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A Textbook of Practical Botany II PDF
A Textbook of Practical Botany II PDF
Practical
Botany II
TAXONOMY, ECONOMIC BOTANY, EMBRYOLOGY,
ANATOMY, ECOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BIOSTAl1Sl1CS,
CITOLOGY AND GENEl1CS
By
DR. ASHOK M. BENDRE
FORMERLY-HEAD,
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY
AND
RASTOGI
PUBLICATIONS
SHIVAJI ROAD. MEERUT-250 002: INDIA
()
Practical
Botany II
TAXONOMY, ECONOMIC BOTANY, EMBRYOLOGY,
ANATOMY, ECOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BIOSTATISTICS,
CYTOLOGY AND GENETICS
A
TEXT BOOK
OF
PRACTICAL BOTANY
VOL. II
ISBN 81-7133-877-1
ISBN No. 978-81-7133-877-1
© RESERVED
All rights reserved. No part of this book (any editIOn/reprint) may be produced.
stored in a retrieval system or transmitted In any form what so ever or by any
means electronically or mechanically or by photocopylltg. recording or otherwise
Without the prior written permissIOn of the Publisher. Infringement of
copyright IS a criminal offence.
(8-15/00119600)
Introduction to Laboratory
Preamble
Science IS a systematised study based on facts and observations. It involves curiosity, inquisitiveness and unbiased analysis. Most of
the scientific work IS done in a laboratory. It provides an opportunity to a person with scientific frame of mind to see and study
vanous aspects of an object under observation. Hence, a biology student too is obliged to attend laboratory work-out with utmost
sincerity, honesty and mqUisiUveness.
arm--~
2. Light is adjusted by turning the mirror 3. Objectives should not be ordinarily removed
towards the source of light and also by moving from the nosepiece.
the sub-stage up and down, as well as with the 4. Operating screws, condenser, iris diaphragm,
heIp of iris diaphragm. mirror and stage or stage clips should always
3. A prepared slide is placed on the stage. be handled carefully.
Object is adjusted just over the stage aperture.
4. The object is located and focussed with a Other Laboratory Provisions
low-power objective using coarse adjustment. Some other provisions available in the laboratory
5. If higher magnification is desired, nose- include staining rack, dropping bottles, slides,
piece is turned to next higher power. Fine cover glasses, watch glasses, petri dishes, beakers,
adjustment can be used freely at this stage, enamel trays, wash bottles, spirit lamp, hone, strop,
while the use of coarse adjustment by avoided. dusters, etc. Some of these are described below.
6. High power objective and subsequent higher 1. Staining rack. It is mostly made of wood to
powers are used only when object is properly hold the dropping bottles. The capacity of number
mounted under coverslip. of bottles per rack varies.
7. The object should always be observed with 2. Dropping bottle. The stains, chemicals.
both eyes open. mounting media, etc., are stored in thesc bottles.
Care. 1. Before and after the use, all the lenses This glass bottle has a narrow mouth fitted with a
and metal parts including stage should be slotted cock. Cock is provided with a beak that
cleaned. The lenses are cleaned with tissue permits the liquid to flow out in drops.
paper, muslin cloth or clean and soft 3. Slides. The size of slide is mostly 3" xl" (25
handkerchief. mm x 75 mm). h is about 1 mm thick. These are
2. Microscope is kept covered when not in use. used to mount the material under study.
Proper cases, plastic bags, bell jars or even 4. Cover glasses. The cover glasses are
a clean cloth can be used. mounted on the object when the preparation is
finally ready. These may be either square or round
shaped. The standard thickness of the coverslip is
0.17 mm.
Fixing Agents and Preservatives 3. Method. Following steps would be useful for
section cutting.
The plants or plant parts, collected fresh need to 1. Soft, thin and small materials are placed in
be immediately killed (fIxed) and subsequently pith either by piercing a hole with a needle or
pcc<;erved for a long time. by splitting it longitudinally with a blade. The
For This purpose, a few chemicals are used piths used include carrot and radish roots,
which do not cause any structural disturbance or potato tubers, etc.
distortion of the material. Carnoy's fluid, 2. A razor must be held properly to cut
Formalin-aceto-alcohol, Formalin-propiono- the section. The handle and the blade of the
alcohol, Randolph's modifIed Navashin fluid and razor should be at right angles to one another.
Bouin's fluid are some of the common agents used. The handle should remain free while the index
(See appendix for preparations).
Plants are generally fIxed immediately after
collection but these can also be fIxed after bringing
them to laboratory. The collected material must be
always kept completely immersed in preservatives.
Laboratory Techniques
[I] Section cutting
Sections of preserved material are cut in suitable
planes for histological and ecological studies.
Razor is suitable for cutting the sections in
laboratory.
1. Honing and stropping. Razor should be
sharp and free from nicks. Hence, it should be
sharpened on a hone (fme grit-stone). Oblique,
uniform and slow strokes are carefully given to the T.L.S,
razor with edge foremost on this stone. T.L.S.
