Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CCNA Short Notes
CCNA Short Notes
Cisco
CCNA Routing and Switching
Training Notes
100-101 ICND1, 100-102 ICND2
200-120 CCNA
Andrew Crouthamel
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 2
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
About ShrikeCast and Andrew Crouthamel
About Cisco Certification and CCNA
Useful Networking Tools and Learning Resources
When do I use a Network?
What are Networks?
The History of the Internet
How the Internet is Designed
How to Communicate
Sizes of Networks
Protocols
OSI and TCP/IP Models
All About Applications
Common Protocols
Roles of the Transport Layer
TCP and UDP Protocols
Internet Protocol and IPv4
Networks and Subnets
Introduction to Routing
IPv4 Basics
IPv4 Address Types
IPv4 Subnetting
IPv6 Addressing Basics
IPv6 Unicast and Multicast
IPv6 Testing Connections
Data Link Layer Basics
Physical Layer Basics
Network Media
Topology Basics
Ethernet Basics
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
Switch Basics
IOS Device Basics
IOS Command Basics
Switch Configuration Basics
Switch Security Basics
Switch Port Security
VLAN Basics
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 3
Creating VLANs
VLAN Trunks
VLAN Security
Layer 3 Switching
Routing Basics
Routing Table Basics
Router-on-a-stick Configuration
Static Routing Basics
Static Routing Configuration
Dynamic Routing Protocols Basics
Distance Vector Routing Protocols
RIP Configuration
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)
OSPFv2 Single-Area Configuration
OSPF Multi-Area Basics
OSPF Multi-Area Configuration
EIGRP Basics
EIGRP Configuration
EIGRP Metrics and DUAL
EIGRP Tuning and Security
Access Control Lists (ACLs)
Standard IPv4 ACL Configuration
Extended IPv4 ACL Configuration
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
DHCP Configuration
Network Address Translation (NAT)
NAT Configuration
Spanning Tree Protocol (STP)
Spanning Tree Configuration
Redundancy Protocols
Link Aggregation Basics
Wireless Basics and Security
IOS Naming Scheme
IOS Licensing
WAN Basics
Serial Point-to-Point
WAN Encapsulation
PPP Configuration
Frame Relay Basics
Frame Relay Configuration
PPPoE Configuration
VPN Basics
GRE Tunnel Configuration
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 4
Syslog Basics
SNMP Basics
NetFlow Basics
Credits
○ Medium
■ Wired
■ Wireless
○ Messages
■ Segments
■ Packets
■ Frames
○ Devices
■ Switches
■ Routers
● Network symbols
● Converged Networks
■ BGP protocol
■ Commercial ISPs started around this time, using the NSFNET to route
traffic
● 1990s
○ Internet
■ April 30, 1995 the original NSFNET Backbone Service was
decommissioned, transitioning traffic to several commercial backbone
networks
● MCI
● Sprint
○ Mobility
○ Security
How to Communicate
● Parts needed for communicating
○ Source
○ Encoder
○ Transmitter
○ Medium
○ Receiver
○ Decoder
○ Destination
● Segmentation
○ Breaking up data into smaller pieces
● Multiplexing
○ Having several communications on the same medium
● Components
○ Devices
■ End devices
● Generate and receive the data
■ Intermediary devices
● Help determine where data needs to go based on addresses in
data
○ Media
■ Copper
■ Fiber
■ Radio
■ Each has its own encoding method
○ Services
■ Web (HTTP)
■ Files (FTP)
■ Video (H.264)
■ VoIP (SIP)
Sizes of Networks
● Terminology varies
● PAN (Personal Area Network)
● LAN (Local Area Network)
○ Homes
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 10
○ Businesses
○ Buildings
● MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
● WAN (Wide Area Network)
○ Connects LANs together
● Internet is a network of networks on a global scale
○ Called an Internetwork
○ ISP (Internet Service Provider)
● Intranet is a network of networks in a single organization
● NIC (Network Interface Card)
○ Adapter in a host device to connect to network
● Physical Port
○ Also known as a jack, where cable plugs into on wall
● Interface
○ Name of a NIC on an intermediary device
● Network symbols
Protocols
● Protocols are rules on how to communicate
● Format of message
● How to share information
● Error handling
● Setup and termination of sessions
● Most are ratified by organizations such as
○ IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers)
■ Usually media specifications and standards
○ IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
■ Usually protocols
■ RFC (Requests For Comments)
● Sometimes they are grouped into suites or stacks
● Examples
○ HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
■ Application Protocol
○ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)
■ Transport Protocol
○ IP (Internet Protocol)
■ Network Protocol
● Protocols work together to accomplish communications
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 11
Common Protocols
● Protocols to know
○ DNS (Domain Name System) - TCP/UDP Port 53
○ HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) - TCP Port 80
○ HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol over SSL or Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Secure) - TCP port 443
○ SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) - TCP Port 25
○ POP (Post Office Protocol) - TCP Port 110
○ Telnet - TCP Port 23
○ SSH - TCP Port 22
○ FTP (File Transfer Protocol) - TCP Ports 20 and 21, or 21 and random port
○ DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) - UDP Ports 67 and 68
○ SMB (Server Message Block)/CIFS (Common Internet File System) - TCP Port
445 or UDP Ports 137 and 138, and TCP Ports 137 and 139
○ TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol) - UDP Port 69
○ SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol - UDP Ports 161 and 162
● DNS
○ Very old protocol but one of the most important protocols in use today
○ Modern technologies such as VMware rely heavily on it
○ Resolves domain names to IP addresses
○ DNS resolution is done before data connection to server for a service is initiated
○ Required for the World Wide Web to work
○ nslookup
○ Record types
■ A (IPv4) or AAAA (for IPv6) - Generic record, device IP address
■ NS - Name server record
■ CNAME - Canonical name, also known as an alias
● Often used for web servers so multiple websites can be hosted on
the same IP
■ MX - Mail exchange record, only for E-mail servers
○ Client and servers will check their host files first, then DNS cache, only then
checking network servers
○ ipconfig /displaydns
○ ipconfig /flushdns
○ Hierarchy system
■ Root servers - Records of top-level domain servers
● Also known as the Root Hint servers
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 14
● Control on 21
● Data on 20
■ Passive - Ports 21 and random
● Control on 21
● Data on random
○ Secure version is SFTP or FTPS
● DHCP
○ Originally BOOTP
○ Allows a client to automatically get an IP address and other information
○ Messages
■ Discover
■ Offer
■ Request
■ Acknowledge
● SMB/CIFS
○ Originally SMB, now CIFS
○ Microsoft protocol
○ Linux can speak it with Samba for SMB, or CIFS natively
○ Often used for file transfers and printer sharing
○ Default file transfer protocol for Windows
○ Usually slow and considered bloated
■ FTP is almost always many times faster
● TFTP
○ Commonly used for router or switch maintenance, transferring files or
configurations to or from devices
○ TFTP32
● SNMP
○ Used for retrieving and setting values on computers, networking equipment,
anything
○ Writing values via SNMP is commonly considered insecure and a bad idea
○ Reading values via SNMP is very common on a timed interval for retrieving health
information from a device (CPU usage, memory usage, disk usage, etc.)
