis to Design: Visual ‘Communication in the Teaching of Writing.” College Composition and Communication 54 (2002), 11-39. Excellent explanation of how {Instruction in vistal bieracy ean tnform the ‘composilen curriculum, Soleil, Naome. “Reflective Reading: A Study in (Teleliters:” Jounal of College Rending and Learning 3) (Fall 1999): 5-16. Soleil shows how a reflective reading of television texts ean provide a Iridge to link oracy and literacy.168 Forming a critical perspective ‘COMPARING IMAGES “To give students practice im analyzing ele- ments of images, give them sever images and ask them to compare # single clement in all the Images. By focusing on one clement at a time, you can help students develop their ability to an- alyze that element. Yau could alse ask them to Find examples of images that have a distinetive use of an element, such as an image with an un- ‘usual point of vl, «compelling narration, or a 00d use oftnson or allusion Instructor's Annotated Edition Elements of images (continued) "= Point of view: The image creator influences responses by taking ac- ‘count of both the viewer's physical relation to te image subject—for instance, whether itis seen head-on or from above—and the viewer's assumed attitude toward the subject. "= Arrangement: Patterns among colors or forms, figures in the fore- ground and background, and elements that are juxtaposed or set Apart contribute to the image’s meaning and effect. Color: An image's colors can direct the viewers attention and convey the creator's attitude toward the subject. Colar may aso suggest 2 ‘mood, an era, a cultural connection, or another frame for viewing the image. Characterization: The figures and objects in zn image have certain {ualties—sympathetic or not, desirable or not, and so on. Theirchar= acteristics reflect the roles they play in the imace's story. Context: The source of an image or the background in an image af- fects its meaning, whether itis a graph from a scholarly journal or a photo cf a car on a sunny beach. Tension: Images often communicate a problem or seize attention with features that seem wrong, such as misspelled or misaligned ‘words, distorted figures, or controversial relations between characters. Allusions: An allusion is a reference to somathing the audience is likely to recognize and respond to. Examples include a cultural sym- bbol such as a dollar sign, a mythological figure such asa unicorn, or a familiar movie character such as Darth Vader from Star Wars. ® Question for analysis As discussed on pages 158-59, you can foaus your analysis of el cements by framing your main interest in the image as a question. John Latner eoncenirated his analysis of the Tire ad with the ques- tion Does the ad challenge readers to view airport security differently, ordoes it just reinforce common perceptions? The question led Latner to focus on certain elements of the ad and to ignore others, as seen in the following entry from his reading journal: Image elements | Responses Emphasis The ad foregrounds the boy (especially his eyes looking upward), the securty agent, ard the Faiiar Time cover aver 2 scanner Rea target around a bulls-eye. Point of view We identify with the boy—so innocent and uncom- fortable. We identify even nove because ve" posi- tioned at his eye lvel. The security gent almost hhavers over us, too.Instructors Annotated Edition Narration The collision point ofthe caption (“At what point do national secufty and common sense collide?”) seems tobe the bull’s-eye of the seanning wand—treating a boy as a security threat. The ad's commonsense opin- fon seems to he that airport security procedures are flawed, unfic. But the caption’s question mari and "Join the conversation” imply that there may be other views, too Color The boy is much the brightest figure inthe image, and his brightness emphasizes his Faimess. His clothes are in patriotic colors (white shirt, blue and vite pants, red tag on the pants). The Time cover ads mae ed to the fag colrs. Allusions The familar Time cover and the security checkpoint stand out. Als, is there Christan symbolism in the boy's outstretched arms, open hands, ard upward ‘gaze—lke Christ on the cross? Characterization The bay plays the role of unlikely terarist, maybe ‘even a victim. He fs the stereotyped all-American kid, blond, blue-eyed, wholesome. The security agent is the boy's “nterogator"—serious, dark, even menacing, Tension The security agent hovering over the bays disturbing So ae what they‘e doing and the whole busy scene be Ivind Unbound evoke a negative response fom anyone who's experienced air travel in recent years = Sample images for analysis ‘The following images give you a chance to analyze selective ele~ ments in two kinds of images, a painting and a Web page. Qui in the annotations car