After honing, uniform strokes are given on the
strop (a smooth leather belt). The leather side of
the belt is fIrst slightly oiled and then razor is R.L.S.
moved over. This should be done more frequently
than honing, to maintain razor edge in good
condition.
2. Planes. The following are a few commonly
needed planes -
In case of cylindrical organs : (e.g. ste1Jls, roots,
etc.)
Transverse. The section is cut by passing razor's
edge at right angles to the longitudinal axis.
Longitudinal The section is cut by passing
razor's edge at right angles to the transv( 'rse axis. R.L.S.
Two sections are possible in this plane:;.
(i) Radial Longitudinal section (R.L.s.) if it
passes along one of the radii.
(ii) Tangential Longitudinal section (T.L.s.) if
section is cut along one of its tangents.
In case of dorsiventral organs (e.g. leaf, thallus
of livewort, etc.), transverse section is cut. It is
known as vertical transverse section (being cut in V.T.S.
vertical plane). Fig. 4. Planes for section cutting.
Introduction to Laboratory [ 5
Following is the common method of staining. should be taken either by lignified or non-
1. The material is kept in a watch glass. A few lignified tissues. Otherwise the section should
drops of stain are added so that the material is be washed till the stain disappears from one
immersed in the stain. type of tissue).
2. The material is allowed to remain so for a few 4. If destaining is not achieved, sections are
minutes and allowed to take stain. The time washed with acid alcohol. In this case, further
required varies with materials. washing with water is necessary till traces of
3. After the stain is taken up, the excess of stain acid are removed.
is washed off in water. The washing is 5. This is followed hy transfer of sections to a
repeated till stain stops coming out. watch glass containing counter-stain (e.g.
4. In some cases, excess stain is removed by acid safranin, fast green, erythrosine). This stain
water or acid alcohol if water alone fails to acts on the tissue more rapidly than the
do so. principal stain. Therefore, section is kept in
5. The stained material is ready for mounting. this stain for shorter duration (about a minute
Fungi are stained in cotton blue as given below. or two).
(i) A drop of cotton blue (prepared in lacto- 6. Excess of stain is removed hy washing stained
phenol) is placed on a slide. sections with glycerine (15-20%). The seetion
(ii) Fungal hyphae is now placed in this drop. should distinctly hring out demarcation
(iii) The slide is run over the flame of the spirit het ween tissue system while preserving the
lamp so that the stain is warmed up. colour of the stain.
(iv) The preparation is now ready for mounting. 7. The section is now ready for mounting.
3. Combinations. Commonly two or more (b) For permanent preparations. In certain cases
stains are employed wherever tissue differentiation preparations need to he stored permanently as a
is found. Combination of acidic and basic dyes of future record. The method of preparation followed
contrasting colours is of general use. This permits is descrihed below.
the distinction of woody tissue from non-woody 1. The section is first stained with principal stain
tissue. The following few combinations are (aqueous hematoxylin, safranin or crystal
commonly recommended- violet).
1. hematoxylin and safranin, 2. The section is then washed with water till no
2. safranin and fast green, more stain dissolves and water remains
3. safranin and aniline blue, colourless.
4. safranin and crystal violet and 3. Section is passed through a graded series of
5. crystal violet and erythrosine. alcohol for dehydration. A watch glass is filled
4. Staining procedures. There are two types of with requisite amount of alcohol, (beginning
preparations - semi-permanent and permanent. with 30% alcohol) and the section is trans-
The procedures differ in both the cases. These are ferred to it. This watch glass should always be
given below. covered with another larger one. In order not
(a) For semi-permanent and temporary to disturb the section, used alcohol is removed
preparations. Certain preparations are made for by glass dropper. All the 30% alcohol is
temporary use. The material is studied and the replaced with 50% alcohol. This procedure is
slide is then discarded. The method for staining repeated till 70% of alcohol grade is reached.
them is given below. 4. At this stage, counterstain is employed (e.g.
1. The selected sections are transferred from safranin, fast green or erythrosine prepared in
watch glass containing water to another watch 80'Yr) or 90% alochol).
glass containing principal stain (e.g. hema- 5. This stain acts quickly and as such section is
toxylin, safranin or crystal violet). washed immediately after the requisite time is
2. The sections are allowed to remain in the stain over.
for sometime (for about 4-5 minutes). 6. Destaining is done by washing sections with
3. Excess amount of stain is removed by washing 90% or 100% alcohol.
the sections repeatedly with water. (This can 7. The section is now transferred to absolute
he seen under the microscope. The stain alcohol to complete the dehydration.
Introduction to Laboratory [7 .