○ MRTG and Zenoss
Introduction to Routing
● Gateways and routing are required to communicate between networks
○ Any devices on the same network can communicate without the need for a router
● Routers read the IP addresses in the header to determine where traffic needs to go when
routing between networks
● Default gateways are the escape point for a network, each device should have only one
configured
○ ipconfig or ipconfig /all
● Routes determine who to send traffic to for a certain network
○ End devices can have static routes added
■ route print, route add, route delete
○ Intermediary devices such as routers have either static or dynamic routes in them
○ Routes have three basic parts
■ Destination network
■ Next-hop or Exit interface
■ Metric
○ Many routers have a Default Route, which is the same as a Default Gateway, also
known as the Gateway of Last Resort
■ Often shows 0.0.0.0/0 for destiantion network
○ If there is no route match and no Default Route, packets are discarded
● Routing process (for every packet)
○ Decapsulate (rip off) Layer 2
○ Read the destination IP in the Layer 3 header
○ Check routing table
○ Encapsulate Layer 2
● Routing protocols allow routers to share route information
○ They add dynamic routes into the routing table
○ Routing protocols learned in CCNA
■ RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
■ EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
■ OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
● Routes that are manually entered by an administrator are known as static routes
IPv4 Basics
● 32-bit address
● Notated in dotted decimal format
○ Four groups of 8 bits, converted to decimal, with a dot between each
○ 11000000101010000000000100000001 turns into
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 20
IPv4 Subnetting
● Used to have Classful Networking - Subnet was based on first octet and there was no
Network Address Translation (NAT), everyone used “Public IPs”.
○ Class A
■ First octet 1-127
■ /8 - 255.0.0.0
■ 128 nets, 16,777,214 hosts per net
○ Class B
■ First octet 128-191
■ /16 - 255.255.0.0
■ 16,384 nets, 65,534 hosts per net
○ Class C
■ First octet 192-223
■ /24 - 255.255.255.0
■ 2,097,150 nets, 254 hosts per net
○ Class D (multicast)
■ First octet 224-239
○ Class E (reserved)
■ First octet 240-255
● Now use classless subnetting to make smaller networks, NAT, VLSM, etc
● Good for logical or physical dividing of a network to simplify management and security
○ Access Control Lists (ACLs)
● Router (or Layer 3 switching) needed to communicate between subnets
● You have network bits and host bits in an address
● Prefix and subnet mask are same thing
○ Prefix refers to number of network bits
○ Subnet mask is dotted decimal conversion of the prefix
● Subnets are created by “borrowing” from the host bits
● Based on powers of two, so one bit borrowed, two subnets created, 2 buts, four subnets,
etc
● Parts of a subnet
○ Network address
■ All host bits set to 0
○ First host address
■ All host bits set to 0 except last host bit set to 1
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 23
● Unicast
○ Uniquely identifies an interface on an IPv6 device.
○ Global unicast
■ Globally unique, routable addresses
■ Static or DHCP
○ Link-local
■ Unique only on same subnet, not routable
■ Used to communicate on same subnet
■ Used for routing protocol communication and default gateway address
○ Loopback
■ Same as IPv4 loopback, to test the TCP/IP stack and NIC
■ Cannot be assigned to an interface
■ All zeros except last bit is 1
● ::1/128 or ::1
○ Unspecified address
■ Used as a source address when device does not yet have a permanent
address or the source is irrelevant
■ Cannot be assigned to an interface
■ All zeros
● ::/128 or ::
○ Unique local
■ Similar to IPv4 RFC 1918 addresses
■ Used for local addressing at a location
■ Not routable to the global IPv6
■ FC00::/7 to FDFF::/7
■ Not recommended by the IETF to be used like IPv4 NAT/PAT
○ IPv4 embedded
■ Used for transition from IPv4 to IPv6
● Multicast
○ Send to multiple destinations
● Anycast
○ A unicast address assigned to multiple devices
○ Packets sent to the anycast address are routed to the nearest device
● IPv6 Subnetting
○ Not done to conserve IPs but only for logical organization reasons
○ Can look cleaner since you can just count up in hexadecimal in the Subnet ID
■ 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0000::/64
■ 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0001::/64
■ 2001:0DB8:ACAD:0002::/64
○ Can also borrow from the Interface ID like in IPv4, when borrowing host bits
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 25
● Device will not use information in the RA message, but obtain all
parameters from DHCPv6
● DHCPv6
○ Similar to DHCP in IPv4
○ In the ICMPv6 RA
■ Option 1 specifies using SLAAC only
■ Option 2 specifies using SLAAC and DHCPv6
■ Option 3 specifies using DHCPv6 only
○ With SLAAC only or SLAAC with DHCPv6, the client must determine its own
Interface ID using EUI-64 or generating a random number
● EUI-64
○ Extended Unique Identifier (EUI)
○ Users the 48-bit Ethernet MAC address from the client and inserts 16 bits into the
middle to create the Interface ID.