help to open up your thinking, tions, Hements in a painting ext and how? ven durbing? Liberty's Children, 2002, painting by Ron Oden ental figure ps igure play Emphasis: What does ight emphasize? rede the peaing gue youreyes Narration: What story does the painting Aall? How does I el the story? ‘Color: What mood do the colors create? How do they rte tothe subject? ‘Characterization: What role does the inthe story? What characters an yOu eM? “Tenslon: What elements are unexpected, ‘Viewing images critically 169 Eee POSTER IMAGES Posters often abound on college campuses, and they previde legitimate fodder for image analysis, Ask students to bring in one of thei fa vorite posters and have them work in. small groups to anayze the elements170 Forming a criticl perspective Coe VIEWS OF THE WEB. ‘The Web, so abundant in visual images, is an ideal place to practic evtcal viewing. You ean create a guided tour for your stucents through some choice Web pages. As they follow the links in order, stadents can answer worksheet ques- tions oF just record their interpretations of the mages they see. PERSONAL WEB PAGES Some of your students may heve their oven Web pages with graphics or other visual images Ask for volunteers to hae their Webpages viewed land ewluated by the rest of tho dass. Alterna. tively, If your students are building their oven ‘Web pages, you can ask them to experiment with Images and ty them out on their elessmates CLAIMS AND EVIDENCE ‘These examples of reasonable and fauly in ferences should be familiar to stidents who have been writing thesis and topic seatence claims supported by evidence. Some students may be ‘adept at interpreting images but less so at inter- preting the written word. If so, have them prac tice first on images. I they can understand how to draw resonable inferences frem an image, they may be able to apply that uncerstanding to interpretations of written txts, Instructor's Annotated Edition Elements of a Web page Narration: What stor is being told by Arrangement: How are the bars n the theWieb pageasavwfoleand by the” chart organizsd? What does hae ‘hart? Whe i teling the story, and why? arangerment contrite ta theston? Point of view: What can you tell about, Context: How do the CNN source and theintended audience? What i the auc the page's banner and ties affect tne fences interest in the story? Story being tld by the chart? WAR AGAINST TERROR ‘Web page from CNN.com, 2001 [& interpreting an image The strategies for interpreting an image parallel those for inter- preting a written text (pp. 159-61). In this process you look more deeply at the elements, considering them in relation to the image cre- ator’s likely assumptions and intentions. You aim to draw reasonable inferences about why the image looks as it does. Here's a reasonable inference about the Time advertisement on pag? 166: Reasonable The creators of the Time ad assume that the magazine's readers are concerned about both national security and. the treatment of air travelers. ‘This inference is supported by the ad's text and photograph: the eap- tion specifically mentions national security, and the photograph clearly emphasizes the experience of air travelers. In contrast, theInstructor's Annotated Edition next inference is not reasonable because it leaps to a conclusion that is not supported by the ad: Faulty The creators of the Time ad assume that the magazine's read- crs believe airport security checkpoints are unnecessary. The ad implies that readers may object to some checkpoint proce- dures, not that they believe the checkpoints themselves are unnec- [Bi synthesizing ideas about an image [As discussed on rages 161-62, with synthesis you take analysis, and interpretation a sep further to consider how a work’s elements and underlying assumptions mesh: How do the elements and 3 ‘sumptions relate to one another? What is the overall message of the image? You may also expand your synthesis to view the whole image ina larger context: How does the work compare with works by oth- ers? How does the work fit into the context of other works by the same author or group? What cultural, economic, political, or historical forces influence the work? Placing an image in its context often requires research. For in stance, to learn more about the assumptions underlying the Time ad- vertisement, John Lamer investigated data on the backgrounds and perceptions of the magazine’ readers, And to understand the mat Iroting strategies at werk in the image, he consulted a book on adv tising campaigns that. like the Time ad, promote producis to people ‘who already use therr. The following entry from his reading journal shows the ideas resulting from his synthesis: Social and political context The emphasis on the oy plays to two views often held by travelers and