8. Clearing now begins with 25% of xylol (25 cc Stam wIth safranm Stam wIth fast green/
~ erythrosine
of xYlol and 75 cc of absolute alcohol). The Destam wIth 70% alcohol ~
sections are gradually passed through xylol ~ Destain WIth 90% alcohol
series of 25%, 50%, 70%, 90% and finally 90% alcohol ~
transferred to pure xylol. If dehydration is not ~ Absolute alcohol
AhMllute alcohol ~
complete, pure xylol turns white or turbid. At
t Clearing or de-alcoholIzmg
ths stage section should be passed through Clear with 25% xylol with 25% xylol
reverse series. ~ ~
9. Pure xylol is the last stage of clearing. Section 50% xylol 50% xylol
~ ~
is now ready for mounting. 70% xylol 70% xylol
10. Mounting is done in Canada balsam. ~ ~
90% xylol 90% xylol
Specific schemes for staining combinations ~ ~
(for temporary and semi-permanent preparations) Pure xylol Pure xylol
~ ~
1. Hematoxylin & 2. Safranin & Mount In Canada balsam. Mount In Canada balsam.
~
safranin
___________________ ~
fast green or aniline blue I
______________________ L ______________________ ~ __________________ ~
3. Pressing. The collecting sheets should be 3. The specimcn is placed on a herbarium sheet
transferred to a heavy laboratory press. It must be and small strips of gummed tape or cellulose
remembered that specimen would acquire the tape are pasted at suitable places, so that most
same shape, as on collecting sheet, after pressing. of the part remains loose.
The press is securely tightened. It may also be After mounting the specimen, a label is pasted
equally useful if field press is kept under heavy in the right hand lower corner of the sheet. This
weight. The press should be placed in a warm, carrie~ information regarding botanical name of
well-aired place to dry. the plant, common name, date, collector's name,
After 24 hours, press is taken out and opened. place of collection, etc.
The old newspapers and blotting sheets are 5. Arrangement of sheets. The sheets, are
replaced by new unused ones. At least such 3-4 finally arranged in accordance with standard
changes are given at an interval of 2-3 days. An classification (preferably Bentham and Hooker's
average specimen takes about a week for complete for Angiosperms or the most accepted ones for
drying. Sometimes to hasten the process of drying, other groups of plants). The sheets are arranged
plant press may be placed near the source of heat. into groups according to species, genera, families,
4. Mounting. The specimen are ready for classes, orders, series and sub - divisions, etc. Each
mounting once they are completely dry. The group is placed in a separate envelope, slightly
standard size of the sheet is 16.5 x 11.5 inches. larger than the herbarium sheets (e.g. 17 x 12 or
However, 16 x 10 inches size also has been used. 17 x 11 inches). Each of such envelopes must be
The paper should be of good weight and not thin labelled and a proper index be written or pasted
and flexible. The quality should be so, that it does over it.
not turn yellow even with a considerable lapse of 6. Care of sheets. Herbarium sheets are often
time. attacked by museum pests, fungi, etc. To guard
, To mount, one of the following methods would against them, specimen are fumed with carbon
be found convenient - bisulphide, 3-4 times a year. Mounted specimen
1. The gum is spread on a glass plate and may also be treated with mercuric bichloride or
specimen is laid on it. As soon as all the parts copper sulphate. To prevent them from attack,
come in contact with gum, it is lifted and then powdered naphthalene balls or gamaxene powder
placed in a position on a mounting sheet. be also spread from time to time. This ensures
2. The specimen is inverted and painted with durability and long life of the herbarium sheet.
gum by a brush and then transferred to a
mounting sheet.
The Method of Studying Angiospermic Plant
There are two major parts of the study of an angiospermic plant. These are
(1) The list of characters of the plant, its classification and identification and
(2) drawing the diagrams of plant, flower and specific parts of flower.
The characters of the plant are written in a serial order on a page of practical record. Floral formula is also
written alongwith the description. After the description, classfication based on these characters is drawn and
the plant is identified upto its family.
Another page is generally used to draw a complete plant, longitudinal section of a flower, androecium or
a stamen, transverse section of ovary and floral diagram.
This chapter is written to inform the students about these essentials. These are given under following
headings.
I. Serial list of characters used to describe plants.
II. Alternative terms and illustrated terminology.
III. Floral formula
IV. Classification and identification
V. The diagrams
VI. The floral diagram.
I. Serial List of Characters Used to Describe Plants
Angiospermic plants are described by a special [III] Stipules and thier types ......
method. Only technical terms are used for their [IV] 'JYpe of leaf ......
description. There are several alternative terms for [V] Leaf attachment ......
every character of an organ. Of these, only one [VI] Leaf shape .... ..
appropriate term is chosen and then written in a [VII] Leaf margin .... ..
place meant for it in a particular series of terms. [VIII] Leaf apex .... ..
These terms and their serial are given under II. [IX] Leaf surface .... ..
Alternative Terms and Illustrated Terminology. [X] Venation ......
Followings are the terms used to describe plants. [XI] Texture of leaf ......
1. Habit [XII] Other special characters (if any) ......
2. Root S. Inflorescence
3. Stem 'JYpe ......
[I] Habit ...... 6. Flower
[II] 'JYpe of stem .... .. [I] Bracts and bracteoles .... ..
[III] External shape .... .. [II] Attachment of flower .... ..