■ 16-bits = FFFE
■ 24-bit OUI + 16-bit FFFE + 24-bit Device Identifier
● Dynamic Link-Local Addresses
○ Created using FE80::/10 prefix and the Interface ID
● Static Link-Local Addresses
○ ex. ipv6 address link-local-address 2001:db8:abcd:1::1/64
● Verifying IPv6 Configuration
○ show interface
○ show ipv6 interface brief
○ show ipv6 route
● Multicast Addresses
○ Have the prefix FF00::/8
○ Assigned multicast
■ Reserved addresses for group of devices
■ Used with specific protocols
■ FF02::1 - All-nodes multicast group
● All IPv6 devices join this group
● Acts like broadcast for IPv4
● RA messages go to this group
■ FF02::2 All-routers multicast group
● All IPv6 routers join this group
● Acts like broadcast for IPv4
● RS messages go to this group
● Solicited Node Multicast
○ Matches only the last 24 bits of the IPv6 global unicast address
○ FF02:0:0:0:0:FF00::/104 plus the last 24 bits of the IPv6 unicast address
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 27
● Testing Commands
○ Ping
■ Local loopback to test TCP/IP stack of device
● IPv4 - 127.0.0.1
● IPv6 - ::1
■ Test connectivity to other devices
● Either local (LAN) or external (WAN)
○ Traceroute
■ Uses the TTL of IPv4 and the hop limit of IPv6 to map the route a packet
will take
■ TTL/hop limit will start at 1
● First router will decrement and send a Time Exceeded
■ TTL/hop limit will then be set to 2
● First router will decrement to 1, pass it on
● Second router will decrement to 0, send a Time Exceeded
■ Process repeats until destination is reached
■ Traceroute application records this data and presents it as a printout to
the user
Network Media
● Copper Cabling
○ Transmitted as electrical pulses
○ Interference
■ Electromagnetic Interference (EMI)
● Fluorescent lights
■ Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)
● Microwaves
■ Crosstalk
● Wires picking up electrical signals of adjacent neighbors
■ Use of twisted pairs and shielding combat interference
■ Separation of wires from EMI/RFI sources
○ Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)
■ Four pairs of color-coded wires
○ Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)
■ Same as UTP but with wire mesh or foil
● One option is to have foil or wire mesh surrounding the bundle of
pairs
● Second option is to have foil or wire mesh surrounding each
twisted pair and entire bundle of pairs
○ Coaxial Cable
■ Single copper conductor in center
■ Conductor surrounded by flexible plastic insulation
■ Plastic insulation surrounded by copper mesh
■ Copper mesh surrounded by a jacket
● UTP Cabling
○ Four pairs of color-coded wires twisted together and in a flexible plastic sheath
○ Cat 5
○ Cat 5e
○ Cat 6
○ Cat 6a
○ RJ-45 connection
○ Types of UTP
■ Straight-through
● Most common, used for connecting most devices, such as host to
switch
■ Crossover
● Used to connect similar devices together, such as host to host or
switch to switch
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 33
○ IEEE Standards
■ 802.11
● WLAN technology, known as Wi-Fi, has many variants (a/b/g/n/ac)
■ 802.15
● WPAN technology, known as Bluetooth
■ 802.16
● Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX)
■ Each have their strengths and weaknesses
○ Wireless Access Points (APs)
■ Provides access for wireless devices, a pure AP does not provide DHCP,
routing, firewall, or other features.
○ Wireless NIC adapters
■ Provides wireless functionality to devices
○ Wi-Fi Standards
■ IEEE 802.11a
● 5 GHz
● 54 Mb/s
■ IEEE 802.11b
● 2.4 GHz
● 11 Mb/s
■ IEEE 802.11g
● 2.4 GHz
● 54 Mb/s
■ IEEE 802.11n
● 2.4 or 5 GHz
● 100-600 Mb/s
■ IEEE 802.11ac
● 2.4 and 5 GHz
● 250 Mb/s and 1.3 Gb/s
■ IEEE 802.11ad (WiGig)
● 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz
● 7 Gb/s
Topology Basics
● Different Data Link protocols have different topologies
● Physical Topology
○ How devices physically are connected
● Logical Topology
○ How a network transfers frames from one device to the next
● WAN Topologies
○ Point-to-Point
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 35
Ethernet Basics
● Most common LAN technology now
● Operates on Data Link layer
● Supports many speeds
○ 10 Mb/s
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 36
○ 100 Mb/s
○ 1000 Mb/s (1 Gb/s)
○ 10,000 Mb/s (10 Gb/s)
○ 40,000 Mb/s (40 Gb/s)
○ 100,000 Mb/s (100 Gb/s)
● Two sublayers
○ LLC
■ Handles communication between upper and lower layers
■ Takes IP packet and adds control information
■ Implemented in software
○ MAC
■ IEEE 802.3
■ Data encapsulation
● Frame delimiting in beginning
● Addressing with MAC address
○ 48 bits, 24 bit vendor code assigned by IEEE, 24 bit
generated by vendor “burned into” NIC
○ Must be unique
○ Formatted with dashes, colons, or decimals
● Error detection with CRC in trailer
■ Media access control
● Placement and removal of frames onto the media
■ Implemented in hardware
● DIX Ethernet standard now referred to as Ethernet II, the most common frame
● Minimum frame size is 64 bytes
● Maximum frame size is 1518 bytes
● Less than 64 bytes is a collision fragment or runt frame and is discarded
● IEEE 802.3ac extended maximum size to 1522 bytes to allow for VLANs
● Ethernet frame fields
○ Preamble
○ Start Frame Delimiter
○ Destination MAC Address
○ Source MAC Address
○ Length
○ Data
○ Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
● Uses Hexadecimal system, base 16
● Cisco uses XXXX.XXXX.XXXX, many other operating systems use XX:XX:XX:XX:XX:XX or
XX-XX-XX-XX-XX-XX
● Used on Layer 2
● Unicast address is the unique address of the destination or source NIC
● Broadcast address is all F’s
○ FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 37
Switch Basics
● Most devices now are connected to a switch instead of a hub or in-line as was the case
many years ago
● Ethernet is a logical bus topology usually deployed in a star or extended star physical
topology
● Switch types
○ Fixed
■ Cannot add new features, boards, ports, etc. Only upgradable through
software if managed
■ Unmanaged and managed versions
■ Some models are stackable with special cables, or fiber cables
○ Modular
■ Has a main chassis with board slots
■ Choice of management consoles, ports, firewall features, etc.