Time readers: airport searches needlessly inconvenience people who are highly unlikely to be terrorists, and the beter altemative may be profiling, treating people diferent on the bass of physical characteristics suchas skin and hair color. “Common sense” ‘The ad implies certats understandings of readers! “common sense” about rational security and airport security: security i a serious isue, many airport procedures are unreasonably broad based and time consuming, and profiling might be used to facis on people who look like tarorst. The ad doesn’t challenge these perceptions but with “Join the conversation” it does suggest that the problem is cpen to interpretation. Marketing contest ‘he provocative photograph seems to promise an unconventional perspective fn the subject, but the ad mostly reinforces the views assumed to be held by readers. Time's strategy reftects marketing studies: people are more likly to purchase 8 product that reflects their own opinions and values even when they're acquiring it & broaden their understanding. Viewing images critically im Wrre orn GROUP ADs Have students work in pairs to create their ‘own ad of edi oral cartoon on a subject of their choosing. Ask them to submit a rationale along ‘with the ad, im which they explain what they were tying te achieve visually. The class as a whole can ertique oF respond to the submis- RESOURCES AND IDEAS Zeller, Rober "Developing the Inferential Res- soning of Basic Writers.” Collage Composition ‘and Communication 38 (1987): 343-46, Zeller Suggests that ashing students to make connec tions betw2en visual prompts lke photographs and wsting helps their critical thinking ski172 Forming a critical perspective Gomer cn nin IMAGE AUCTION ave your stadents maine the ave dhe ae= ‘oncer for an estate sal of Images (ox pride the collection of images). Ask themeat ib seleet fan smage they think exellent in quali andor Tigh In sigfeaee, and to write blu for dhe sttion program in which they desebe the fms {nd try tos their classmates on ts value and Significance You can put he images online and the class can work together to crate an online aueton program ining each of heen Wrenn Exercise 86 can work well asa group activity. Have students discuss the Tie adhertisement im ‘small groups, using the lst of visual elements, to develop alternative interpretations ANSWERS: EXERCISE 8.6 Individual response ANSWERS: EXERCISE 8.7 Individual response om ma nu Exercise 88 can work well asa group exercise. Each group member ean supaly one image, and then the group can perform the analysis together. ANSWERS: EXERCISE 8.8 Individual response Instructor's Annotated Edition (7 Evaluating an image If your critical reading moves on to evaluation, you'll form jud- ments about the quality and significance of the image. Questions to ask for evaluation appear in the box on page 163. Briefly: Is the mes- sage of the image accurate and fair, or is it distorted and biased? Can you support, refute, or extend the message? Dees the image achieve its apparent purpose, and is the purpose worthwhile? How does the image affect you? ‘See John Latner’s paper on pages 175-77 for an evaluation of the Time advertisement. _ EXERCISES.6 Viewing an image critically | Review the list of visual elements on pages 167-68 and then take an- ‘other clase look at the Time advertisement on page 166. Using the {guidelines on the preceding pages, draw your own conclusions about the ad. Write while reading and thinking to help yourseli concentrate and develop ideas. A writing suggestion based on this activity appears, in Exercise 8.11, page 178, -EXERCISEB.7 Viewing an image critically Selact either the painting Libery+ Children (p. 169) or the CNN Web page (p. 170) to examine in more detail. Using the guidelines on the preceding pages, read the image methodiclly and critically. Write down your ideas. A writing suggestion based on this activity appears in Exercise 8.12, page 178. | | | - EXERCISES.8 Comparing images critically Each image in this section—the advertisemen, the painting, and the Web page—communicates a perspective on the causes or effects of terrorism in the United States. Using the guidelines on the preceding | pages, read these three images asa group, focusing onthe story they tell together and on their relative effectiveness in contributing to that | story. Write down your responses. A writing suggestion based on this activity appears in Exercise 8.13, page 178. HEB wiring cttcaiy Critical writing, often called eritigue, is largely influenced by the discipline or profession in which it occurs. Thus the topic is cov- ered more extensively in Chapters 10-11 (argument), 50 (literature), 531 (other humanities), 52 (social sciences), and 53 (natural and ap- plied sciences), In this introduction, we'll look at two