[IV] Branching ...... [III] Presence of floral whorls ......
[V] Interior .... .. [IV] Symmetry ......
[VI] Surface .... .. [V] Presence of reproductive whorls ......
[VII] Colour of stem .... .. [VI] Number of floral parts ......
[VIII] Other character:s .... .. [VII] Position of floral organs on thalamus ......
4. Leaf [VIII] Arrangement'of floral organs ......
[I] Bearing of leaf ...... [IX] Colour ......
[II] Phyllotaxy ...... [X] Other special characters (if any) ......
The Method of Studying Angiospermic Plant [13
aerial roots
TOTAL PARTIAL
EPIPHYTE PARASITE PARASITE SAPROPHYTE INSECTIVOROUS PLANT
2. ROOT
Root. A part of the plant axis that mostly grows
towards the soil and is concerned with absorption of
water and minerals.
Alternative Terms
Tap/Adventitious-if adventitious then type of
adventitious root. B
A
Meaning of Alternative Terms Fig. 2. Types of roots. A. Tap root, B. Adventitious root.
1. Tap. A stout, tapering main root arising from
the radicle and from which arise smaller lateral Meaning of Alternative Terms
branches e.g., Moms (Fig. 2A). 1. Herbaceous. A term referring to any non-
2. Adventitious. Roots that grow from any part woody plant; e.g., Fumaria, Rammcllius.
of the body other than the radicle; e.g., Sugarcane, 2. Woody. Trees and shrubs in which increase in
Bl)'ophyllul1l (Fig.2B). diameter of stems and roots continues from year to
year; e.g., Ballhillia, Melia.
3. STEM
Stem. Main axis of the plant; leaf and flower [II] TYpes of Stem
bearing as distinguished from root bearing axis. Alternative Thrms
[I] Habit Acrial!U ndcrground/Spccialised
1. If aerial- erect/weak
Alternative Terms (a) if erect then - caudex / culm I scape I
Herbaceous/ Woody excurrent / deliquescent
The Method of Studying Angiospermic Plant [ 15
(b) if weak then - (i) trailing e.g. prostrate/ Meaning of Alternative Terms
decumbent / diffuse. 1. Aerial. Which remains above ground in air;
(ii) creeping e.g. runner/stolon/ offset/sucker e.g., Sesbailia, Abutilon, Ipomoea.
(iii) climbing e.g. rootlet climber/hook climber/ (aJ Erect. A rigid and strong stem holding itself in an
tendril climber/leaf climber/ twiner/ liana. upright position; e.g., Sesbania. These are of
2. If underground - rhizome/tuber(bulb/corm. following 5 types.
3. If specialised - phylloclade / cladode. (i) Caudex. An unbranched, stout, cylindrical
stem, marked with scars of fallen leaves;
e.g., palms.
PROSTRATE DIFFUSE
TRAILING STEMS
'1
CREEPING STEMS
i
CLIMBING STEMS
Fig. 3. Weak aerial stems.
16 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
(ii) Culm. A jointed stem with solid nodes and (C) Offset. A horizontal, short, more or less
hollow internodes; e.g., Bamboo, Wheat. thickened, prostrate branch, producing at
(iii) Scape. A leafless, usually ur.~ranched the apex a tuft of leaves above and a
flowering shoot produced by an underground cluster of small roots below; e.g., Pistia,
stem; e.g., Onion, Canna, Thberose. Salvinia, Eichhomia, (Fig. 3).
(iv) Excurrent. When the main axis continues (D) Sucker. A creeping stem developing from
growth and the lateral branches develop the underground part of the stem but
regularly giving a conical appearance to the growing obliquely upwards and directly
tree; e.g., Polyalthia longifolia, Casuarina. giving rise to a leafy shoot or a new plant;
(v) Deliquescent. When the main axis in growth is e.g., Chrysanthemum, Mentha piperita
subordinated by more vigorously growing (Peppermint) (Fig. 3).
lateral branches giving a rounded or (iii) Climbing. A weak stem attaching itself to any
spreading appearance to the tree; e.g., neighbouring object by some special
Mango, Teak, Gold Mohur, etc. struct~res and then climbing it. These are of
(b) Weak. A stem which is not strong enough to keep following six types.
itself in an upright positon; e.g., Cuscuta. These (A) Rootlet climber. A stem climbing by its
are (i) trailing, (ii) creeping and (iii) climbing. roots given off from its nodes; e.g., Pothos,
(i) Trailing. A weak stem spreading on the Ivy (Fig. 3).
ground; without rooting at the nodes. It is of (B) Hook Climber. A weak stem climbing by
following 3 types. the help of recurved thorns e.g.,
(A) Prostrate (Procumbent). A trailing Bougainvillea, or hook; e.g., Artabotrys or
stem lying flat on the ground; e.g., prickles; e.g., climbing rose.