● Individual ports can be sometimes swapped out for different types
○ Called Switch Form-Factor Pluggable (SFP) Modules
● Operation
○ Use MAC addresses to decide what ports to send traffic to
○ Builds a MAC address table as it learns what traffic is coming from which ports
○ If no destination port is in MAC table, switch forwards the frame on all ports
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 38
● Cisco’s Internetwork Operating System (IOS) is the term for the Operating System
software installed on most Cisco products
● Stored on flash, non-volatile
● Loaded into RAM on boot
● Connecting to IOS
○ Console - Looks like an RJ-45 ethernet connection but blue
■ Bits per sec: 9600
■ Data bits: 8
■ Parity: none
■ Stop bits: 1
■ Flow control: none
○ Telnet
○ SSH
○ AUX - Older modem connection method
● Privilege modes - Different looking prompt for each
○ User executive (User EXEC)
■ Limited, basic show commands
■ Router>
○ Privileged executive (Privileged EXEC)
■ Similar to “root” on Linux, can show anything and access global
configuration mode
■ Use enable to enter mode
■ Use disable to leave mode
■ Router#
○ Global configuration mode
■ Needs do preceding commands from the executive modes, such as do
show run
■ Can access submodes for configuration of interfaces and such
■ Use configure terminal or config t to enter mode
■ Command exit takes you out of a config submode one level, end takes
you back to Privileged EXEC
■ Router(config)#
● Commands are similar to those in other OS
○ command arguments
○ show running-config
○ description ISP Connection
● You can use Tab key to auto-complete commands
○ show run<TAB> becomes show running-config
● You can use the question mark to get a list of compatible commands or arguments
○ sh? displays show
○ show? displays running-config, startup-config
● CLI will display problems with command, use of Tab and question mark help reduce
problems
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 40
running config
■ switchport port-security mac-address sticky
■ switchport port-security maximum 2
○ Port Security Violation Modes
■ Protect - Once the limit of MAC addresses is reached, unknown source
addresses are dropped until MACs are removed or limit is raised. No
violation notification
■ Restrict - Same as Protect but with violation notification
■ Shutdown - This is the default mode. Immediately shuts down a port when
an unknown MAC is seen. Violation notification
■ switchport port-security violation
○ show port-security
○ show interface - Displays err-disabled status
○ show port-security interface - Displays secure-shutdown status
● Network Time Protocol (NTP)
○ Retrieves time information from local or remote servers
○ Common to use domain controllers or other servers on a domain to ensure all are
synchronized
○ pool.ntp.org or more specific sub-pools such as us.pool.ntp.org also commonly
used
○ ntp server - Use specified server for time data
○ ntp master - Allow device to be queried for time data
○ show ntp associations - Display peers connected
○ show ntp status - Display NTP information
VLAN Basics
● Virtual LANs, or VLANs segment your network on the Layer 2 boundary
● Often used to segment based on logical business group or type of device
● ACLs can be used to limit access between VLANs improving security
● Performance is improved by reducing broadcast domains
● VLAN types
○ Data - Most common VLAN, for PCs, servers, and other data devices
○ Voice - Used for VoIP phones, often paired with a Data VLAN on an access port
for a workstation
■ Often configured with a special command, different from defining a trunk,
although operation is essentially the same
○ Management - Used for remote administration of internetwork devices
○ Default - All ports are member of VLAN 1, the default VLAN upon initialization
○ Native - On an 802.1Q trunk port, untagged traffic is put onto this VLAN, by default
this is VLAN 1
■ Each trunk link can have a different native VLAN ID
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 45
Creating VLANs
● Standard Range VLANs are numbered from 1 to 1005
○ 1002 to 1005 reserved for Token Ring and FDDI
○ VLAN 1 and 1002 to 1005 are automatically created
○ VLANs are in vlan.dat on the flash memory card
■ Must be manually deleted when resetting device to factory defaults
● Extended Range VLANs are numbered from 1006 to 4094
○ Not written to vlan.dat
○ Not learned through VTP
● VLAN Trunking Protocol (VTP) helps with VLAN management
○ Cisco proprietary
○ GARP VLAN Registration Protocol (GVRP) is the standard alternative for other
brands
● vlan <number>
○ name <name>
● interface f0/1
○ switchport mode access
○ switchport access vlan <number>
● Deleting VLANs
○ no vlan <number>
● show vlan brief
● show interfaces vlan <number>
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 46
VLAN Trunks
● VLAN Trunks allow multiple VLANs on one link
○ Otherwise each VLAN would need a separate physical link for uplinks
● interface f0/1
○ switchport mode trunk
○ switchport trunk native vlan 99
● show interfaces f0/1 switchport
● Dynamic Trunking Protocol (DTP)
○ Allows nodes to negotiate trunk status
○ Cisco proprietary
○ Considered insecure
○ Auto
■ switchport mode dynamic auto
■ Allows interface to become a trunk
■ Neighbor must be in desirable or trunk mode
■ Considered the passive mode
■ Default mode for all interface
○ Desirable
■ switchport mode dynamic desirable
■ Interface actively tries to become a trunk
■ Neighbor must be in desirable, auto, or trunk mode
■ Considered the active mode
■ Default mode on old devices
○ switchport nonegotiate
■ Prevents interface from using DTP
○ show dtp interface
● Show commands
○ show interfaces trunk
VLAN Security
● Attackers can spoof being a switch and turn their link into a trunk if it is configured for
Auto mode
○ Allows them to access other VLANs
● Double-tagging
○ Injecting a frame with two VLAN tags
○ Outer tag is same as native VLAN, inner is is victim VLAN
○ Switch reads native VLAN, sends it out to other switches
○ Second switch reads victim VLAN and floods it to destination
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 47
Layer 3 Switching
● Switches operate at Layer 2
● Layer 3 switching is another term for routing essentially, but very quickly at wire speeds
● Preferred method for traversing VLANs in networks
○ Dedicated routers are now mostly just for WAN links and specialized connections
● Cisco switches use Cisco Express Forwarding (CEF)
● Layer 3 interfaces
○ Switch Virtual Interface (SVI) - For VLANs
○ Routed Port - Physical port configured as a router port
○ Layer 3 EtherChannel - Several ports acting as one
● Configuration
○ Create a port dedicated to a single subnet
■ interface f0/1
■ no switchport
■ ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0
■ no shutdown
○ Create a VLAN interface
■ interface vlan 10
■ ip address 192.168.10.1 255.255.255.0
■ no shutdown
Routing Basics
● Routing is a process that determines the best path for traffic to take from one network to
another
● Allows communication between buildings, across great distances, between VLANs, etc.