illustrations, one on a written work and the other on an image,Instructor's Annotated Edition Note Critical writing is not summarizing. You may write a summary to clarify for yourself what an author says or what an Image shows, and you may briefly summarize a work in your own larger piece of writing. But your job in critical writing is not just 10 report; itis to transmit your analysis, interpretation, synthesis, and perhaps evaluation ofthe text. Hil Writing critically about a text The following essay by the student Charlene Robinson re- sponds to Thomas Sowell’s “Student Loans.” Robinson arrived at her response through the process of critical reading outlined in this, chapter and then by gathering and organizing her ideas, developing her own central idea (or thesis) about Sowell’s text, and drafting and revising until she believed she had supported her central idea. Robinson does not assume that her readers see the same things in Sowell’ essay or share her views, so she offers evidence of Sow- cll’s ideas in the form of direct quotations, summaries, and para- phrases (restatements in her own words). (See pp. 617-22 for more con these techniques.) Robinson then documents these borrowings from Sowell using the style of the Modern Language Association (MLA): the numbers in parentheses are page numbers in the book containing Sowell’s essay. listed at the end as a “work cited.” (See Chapter 47 for more on MLA sivle.) Weighing the Costs In his essay “Student Loans,” the econamist Thomas Sowell chal- Introduction lenges the US government’ student-lan program for several reasons: 2 Summary of Sowel's essay scarce rezource (taxpayers! money) goes to many undeserving students, 2 high numberof recipient fal to repay their loans, and the easy avail- ability of money has led te both lower academic standards and higher college tutions Sowell wants his readers to “weigh the costs of things” (133) im order to see, ashe does, that the loan program should not receive 0 much government funding, But does he provide the evidence of cost Robinson's rit= and other problems to lec the reader to agree with him? The answer is #1 question no, because hard evidence is less common than debatable and unsup- Heer oe ported assumptions about students, scarcity, and the value of education. Sowell’ portrait of student-Loan recipients & questionable, It is First main based on averages, some satistical and some not, but averages are often POM deceptive, For example, Sewell cites college graduates‘ low average debt of Evidence for $7,000 to $9,000 (131) without acknoledaing the fac that many stu- ean dents deb is mich Nghe or hing the ful ange of statis, Similarly, uolaions tom Sowell dismisses “heart-rending stories” of “the low-income student with a Writing critically 173 COLL UN POLLING STUDENTS, Have each student solicit eritical responses 10 ‘Sowells article from their roommates or friends ‘Then have students work in pairs to compare the responses of their friends to that of Robinson. ‘This exercise vill hep students get a sense of the range of responses a whtten argument ean en- render. MODELS OF STUDENT WRITING Charlene Robinson essay Charlene Robinson's essay is an excellent ex- ample of eritial writing, combining a well-dovel- ‘oped critique with good organization, effective transitions, and balanced tone. Particularly if they are not strong writers, your students may feel that their ovn efforts (in Exercves 8.4 and 8.10) do not measure up. In order 0 emphasize for your students that Robinson's approach is ‘one possible way of critiquing Sowell, you might ‘want to spendsome time as a class developing al- ternative crtiquer, For instance, you might point ‘out fo your students that Robinson does not pro- ‘ide statistcalevidence of her ov, and ask thern to test her asertions by doing some further re- search on student loans ILLUSTRATED ARGUMENTS Ak your students to find or ereate a visual {image (photosraph, graphic, drawing, ete.) that could accompany Robinson's essay. They can compare the mage they chose with members of their small group, and this could prompt discus- sion of the diferent merits of written and visual critiques Guinea SUMMARY TO ARGUMENT On your slass Web site oF through e-mail, post a summary of a course reading of your ‘choice, Then ask students to begin the process of, fenverting the suramary to a written critical re= sponse. They can begin with some online isc sion and then propose arguments that would form the bass ofa response essay174 Forming a criticel perspective Bidens or ane Sout ‘Tanstion to Gecond main point Second main point Exide foe Sowell Third mao point Exidence for third point nd guotations of Sowels text Conclusion Acknovsedg- en of So Instructor's Annotated Edition huge debt” as “not at all typical” (132) yet he