Portulaca, Basel/a, (Fig. 3). (C) Tendril climber. A weak stem climbing by
(B) Decumbent. Lying on the ground, but its slender, leafless, spirally-coiled
with the apex ascending e.g., Tridax, structures known as tendrils; e.g.,
Lindenbergia, (Fig. 3). Lathyrns, Passiflora, Cucurbita (Fig. 3).
(C) Diffuse. A trailing stem with many (D) Leaf climber. A weak stem climbing by its
spreading branches; e.g., Coronopus, petioles e.g., Clematis or leaf tips e.g.,
Boerhaavia, (Fig. 3). Gloriosa (Fig. 3).
(ii) Creeping. A weak stem creeping on the ground, (E) Twiner. A long, slender and branched
but rooting at the nodes. These are of 4 types. stem, which climbs by twining its body
(A) Runner. A slender, elongated, prostrate, round the support ; e.g., cuscuta Clitoria
aerial branch with long internodes, tematea, (Fig.3).
creeping on the ground and rooting at the (F) Lianes. A long woody perennial twiner;
nodes, e.g. , O'Calis, Hydrocotyle asiatica, e.g., Hiptage, Camel's foot climber.
grasses (Fig. 3). 2. Underground. A stem lying below the ground
(B) Stolon. A slender, elongated, horizontal and serving for food storage and perennation; e.g.,
stem, at or below the surface of the Potato. These are of four types.
ground that gives rise to a new plant at its
tip; e.s., Dracaena, Colocasia, Tecoma
grandifiora (Fig. 3).
...."....-.-:-eye
Alternative Terms
CylindricaV Angular- if angular then number of
angles.
SOLID FISTULAR
Meaning of Alternative Terms ~--------~v~----------~
INTERIORS
1. Cylindrical. A stem which is circular in a
Fig. 6. Stem shapes and interiors.
transverse section; e.g., Lemon (Fig. 6).
2. Angular. A stem which shows many lateral
Meaning of Alternative Terms
angles in a transverse section; e.g., Asparagus,
Coriandrnm (Fig. 6). 1. Solid. A stem having a filled interior; e.g.,
Lemon (Fig. 6).
[IV] Branching 2. Fistular. A stem having a hollow interior; e.g.,
Bamboo, Wheat (Fig. 6).
Alternative Terms
BranchedllInbranched [VI] Surface
Meaning of Alternative Terms Alternative Terms
1. Branched. A stem with many lateral shoo .s; Glabrousl Hairy
e.g., Ranunculus.
2. Unbranched. A stem without lateral shoots; Meaning of Alternative Terms
e.g., Palms. 1. Glabrous. Not hairy, e.g., LemaR,
2. Hairy. Covered with hairs; e.g., C.alotropis:.
[V] Interior
[VII] Colour of the stem
Alternative Terms
Solidi Fistular [VIII] Any other Character (H-1S)
18 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
CAULINE
Fig. 7. Leaf and its parts. CAULINE AND RAMAL RADICAL
(b) 1/3 or three-ranked. Fourth leaf stands over the (b) Superposed. A pair of leaves that stands directly
first and ther~ is one spiral between the two over a pair in the same plane; e.g., Guava,
leaves; e.g. Cyperns rotundus (Fig. 9). Quisquaiis, Carissa (Fig. 9).
(c) 2/5 or five-ranked. Sixth leaf stands over the first 3. Whorled. More than two leaves at each node
and there are two spirals between the two leaves; arranged in a circle or whorl; e.g., Alstonia (Fig. 9).
e.g. China rose. This is the most common type of
alternate phyllotaxy (Fig. 9). [III] Stipules and their '!ypes
(d) 3/8 or eight-ranked. Ninth leaf stands over the Stipule. An appendage on both the sides of basal
first and there are three spirals between the two part of a leaf.
leaves; e.g., Papaya. StipeJ. Stipule-like appendage at the base of
2. Opposite. Term applied to leaves or buds leaflets of a compound leaf.
occurring in pairs at a node; e.g., Ixora. Alternative Terms
(a) ·Decussate. A pair of leaves that stands at right Exstipulate/Stipulate
angle to the next upper or lower pair; e.g., If stipulate then type of stipules-Free lateral /
Caiotropis, Mussaenda, Tabemaemontana (Fig. 9). Scaly /Adnate/Interpetiolar/ Intrapetiolar / Ochreate /
/~ll ~
~4;~'~~'-~"~;"~
I/
stipule "
~ .• Ii '" '
~ stipule
axillary bud
PALMATELY PINNATELY
BRANCH SIMPLE LEAF COMPOUND LEAF COMPOUND LEAF
Fig. 11. Branch and types of leaves. (Note the position of axillary bud in each case).
The Method of Studying Angiospermic Plant [ 21
(iv) Quadrifoliate. Four leaflets are articulated to (iii) Tripinnate. A thrice pinnate compound leaf
the petiole; e.g., Paris quadrifoUa, Marsilea i.e., the secondary axes produce the tertiary
(Fig. 12). axes which bear the leaflets; e.g., Moringa
(v) MultifoUate (Digitate). Five or more leaflets (Fig. 13).
are articulated to the petiole and spreading (iv) Decompound. A compound leaf which is
like fmgers from the palm; e.g., Cleome more than thrice pinnate; e.g., Coriandrnm
(= Gynandropsis), Bombax (Fig. 12). (Fig. 13).