● Routers are similar to computers, they have similar hardware, just specialized on
function
● Default gateways are used on nodes to offer a destination for unknown packets
○ Without default gateways each node would need to know the destination for
everything
● Nodes can be configured with an IP either statically or dynamically
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 48
● Routers work by reading the destination IP address of a packet and referencing the
routing table, sending the packet to the destination interface
● Steps
○ PC puts source and destination IP into packet header
○ PC looks in ARP cache for MAC of L2 destination
○ PC does an ARP request if not there
○ PC puts source and destination MAC into frame header
○ PC sends to router
○ Router reads destination MAC, matches it to the interface
○ Router reads destination IP address
○ Router looks in route table for a match
○ Router checks ARP cache for MAC of next hop destination
○ Router performs an ARP request if not in ARP cache
○ Router rebuilds frame header
○ Router sends to next hop
● Router makes decisions based on best path
○ Directly connected networks first
○ Remote networks second
○ Default gateway last
○ Dynamic routing protocols are also prioritized based on trust
■ EIGRP
■ OSPF
■ RIP
● Two paths to same network can be load balanced if cost is the same
● Multiple dynamic routing protocols can be configured and in use, different protocols have
different Administrative Distances (AD), lower is better
○ Directly connected is 0
○ Static route is 1
○ EIGRP is 90
○ OSPF is 110
○ RIP is 120
● Route table contains entries of
○ Directly connected networks
○ Remote networks
■ Static route
■ Dynamic route
● Route table entries
○ Route source
○ Destination network
○ Administrative distance
○ Metric
○ Next-hop
○ Route timestamp
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 49
○ Outgoing interface
● Directly connected interfaces must be no shutdown to show
Router-on-a-stick Configuration
● On the switch create a trunk interface
○ int fa0/1
○ switchport mode trunk
○ switchport trunk native vlan 99
● On the router create subinterfaces on the same trunk interface with the respective
subnets for the associated VLAN it will route
○ Match the subinterface number with the VLAN number to make life easy
○ int fa0/0
○ no shut
○ int fa0/0.2
○ encap dot1q 2
○ ip address 192.168.2.1 255.255.255.0
○ int fa0/0.3
○ encap dot1q 3
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 50
protocols
● They share updates of their full routing tables to each other every so many seconds
○ RIP is 30 by default
● Older protocols such as RIPv1 broadcast the updates
● Newer protocols such as RIPv2 and EIGRP use multicast
● RIP uses the Bellman-Ford algorithm
● RIP includes the following features
○ Updates sent every 30 seconds to a multicast address (224.0.0.9)
○ Hop count is used as the metric for routes
○ Hop of 15 is the maximum, when packets exceed that they drop from the network
to prevent looping floods
● IGRP and EIGRP use the Diffusing Update Algorithm (DUAL)
● EIGRP includes the following features
○ Bounded triggered updates
■ Does not send periodic updates like RIP, only when needed and only to
the neighbors that need to know
○ Hello keepalive
○ Topology table
■ Saves backup paths for failures
○ Fast convergence
■ Due to topology table, backup routes are inserted immediately when
needed
○ Layer 3 independence
■ Can support IPv4, IPv6, IPX, AppleTalk
RIP Configuration
● Configuration is rather simple
● router rip
● version 2 - Always enable unless you’re in 1990
● no auto-summary - Can often cause problems with mixed RFC 1918 networks
● network 192.168.10.0 - You define the local networks that are to be shared via RIP
● It is recommended for performance and security that passive-interface is used on
interfaces that do not connect to a router
○ By default, RIP sends updates out all interfaces that have RIP enabled (via the
network command)
● Default gateway information can be distributed with default-information originate
network
○ Used on multi-access networks
○ Highest interface priority or highest router ID or IPv4 address wins
○ Election only occurs on initial network boot
EIGRP Basics
● Released in 1992 as a Cisco proprietary protocol
● Basic functionality has now been released as an IETF standard
● Uses Diffuse Update Algorithm (DUAL)
○ Guarantees loop-free and backup paths
○ Stores all backup paths ready to use
● Establishes neighbor adjacencies like OSPF
● Reliable Transport Protocol (RTP) used to deliver EIGRP packets
○ Unique to EIGRP
○ Offers reliable and unreliable transit
■ Cannot use UDP/TCP due to protocol independence
■ Update packet is sent reliably
■ Hello packet is sent unreliably
○ Unicast and Multicast
■ 224.0.0.10
■ FF02::A
○ Updates
■ Does not send periodic updates
■ Partial - Link up or down
■ Bounded - Term for partial updates sent to only routers that need it
○ Load balancing
■ Equal or unequal cost
○ Can route many different protocols via Protocol-Dependent Modules (PDMs)
■ IPv4
■ IPv6
■ IPX
■ AppleTalk
○ Authentication supported
● Router ID
○ Used by both IPv4 and IPv6
○ Used for identification of originating router during redistribution of external routes
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 59
EIGRP Configuration
● IPv4
○ router eigrp 1
○ eigrp router-id 10.0.0.1
○ network 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255 - Can omit the wildcard mask, but then uses
classful address, I prefer being specific
○ passive-interface fa0/1 - Same as other protocols, prevent EIGRP from sending
packets out interfaces where no routers are
○ no auto-summary
○ show ip eigrp neighbors
○ show ip protocols
○ show ip route
● IPv6
○ ipv6 unicast-routing
○ int fa0/1
○ ipv6 address FE80::1 link-local
○ ipv6 router eigrp 1
○ eigrp router-id 10.0.0.1
○ passive-interface fa0/5
○ show ipv6 eigrp neighbors
○ show ipv6 protocols
○ show ipv6 route
● Default routes
○ redistribute static
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 60
● Show commands
○ IPv4
■ show ip eigrp neighbors
■ show ip route
■ show ip protocols
■ show ip interface brief
■ show ip eigrp interfaces
○ IPv6
■ show ipv6 eigrp neighbors
■ show ipv6 route
■ show ipv6 protocols
■ show ipv6 interface brief
■ show ipv6 eigrp interfaces
● IPv6
○ Named ACLs only, same as IPv4 Extended ACL
○ No wildcard masks, only prefix
○ ipv6 traffic-filter - Command used to apply to an interface
○ ipv6 access-list myaclname
○ show ipv6 interface
DHCP Configuration
● Most other networking products have you define a range to use for the IP pool, Cisco has
you define exclusions first, then it uses the rest of the subnet
● First exclude addresses and ranges you do not want in the pool
● Next configure your pool
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 65
NAT Configuration
● Static NAT
○ static (inside,outside) 4.2.2.2 192.168.1.99 netmask 255.255.255.255
○ show ip nat translations
○ show ip nat statistics
○ clear ip nat statistics
● Dynamic NAT
○ int fa0/0
○ ip nat inside
○ int fa0/1
○ ip nat outside
○ ip nat pool mypoolname 192.168.1.10 192.168.1.254 netmask 255.255.255.0
○ access-list 1 permit 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255
○ ip nat inside source list 1 pool mypoolname
○ show ip nat translations
○ show ip nat statistics
○ clear ip nat statistics
○ clear ip nat translation *
● PAT
○ ip nat pool mypoolname 192.168.1.10 192.168.1.254 netmask 255.255.255.0
○ access-list 1 permit 192.168.1.0 0.0.0.255
○ ip nat inside source list 1 pool mypoolname overload
○ show ip nat translations
○ show ip nat statistics
○ clear ip nat statistics
○ clear ip nat translation *
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 67
● Port Forwarding
○ Allows access to your internal network (or hopefully DMZ) from the public internet
or other untrusted network via one or more ports.