invents his own exegger- ated version ofthe typical loan recipient: an affuent slacker ("Rocke fellers" and “Vanderbilts") for whom college Isa ‘place to hang out for a few years” sponging off the government, while sor er parents clear a profit from making use of the Lan program (132 Although such students (and yarents) may well exist, are they really typical? Sowell doesnot offer any data one way or the other—for instance, hov many loan recipients ‘ome from each income group, what percentage of loan funds goto each ‘group, how many loan recipients receive significant help from their par ents, and how many receive none. Another set of assumptions inthe essay has todo with scarcity “There is never enough of anything to fully stisty ll those who want it,” Sowell says (131). This statement appeals to reader’ common sense, but does the “Lesson” of scarcity necessarily apply to the student-oan pro- ram? Sowell omits many important figures needs to prove thatthe nar tion’ esources ae too scarce to support the program, such a5 the total cost ofthe program, its percentage ofthe total «duration budget and the total federal budget, and its cost compared tothe cost of defense, Hei care, and other expensive programs. Moreover, Soxell des not mention the interest pai by loan recipients, even though the intrest must offset some of the costs of running the program and covering unpaid oars. The mast fundamental and mast debatable assumption underyirg Sowells essay is that higher education isa kind af commesity that not everyone is entitled to. In order to diminish the importance of graduates average debt from education loans, Sowell claims that a car loan wil prob- ably be higher (132). This comparison between education and an automo~ bile implies that the two are somehow equal as products and tat an af- fordable higher education fs no more a right thar a now ca, Sowell also condemns the “responsible” students who dropout of schol and “te in- creasinaly easy availability of college to people vho are not very sercus about getting an education" (132). But he overlooks the value of encour aging education, including education of those who dort Finish college or who are scholars. For many inthe United States, education has a greater value than that of @ mere commodity ike a cat. And even from an eco- nomic perspective such as Sowell’ the cost to society ofan uneducated public needs to be taken into account. ‘Sowell writes with conviction, and his concerns ae valid: high taxes, waste, unfanness, dectining educational standars, obtrusive government; Homeves, the essays flaws make it unlikely that Swell could convinceInstructor's Annotated Eton iting italy 175 readers ho do at ae wee with hin, dos tsp his por ofthe pia loan wir, east damonctate ack of ema tects ore on agen, a neglect the spec nate of education compared oer sevice and prods Sov. may have Ren the evens to back up Hsaeunptons, but by oming he nat FE does not truly weigh the costs of the loan program. ‘weighing costs Wot Cet aaa Sonel Tomas. “Stder ars” Relty Optional and Other say, SIE Stanford: Hovey, 96 1353, 36 —Charlene Robinson (student) [il ting critically about an image The essay below, by the student John Latner, responds to the Time magazine advertisement. AS you've seen earlier in this chapter, Latner examined the image over several stages, each time discover- ing more in it and grsdually developing his own ideas, In his paper Latner takes pains to be sure that readers will see the image as he does: he reproduces the ad, captions it, and clearly describes its fea- tures. He cites his sources using the style of the Modern Language Association (Chapter 47). (All but one of Lauer's west citations lack page numbers because the sources themselves are not numbered.) ‘Note An image is a source just as a written work is, and like a written source it must be acknowledged. Latner cites the Time ad both in the image caption and in the list of works cited. If he pub- lished his paper online, he would also need to seek the copyright owner's permission to use the image. See pages 633-34 for more about acknowledging sources and pages 635-37 for more about permissions for online publication, Playing It Safe At fist glance, the “Boy at Security" advertisement for Time maga zine (Fg. 1) is both a humorous and a provocative depiction ofa troubling subject: airport security sie September 11, 2001, A boy with an angelic face and a nervous expresson stands obediently asa security agent passes a large scanner aver his chest. The familia red border and banner of @ Time cover surround the scanner, making it the bulls-eye ofa target. The caption reads, “At what pont do national security and common sense cot lide?" and then “Jain the conversation.” This eye-catching ad implies that by reading Time