(b) Pinnately Compound. A compound leaf with the [V] Leaf Attachment
leaflets arranged along {he sides of common axis, Alternative Terms
the rachis; e.g., Tamarind (Fig. 11 & 13). SessilelPetiolate
(i) Unipinnate. A pinnately compound leaf 1. If sessile then - Decurrent/ Auriculate/
bearing the leaflets directly on the rachis; e.g., AmplexicauVSemi- amplexicauVConnatelPerfoliate.
Cassia (Fig. 13). 2. If petiolate then the petiole may be
(A) Paripinnate. A unipinnate leaf with even Filiform/Terete/Striate/Grooved/ Flattened.
number of leaflets e.g., Tamarind, Cassia If leaves are cmpound then find out if petiolulate.
sp. (Fig. 13).
(B) Imparipinnate. A unipinnate leaf with Meaning of Alternative Terms
odd number of leaflets, e.g., Rose, Melia 1. Sessile. A leaf without stalk, e.g., Dianthus.
(Fig. 13). (a) Decurrent. A sessile leaf with a winged leaf base
(ii) Bipinnate. A twice pinnate compound leaf and the wing extending down the stem so that
i.e. , the midrib produces secondary axes on latter also seems to be winged; e.g., Laggera
which the leaflets are borne; e.g., Acacia, pterodonta (Fig. 14).
Mimosa plldica (Fig. 13).
22 } Practical Botany: Vol 2
?HYLLODE
DECURRENT
Fig. 14. Types of sessue leaves. Fig. 15. Phyllode.
(b) Auriculate. A' sessile leaf whose basal lobes Meaning of Alternative Terms
partially enclose the stem; e.g., Ca/otropis (F'Ig.14). 1. Linear. Long and norrow, the sides parallel or
(c) AmplexicauL A sessile leaf whose basal lobes nearly so; e.g., blades' of most grasses (Fig. 16).
completely enclose the stem; e.g., Sonchus 2. Lanceolate. Lance-shaped, much longer than
(Fig. 14). broad, widening above the base and tapering to the
(d) Semi-amplexicaul. A sessile leaf whose basal apex; e.g., Nerium (Fig. 16).
lobes incompletely enclose the stem; e.g., 3. Oblanceo!ate. Opposite of lanceolate; a leaf
Ranunculus (Fig. 14). broader at the distal third than at the middle and
(e) Connate.IWo sessile opposite leaves meeting tapering toward the base; e.g., Gnaphalium (Fig. 16).
each other across the stem and fusing together; 4. Rotund. (Orbicular). A leaf blade circular in
e.g., Loniceraflava (Fig. 14). outline; e.g., Garden nasturtium, water-lily (Fig. 16).
(f) Perfo1iate. A sessile leaf whose basal lobes meet 5. Elliptical. Oval in outline narrowed to
across the stem and fuse together so that the rounded ends and widest at or about the middle; e.g.,
latter seems to pass through the leaf blade; e.g., Guava (Fig. 16).
Aloe per/oliata (Fig. 14). 6. Ovate. With an outline like that of hen's egg;
2. Petiolate. A stalked leaf; e.g., China rose. i.e. broader at the base than at the apex; e.g., China
(a) Filiform. A long and slender petiole; e.g., rose (Fig. 16).
Ricinus. 7. Obovate. The reverse of ovate, the apical half
(b) Terete. A cylindrical petiole being circular in broader than the basal; e.g., Cassia obtllsifolia leaflet
cross section; e.g., Ipomoea. (Fig. 16).
(c) Striate. A petiole marked with longitudinal lines; 8. Spathulate. Spoon-shaped i.e., broad and
e.g., Ficus. round at the top and narrow towards the base; e.g.,
(d) Grooved. A petiole provided with a long furrow. Calendula, Mants japoniclls (Fig. 16).
(e) Phyllode. A sickle-shaped petiole flattened like a 9. Oblique. Slanting i.e., the two halves of the leaf
leaf; e.g., Acacia auriculifonnis. are une'Lual; e.g., Leaflets of Margosa (Fig. 16).
10. Oblong. Longer than broad and with the
[VI] Leaf Shapes margin running more or less parallel up to its length;
Alternative Terms e.g., Banana (Fig. 16).
LinearlLanceolate/OblanceolatelRotund 11. Reniform. Kidney-shaped; e.g., Centella
(orbicular) / Elliptical (oval) / Ovate / Obovate / asiatica (Fig. 16).
Spathulate / Oblique / Oblong / Reniform / Cordate/ 12. Cordate. Heart-shaped; with a sinus and
Sagittate/ Hastate / Lyrate / Acicular / Cuneate / rounded lobes at the base and ovate in general
Falcate / Lorate / Runcinate / Deltoid / Rhombate. outl\ne; e.g., Betel (Fig. 16).