■ Public address is translated via a static NAT to internal address, for only
one or more define ports
○ Inside interface for LAN needs
■ ip nat inside
○ Outside interface for WAN needs
■ ip nat outside
○ You can also change the port from inside to outside
■ Useful for when running multiple similar servers off one IP, such as
webservers
○ ip nat inside source static tcp 192.168.1.99 1234 4.2.2.2 4321
● Show commands
○ show ip nat translations
○ show ip nat statistics
○ clear and debug
○ debug ip nat detailed
● Rapid PVST+
○ spanning-tree mode rapid-pvst
● Show commands
○ show cdp neighbors
○ show spanning-tree
○ show spanning-tree vlan 1
Redundancy Protocols
● End devices cannot be configured with more than one default gateway
● When that gateway fails, connectivity is lost
● STP helps deal with switching failures, but if the router handling IP traffic for a subnet
fails, connectivity still is lost
● Solution is to have hot standby devices that automatically take over for a failed device
● Variety of hardware redundancy protocols
○ Hot Standby Router Protocol (HSRP)
■ Cisco proprietary, allows for an active/backup designation
○ HSRP for IPv6
■ Cisco proprietary for IPv6, allows for an active/backup designation
○ Virtual Router Redundancy Protocol version 2 (VRRPv2)
■ Standard protocol that offers similar functionality to HSRP
○ VRRPv3
■ Same as VRRPv2 but provides IPV6 as well as IPv4, supported by
multiple vendors and is more scalable than VRRPv2
○ Gateway Load Balancing Protocol (GLBP)
■ Cisco proprietary, allows for active/backup and load balancing
○ GLBP for IPv6
■ Cisco proprietary for IPv6, allows for an active/backup designation and
load balancing
○ ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP)
■ RFC 1256, legacy protocol
● show standby - Show HSRP state
● show glbp - Show GLBP state
○ Address3
■ Optional MAC of destination such as default gateway
○ Sequence Control
■ Sequence number and fragment number
○ Address4
■ Only used in ad hoc mode
○ Payload
■ Data from application
○ FCS
■ CRC for Layer 2 error detection
● Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
○ Similar to CSMA/CD but without collision detection since that is unreliable in
wireless
○ Wifi is half-duplex
● Management frames
○ Used to connect to an AP
■ Discover
■ Authenticate
■ Associate
○ Association parameters
■ SSID - Network name
■ Password
■ Network mode - 802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ad
■ Security mode - WEP, WPA, WPA2
■ Channel settings - 11 in North America, 13 in Europe
● Discovering a network
○ Passive client - AP sends out SSID beacon, network shows on client for selection
○ Active client - AP does not send out SSID, client must be configured with
connection settings
● Security modes
○ Open - Anyone can connect
○ Shared key - Client must have the secret key
○ 802.1X - Username and password authentication checked against a local or
remote server database, often used in large businesses
● Channel management methods
○ Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
■ Spreads a signal over a larger frequency band reducing interference
■ A signal is multiplied by a known code, the receiver knows of the same
code and can reconstruct the signal
■ Used by 802.11b, cordless phones, CDMA cellular, GPS
○ Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)
■ Similar to DSSS but rapidly changes frequency channels
■ Receiving node must know which channel to listen on
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 74
● Bug fixes and feature additions to software releases are called IOS trains
● Software families may have two or more trains
● For example, 12.4 has two trains
○ Mainline - Always associated with a technology train (T)
○ Technology - Receives bug fixes from mainline as well as new features
○ 12.4 and 12.4T
● Number is composed of
○ Train number
○ Maintenance number
○ Rebuild number
○ 12.4(21a)
● Pre-v15 packages
○ IP Base - Entry-level package
○ IP Voice - VoIP features
○ Advanced Security - VPN features such as IPsec, firewall, IDS/IPS
○ Service Provider (SP) - SSH/SSL, ATM, MPLS, etc.
○ Enterprise Base - Appletalk, IPX, etc.
● 15.0 was released after 12.4
○ Improved features and hardware support
○ Consolidated features
○ Simplified numbering system
● 15.0 now has new release system
○ New releases, T trains available 2 or 3 times per year
○ Extended Maintenance (EM) releases every 16 to 20 months
○ EM releases include all features and fixes of T releases
○ EM for long term maintenance schedules, T for standard maintenance schedules
● Parts of a 12.4 image name
○ Image Name
○ Feature set
○ Run location and compression
○ Train number, maintenance release number, train identifier
○ File extension
● Parts of a 15.0 image name
○ Image Name
○ Image Designation
○ Run location and compression
○ Cisco signature
○ Major release, minor release, maintenance release, rebuild numbers
○ File extension
IOS Licensing
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 76
● With 15.0 feature sets are now included and unlocked with a license key
● Steps
○ Purchase license from Cisco
○ Use Cisco License Manager (CLM) or the Cisco License Registration Portal to
retrieve the license file
○ Apply to router with license install Location
● show version
● show license
● Evaluation license process
○ conf t
○ license accept end user agreement
○ license boot module ModuleName technology-package PackageName
○ reload
● Backup a license
○ license save flash0:
● Uninstall a license
○ license boot module ModuleName technology-package PackageName
disable
○ reload
○ license clear FeatureName
○ no license boot module ModuleName technology-package PackageName
disable
WAN Basics
● WANs are owned by service providers, organizations lease a connection
● Needed to interconnect LANs
○ Can also use the public internet with a VPN tunnel
● WANs operate on layer 1 and 2
○ Common now to get a “Metro Ethernet” connection that integrates easily with your
network
● Terms
○ Customer Premises Equipment (CPE)
■ Subscriber owns equipment or leases from provider
○ Data Communications Equipment (DCE)
■ Owned by the provider, often found in the demarc
■ Puts data on the local loop
○ Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
■ Owned by the subscriber
■ Transfers data from LAN to DCE for transfer to the WAN
○ Demarcation Point
■ Often a common closet in a building where all phone and data
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 77
○ Cellular
■ 3G/4G is now offering data rates to customers higher than previously
available in rural areas, often at a similar price to their existing dial up
connections
■ Dedicated wireless routers may be purchased to integrate cellular internet
into an existing LAN
○ VPN
■ Virtual Private Network
■ Site-to-site and remote access options
■ Many different technologies, PPTP, L2TP, IPsec, etc.