magazine consumers will gain alternative perspectives on important issues. However, a close examination of the ad reveals that it actually reinforces public cpinion instead of challenging it Invoduetion ‘Thesis state: ment Description of the image MODELS OF STUDENT WRITING John Latna’s essay analyzing the Time maga tine advertisement offers an example of a very \welldevelopec interpretation and analysts of an mage. It has a bold thesis which is well sup- ported by evidence. Students who are not aecus- fomed to writing about images may’ be surprised at how mich mileage Latner gets out ofthe mas- azine ad, but they should soon see that all the Isyavatiny witk they do when they view an im Age (such as keeping a response journal or writ- ing down analysis of the elements of the image) is indispensibe when they begin to write thelr ‘own critical essay. Because ofits timely and nationally signii- ‘cant subject matter, Latner's essay may make for 8 lively elasstoom discussion, Latner makes a compelling argument, bat your students may ‘want to propose alternative interpretations of the image.176 Forming a critical perspective RESOURCES AND IDEAS CCheville, Julie, “Automated Scoring Technologies ‘and the Rising Inflvence of Enor.” English Sousrel 93 (March 2004): 47-52, Chevlle ea tions that automated assessment can shape a ‘writing cust that may benefit private industry but is at odds with eurent composi ton theory and research Herrington, Ann and Charles Moras. "What Hap- penis When Machines Read Our Students Writing?" College English 63 (larch 2001) The authors ate highly evita of software programs that claim they can ade students! ‘essays accurataly for both style and conteat. Jones, Billio J. “Learning with, through and about Computers: Students’ Best Friend or Worst Nightmare?” Teaching English in dhe Two-Year College 30 (2003): 286-98. The au thor reports on stidens’ resfonses to her computerhased uniting class, noting. that some stdents were intimidated by comput. cers while others thrived Koerber, Amy. "Toward a Feminist Rhetoric of “Technology.” Journal of Bushiess and Techn al Communication 14.1 (2000) 58-73. Koer- ber argues that the thetoric of technology mst evolve to account for femiaist concerns, including the gender inequities that technol ogy testers. Langer, Judith A. “Lesrning Tor ‘Study Stills in the Content Are. Reading 29 (1986): 400-06. Langer contends that students lear more efecttely by writing full essays about their reading than by just taking notes or answering questions. Lent, Robin, “I Can Relate wo That. !: Reading tnd Responding in the Writing Classroom. College Composition and Comaeinication 44 (1993): 232-40. Lent demonstrates how using shor, informal response papers can deepen stualens' interpretations of assigned readings. Moran, Charles. "Computers and Composition 1983-2002: What We Have Hoyed For.” Com purrs and Composition 20-4 (2003): 343-358, ‘Moran provides 2 practical and comprehen: sive review of the lterature on the question o computers improve student writing? Salvator, Mariolins. “Conversatioss with Tests! Reading in the Teaching of Composition. College English $8 (1986) 440-54, Salvator Instructor's Annotated Edition Fig. 1. “Boy at Security” an advertisement appeuing In Tine magazin, ‘romates the magazine as a source of challenging views on current events From Time 7 Oct. 2002: 42. ‘The awlovard stance ofthe boy evokes the common complaint that airport security is intrusive and time consuming (Sharkey). This attitude is encouraged by the cropping ofthe photograp which puts the boy at ‘ur eye level (increasing our empathy with him) and makas te looming security agent seem intimidating. As the agent coss his wot, the boy ‘waits uncomfortably and travelers mill around inthe background The ad represents travel experince that is familiar to the target audience: ac- cording to a recent survey, the typical Time reader is a white, midle- ‘income adult who takes commercial Rights a least yearly (Schulman, Ronee, and Bucuvalas) ‘The advertisement also taps into 2 dilemma and debate about airport security, Everyone wants tenorsts stopped from boarding airplanes, but ‘many people believe that security procedures go too far by eating a travelers as potential threats, even those who arnt the least bit susp- cous (Shakey). The boy in the ad is a most unlkelytorrist. Besides being quite young, he looks Like the stereotype of the all-American child blond, blue-eyed, neatly dressed in patiatic cols (vite shirt ant blue and white pants with a ed tag). With such a figure a its centr, the ad implies and appeals toa preference for profiling traveers—singlng people cout for suspicion solaly because of nationality o physical traits such as skin and halr color. Judging from the public comments in the news media,