The Method of Studying Angiospennic Plant [ 23
linear
ovate
Ian ceo late oblanceolate
13. Sagittate. Like an arrowhead i.e. triangular 20. Runcinate. Coarsely serrate to sharply
with the basal lobes pointing downward or concavely incised with the teeth pointing toward the base; e.g.,
toward the stalk; e.g., Sagittaria sagittifolia, Arum Poppy (Fig. 16).
(Fig. 16). 21. Deltoid. Delta-like; e.g., Abutilon (Fig. 16).
14. Hastate. Like an arrowhead in form; but the 22. Rhombate. Shaped like a rhombus (Fig. 16).
basal lobes directed outward; e.g., Rumex hastatus,
1jJphonium (Fig. 16). [VII] Leaf Margins
15. Lyrate. Like a lyre in form i.e. pinnatifid but Alternative Terms
with an enlarged terminal lobe and smaller lower Entire / Undulate / Crenate / Serrate / Serrulate/
lobes; e.g., Mustard (Fig. 16). Biserrate / DentateIDenticulate/ Incised/ Lacerate/
16. Acicular. Needle-shaped i.e., long, narrow Laciniate / Lobed / Cleft / Parted / Pinatifid /
and cylindrical; e.g., Pine, Onion (Fig. 16). Pectinate/ Palmate/ Palmatifid/ Pedate/
17. Cuneate. A wedge-shped leafi.e., triangular Crispate/ Ciliate/ Spinous.
with the narrow end at point of attachment; e.g.,
Oxalis corymbosa (Fig. 16). Meaning of Alternative Terms
18. Falcate. Sickle-shaped; e.g., Eucalyptus 1. Entire. An even and smooth leaf margin; e.g.,
(Fig. 16). Madar, Mango, etc. (Fig. 17A).
19. Lorate. Strap-shaped; e.g., Vallisneria 2. Udulate or Sinuate. Wavy (up and down and
(Fig. 16). not in and out); e.g., Polyalthia (Fig 17 B)
24 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Fig. 17. Leaf margins. A. Entire; B. Undulate; C. Crenate; D. Serrate; E. Serrulate; F. Biserrate; G. Dentate; H. Denticulate; I. Incised;
J. Lacerate; K. Laciniate; L Lobed; M. Cleft; N. Parted; O. Pinnatifid: P. Pectinate; Q. Palmate: R. Pedate; S. Crispate;
T. Ciliate; U. Spinous.
3. Crenate. Shallowly round toothed; e.g., 9. Incised. Cut irregularly, more or less deeply
Bryophyl/um,Hydrocotyle (Fig. 17 C). and sharply; and intermediate condition between
4. Serrate. Margin cut like the teeth 'of a saw tooth and lobes, (Fig. 171).
and the teeth directed upward, e.g., China rose 10. Lacerate. Torn;irregularly cleft or cut, as in
(Fig. 1707. many genera of Ranunculaceae, (Fig. 17J).
S. Serrulate. Minutely serrate; e.g., Prnnus 11. Laciniate. Cut into narrow pointed lobes,
persica (Fig.17 E). (Fig. 17K).
6. Biserrate. Doubly serrate, each tooth serrated 12. Lobed. Margin divided into many lobes; e:g.,
again (Fig. 17 F). Ranunculus, (Fig. 17L).
7. Dentate. With sharp spreading, rather coarse 13. Cleft. Divided in or about the middle into
indentations or teeth that are perpendicular to the divisions, as palmately or pinnately cleft leaf; e.g.,
margin; e.g., Melon, (Fig. 17G). many ferns (Fig. 17 M).
8. Denticulate. Minutely dentate; e.g., Coccinia 14. Parted. Cut not quite to the base (Fig. 17 N).
cordifolia, Luffa cylindrica, (Fig. 17H).
The Method of Studying Angiospennic Plant [ 25
OBTUSE ARISTATE
~I'V'
\\~)
~\il~
RETUSE EMARGINATE APICULATE
Fig. 18. Leaf apices.
15. Pinnatifid. Cleft or parted in a pinnate way; 5. Truncate. Appearing as if cut off at the end;
e.g., Asplenium altemans (Fig. 17 0). e.g., Caryota llrens.