● Service provider networks
○ Synchronous Optical Networking (SONET) or Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH)
○ SONET is an American ANSI standard, SDH is a European ETSI and ITU
standard
■ Essentially the same technology
● Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM)
○ Bidirectional
○ 80 different channels/wavelengths
○ 10 Gbps per channel
○ Used in submarine cables
Serial Point-to-Point
● Common type of WAN
● Frequently used for T1 connections
● Serial means bits are one after another, sequentially, and is the preferred method for
modern technologies
○ Other technologies such as parallel printer cables transmitted many bits at once
over several wires
● Standards
○ RS-232
■ Most serial ports on a PCs
■ Both 9 and 25 pin variants
■ Used for many devices
■ Being phased out in favor of USB
○ V.35
■ Used mostly for modems and T1 routers
○ HSSI
■ Used for T3 routers and other high speed WANs
● Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
○ Allows for multiple communications to share one link
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 80
WAN Encapsulation
● Protocols
○ HDLC
■ Default encapsulation
○ PPP
■ Uses HDLC but includes security such as PAP and CHAP
■ Used for router-to-router or client-to-network connections
○ Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
■ Point-to-point protocol, replaced with PPP
○ X.25/Link Access Procedure, Balanced (LAPB)
■ Specifies connections between a DTE and DCE
■ Largely replaced with Frame Relay
○ Frame Relay
■ Uses Virtual Circuits (VCs)
■ Connects networks together via Layer 2
○ ATM
■ Discussed previously, used in service providers to transfer various
protocols
● HDLC
○ Developed by International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
○ ISO 13239
○ Defines a framing method to provide flow control and error control via
acknowledgements
○ Uses frame delimiter to mark beginning and end of each frame
○ Version implemented on Cisco products has additions that are Cisco proprietary,
allowing multi protocol support
■ If cross vendor connection is needed, PPP is suggested
● PPP
○ Should be used when connecting to a non-Cisco vendor
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 81
○ Provides
■ Framing for transporting multiple protocols
■ Link Control Protocol (LCP) for establishing the connection
■ Network Control Protocol (NCPs) for allowing multiple Layer 3 protocols
● IPv4, IPv6, AppleTalk, IPX, etc.
■ Link quality monitoring and management
■ Security through PAP and CHAP authentication
○ LCP provides
■ Packet size
■ Configuration errors
■ Link termination
■ Link failure
■ Negotiation of encapsulation formats, authentication, compression, error
detection
○ Session establishment
■ Phase 1 - Establish link and negotiate configuration
■ Phase 2 - Link quality check
■ Phase 3 - NCP negotiation for Layer 3 protocol
● Configuration
○ int fa0/1
○ encapsulation hdlc
● show interfaces serial
● show controllers
PPP Configuration
● conf t
● int s0/0/0
● encap ppp
● compress predictor
● ppp quality 80 - If quality goes under 80%, link will shutdown
● Multilink - Send traffic over multiple links to same destination
○ int multilink 1
○ ip address 10.0.0.1 255.255.255.0
○ ppp multilink
○ ppp multilink group 1
○ int s0/0/0
○ ppp multilink
○ ppp multilink group 1
● show interfaces serial
● show ppp multilink
● Authentication
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 82
○ PAP vs CHAP
■ PAP uses a username and password sent in plain text
■ CHAP uses a three way handshake with a shared secret for encryption
○ PAP configuration
■ Username and password configured below on one router, must be the
expected username and password received from the other router
■ conf t
■ username R1 password MyPassword
■ int s0/0/0
■ encap ppp
■ ppp authentication pap
■ ppp pap sent-username R2 password MyPassword
○ CHAP configuration
■ Username and password configured below on one router, must be the
hostname and password received from the other router
■ conf t
■ username R1 password MyPassword
■ int s0/0/0
■ encap ppp
■ ppp authentication chap
● Show commands
○ debug ppp
○ debug ppp packet
○ debug ppp authentication
○ show interfaces serial 0/0/0
○ show controllers
PPPoE Configuration
● conf t
● interface dialer 1
● encap ppp
● ip address negotiated
● ppp chap hostname ProviderRouter
● ppp chap password ProviderPassword
● ip mtu 1492 - Required to ensure fragmentation does not occur due to additional PPPoE
header
● dialer pool 1
● int fa0/1
● pppoe enable
● pppoe-client dial-pool-number 1
VPN Basics
● Allow for secure remote access from the road, or between two locations
○ Remote access is usually handled through VPN software on the client and either
VPN hardware or operating system as the main site
■ May be IKE/IPsec, SSL, L2TP, PPTP
○ Site-to-site is usually handled through firewall hardware, although server operating
systems can do it as well
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 85
encryption/decryption
● VoIP and video may not work well with VPNs offering high level of
encryption
○ Data Integrity
■ Two common hashing algorithms used to ensure data integrity
● MD5 - 128 bit key, starting to be considered insecure due to work
on hacking it
● SHA - SHA-1 is a 160 bit key, there are also 256, 384, and 512 bit
versions
○ Authentication
■ PSK - Most common implementation, each side has a pre-shared
key/password configured
■ RSA signature - Certificates may be shared with each side
○ Confidentiality
■ Authentication Header (AH) - Does not encrypt packet
■ Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) - Encrypts packet
● IPsec - Uses UDP 500/4500
○ Traditional method, uses client software on PC
○ Cisco offers
■ Cisco Easy VPN
● Requires Cisco VPN Client installed
● SSL - Uses TCP 443
○ Convenient since it can get around many firewalls in hotels and such
○ Client software for PCs also seem to be less buggy
○ Industry appears to be transitioning to SSL as the preferred method due to ease
of use
○ Cisco offers
■ Cisco AnyConnect Secure Mobility Client with SSL
● Requires AnyConnect client installed
■ Cisco Secure Mobility Clientless SSL VPN
● Requires a web browser
Syslog Basics
● Many systems produce log data in a standardized format
● IETF RFC 3164
● UDP 514
● Levels
○ 0 - Emergency
○ 1 - Alert
○ 2 - Critical
○ 3 - Error
○ 4 - Warning
○ 5 - Notice
○ 6 - Informational
○ 7 - Debug
● Configuration
○ conf t
○ logging 192.168.1.99 - Send syslog to server
○ logging trap 4 - Sends 0-4 level messages only
○ logging trap warning - Same as above
○ logging source-interface fa0/1 - Optional, defines which interface IP is stamped
on log messages
● Timestamps
○ conf t
○ service timestamps log datetime
● Show commands
○ show logging
SNMP Basics
● Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
● IETF RFC 1157, 1901-1908, 2273-2275
● Used to retrieve metrics and settings, as well as set settings of devices
○ Setting of configurations not often used due to security concerns, even with
SNMPv3 available now (which offers enhanced security)
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 88
● Show commands
○ show snmp
○ show snmp community
NetFlow Basics
● Provides statistics on traffic flowing through a router or Layer 3 switch
○ Source/destination, port, byte counts, etc.
● Flexible NetFlow is the latest version
○ Uses Version 9 export format
■ Template-based
○ Many commands introduced with IOS 15.1
● Netflow is unidirectional
○ Clients send/receive traffic, so one flow capture will only see one direction, one
must configure two flow captures on an interface to get both directions
● Configuration
○ conf t
○ int fa0/1
○ ip flow ingress
○ ip flow egress
○ exit
○ ip flow-export destination 192.168.1.99 2055 - Common ports are 99, 2055,
9996
○ ip flow-export version 5
● Show commands
○ show ip cache flow
○ show ip flow interface
○ show ip flow export
Credits
● Thank you to all my backers!
○ Germany
○ Greenland
○ Ireland
○ Luxembourg
○ Netherlands
○ New Zealand
○ Norway
○ Peru
○ Russian Federation
○ Singapore
○ Slovenia
○ Sweden
○ Switzerland
○ United Kingdom
○ United States
● Backers:
○ @TwirX
○ Aaron Newark
○ ACP
○ ACS
○ Adam Cornwell
○ Adam Kuyper
○ Adiel
○ Ajay Patel-UTSA Association of Information Systems
○ Alex Broque
○ Alex Gonzalez
○ Alex Wilkinson
○ Andrew Green
○ Andy Bradford
○ Andy Mc
○ Anthony Parker
○ Anthony Z Foster
○ Aref Mourtada
○ Arysta
○ Ashley
○ BT
○ B. Paggen
○ bakednoodle
○ Bart Fibrich
○ Ben Doyle
○ Ben Ellett
○ Ben Story
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 91
○ Betsy Nickel
○ BigDave
○ Bill Bradford
○ Bill Wood
○ Billy Bennett
○ Blake Johnson
○ Bob Zabaga
○ Brandon Karis
○ Brandon Pierce
○ Brendan Best @ Grey Earth
○ Brett Kuhlman
○ Callen Trail
○ Carlo M.
○ Cau5tik
○ chalberg
○ Chase Hoffman
○ Chris
○ Chris Dudek
○ Chris O'Grodnick
○ Chris Padilla
○ Chrisg Gibbs
○ Christine Oei
○ Christopher Green
○ Christopher Thomas
○ Cody Wilson
○ Compupaq
○ Computer Chip dot Biz
○ Connor Ness
○ Core Systems Technology
○ Craig Arnold
○ D Choo
○ D.Kravchuk
○ Dale Virgin
○ Damian Van Dooren
○ Dan Metzger
○ Daniel Brown
○ Daniel Hatke
○ Daniel L
○ Daniel T. Briggs
○ Darrell Stanley
○ Darth Vader
○ David L
○ David Rose
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 92
○ io Networks
○ ipSpace.net
○ J. Cyganowski
○ Jack
○ Jacob W.
○ James Gannon
○ James Geiger
○ James Godwin
○ Jamey Rush
○ Jamie MacFarlane
○ Jamie Mitchell
○ Jamie Piperberg
○ Jase
○ Jason Bob Gerschwin Samperi
○ Jason Carpenter
○ Jason Chen
○ Jason Colby
○ Jason Mills
○ Javier Umpierrez
○ Jay Johnson
○ Jerad Jackson
○ Jeremy
○ Jethro Nederhof
○ Jim Pacek
○ Joe Ficocello
○ Joe Zang
○ Joel Anderson
○ Joel Francois
○ John
○ John Bergoon
○ John Miller
○ John Shumway
○ Jon Schillinger
○ Jonathan Allen
○ Jonathan Bucud
○ Jonathan Gonzalez
○ Jonathan Hazan
○ Jonathan Tite
○ Jordan Harder
○ Jordan R. Villarreal
○ Joseph Taylor
○ Josh Connors
○ Josh Vazquez
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 94
○ Joshua Graham
○ Joshua M. Cowles
○ Joshua Michael Hublar
○ Joshua Miller
○ Joshua R. Aulik
○ Justin Clay
○ Justin Kahrs
○ Justin Los
○ Keith Gates
○ Ken Reinertson
○ Kenneth J Bass
○ Kenneth Katz
○ Kevin Clack
○ Kevin Low
○ Kevin Vo
○ Kieran Innes
○ Kirk MacArthur
○ kkfong
○ Kris Amundson
○ Kurtis
○ Kylar Grey
○ Kyle Reilly
○ Kyle Root
○ L. Nick
○ Lee Holbrook
○ Leron Culbreath
○ Lester Covax
○ Loren C Gordon
○ Louis T.
○ Luke Wallis
○ LV
○ Lynn Dixon
○ Maikel Lodewijk [NL]
○ Marc Tinnemeyer
○ Marcus Daniels
○ Marion Dominador Cravens
○ Marlon Cook
○ Marvin Bricker
○ Matt Baird
○ Matt Bloomfield
○ Matt Byrd
○ Matt Forman
○ Matt Robinson
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 95
○ Matt Tatum
○ Matthew Breckenridge
○ Matthew Swinburne
○ Matthew Wagner
○ Melissa Bernetsky
○ Michael Boutin
○ Michael Edwards
○ Michael Fletcher
○ Michael J. Biase
○ Michael Jacobson
○ Michael Kahnoski
○ MICHAEL L WALK3R
○ Michael Lycett
○ Michael Mayer
○ Michael Pena
○ Michael Richards
○ Michael Segal
○ Michael Stubbs
○ Michel Fortier
○ Miguel Carrero
○ Mikael Ljungman
○ Mike Kraus - Cisco
○ MikeIT
○ Millar Clelland
○ Mooch Page
○ Nathan Strebel
○ Nathan Thorpe
○ NETHINKS GmbH
○ Netwurx
○ Nicholas Boller
○ Nicholas Robinson-Wall
○ Nick Stadler
○ Norm M. Zastre
○ Oskar Andersson
○ Patrick McGirr
○ PatrickH
○ Paul C. Cook
○ Paul Fischer
○ Paul J. Turner
○ Pete Baldridge
○ Peter Thorne
○ Philipp Bieber
○ Rafael Bianco Nacif
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 96
○ Ray Perkins
○ Raymond Hernandez
○ Reggie L.
○ Richard Clyne
○ Richard Hiers
○ Rick Guyton
○ Riffy Divine
○ Rob Bruner
○ Rod MacPherson
○ Rolf Røsand
○ Roman Belogurov
○ Ross Parlette
○ Ross Wilson
○ Rudy Brunetti
○ Rudy Giacchetti
○ Ryan "ryanknapper" Knapper
○ Ryan Broadfoot
○ Ryan Heath
○ Ryan Holder
○ S. Bearden
○ Sam Aschwanden
○ Sam Girtman
○ Schoemaker IT
○ Scott Olson
○ Scott Reed
○ Sean R
○ ShaTT
○ Shawn Morford
○ Si B.
○ Sid McLaughlin
○ Simon Wagner
○ SJM Steffann
○ spkujis
○ Sriram
○ Sriram Sridharan
○ Stan Yamane
○ Stan Zieg
○ Stephen Bush
○ Stephen W. Chen
○ Steven Fitkin
○ Steven M. Miano
○ Steven Nuhn
○ Stewart Lewis Jr
Andrew Crouthamel Cisco CCNA Training Notes 97