16. Pectinate. Comb-like or pinnated with very 6. Aristate. Bearing a stiff bristle-like awn,
close narrow divisions (Fig. 17 P). tapered to a very narrow, much elongated apex
17. Palmate. Lobed or divided into a palm-like (Fig.18).
fashion; e.g., Castor (Fig. 17 Q). 7. Retuse. An opbtuse or truncate apex furnished
18. Palmatifid. Cut about half-way down in a with a shallow notch; e.g., Oxalis corymbosa (Fig. 18).
palmate form; e.g, Castor. 8. Emarginate. An apex provided with a deep
19. Pedate. A palmately lobed or divided leaf of notch; e.g., Bauhinia (Fig. 18).
which the two side lobes are again divided or cleft 9. Mucronate. A rounded apex terminated
(Fig. 17 R). abruplty in a short point; e.g., Leaflet of Cassia
20. Crispate. Curled, extremely undulate; e.g., obtusifolia (Fig. 18).
Tagetis (Fig. 17 S). 10. Cirrhose. Tendrillar and coiled; e.g., Gloriosa
21. Ciliate. Bearing hairs on the margin; e.g., (Fig. 18).
Cleome viscosa, Peristrophe (Fig.17 T). 11. Apiculate. Terminated by a short, sharp
22. Spinous. Provided with spines; e.g., Argemone flexible point; e.g., Dalbergia (Fig. 18).
(Fig. 17 U).
[IX] Leaf Surfaces
[VIII] Leaf Apices
Alternative Terms
Alternative Terms Glabrous/ Rough/ Glutinous/ Glaucous/ Spiny/
Obtuse/ Acute/ Acuminate/ Caudate/ Cuspidate/ Hairy-if hairy whether Pubescent/ Puberulous
Truncate / Aristate / Retuse / Emarginate / Tomentose/ Villous/ Velutinous/ Wooly/ Pilose/
Mucronate/ Cirrhose/ Apiculate. Scabrous/ Hispid/ Stellate/ Hirsute/ Strigose/
Sericeous.
Meaning of Alternative Terms
1. Obtuse. Blunt or rounded; e.g., Banyan Meaning of Alternative Terms
(Fig. 18). 1. Glabrous. A smooth surface free from hairs
2. Acute. Sharp, ending in a point forming an or outgrowths of any kind e.g., China rose.
acute angle; e.g., China rose (Fig. 18). 2. Rough. A surface which is somewhat harsh to
3. Acuminate (Caudate). An apex drawn out touch; e.g., Petrea.
into a long slender tail, e.g., Ficus religiosa (Fig. 18). 3. Glutinous. A surface covered with a sticky
4. Cuspidate. A leaf ending in a long, rigid, spiny exudation; e.g., Tobacco.
point, e.g., Pineapple and Date palm (Fig. 18). 4.. Glaucous. Green and shining; c.!:., Clint I' .
26 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
J'~:/~~:(;''!O>.
/,.::- --.r .,-
-~~.;
""'~~~"'"
~~~"-'<
:::(y/-,
--~~~
Fig. 19. Kinds of haIrs (surface view at left, sectlOnal view at rigtht). A. Puberulous; B. Tomentose; C. Villous; D. Velutmous; E. Wooly;
F. Pilose; G. Scabrous; H. Hispid; I. Stellate; J. HIrsute; K. Stngose; 1,. Sericeous.
convergent divergent
UNICOSTATE MULTICOSTATE
convergent divergent
UNICOSTATE MULTICOSTATE
2. Parallel. The pattern of venation in which the (i) Convergent. Many principal veins arising
veins run parallel to each other. In this type there are from the base of the leafblade converage
no veinlets and no network is formed (Fig. 21). towards its apex or less parallel manner; e.g.,
(a) Unicostate. Having only one principal vein that Grasses such as Wheat, Bamboo (Fig.21).
gives off many lateral veins which proceed (ii) Divergent. Many principal veins arising from
toward the margin or apex of leaf blade in a more the tip of the petiole, diverge towards the
or less parallel manner; e.g., Canna, Banana margin of leaf blade in a more or less parallel
(Fig. 21). manner; e.g., Fan palms (Fig. 21).
(b) Multicostate. Having many principal veins arising
from the tip of the petiole and proceeding
upwards or outwards (Fig. 21).
28 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Meaning of Alternative Terms have much longer pedicels than the upper so that
1. Racemose. An inflorescence where the main flowers are brought more or less to the same level
axis does not terminate in a flower, but it continues e.g., Candytuft (Fig. 22).
to grow and gives off flowers laterally in acropetal (j) Compound corymb. A branched corymb; e.g.,
succession. Pyms !onninalis.
(a) Raceme. A simple, elongated, indeterminate (k) Umbel. An inflorescence in which the flower
inflorescence with stalked flowers, e.g., Radish, stalks of more or less equal length, arise from the
Mustard, Crotalaria, Delphinium, etc. (Fig. 22). same point, like the ribs of an umbrella at the
(b) Panicle. When axis of raceme is branched, it is base of flower stalks, there is whorl of bracts
called a panicle; e.g., Gold Mohur (Fig. 23). forming an involucre; e.g., Hydrocotyle asiatica
(c) Spike. Usually unbranched, elongated, simple, (Fig. 22).
indeterminate inflorescence whose flowers are (I) Compound umbel. An umbel with branched axis
sessile; e.g., Adhatoda, Piper longllm (Fig. 22). and the branches bearing the flowers. These are
(d) Compound spike. Axis is branched and the known as umbellules; e.g., Coriander (Fig. 23).
flowers are arranged in a spike-like manner on (m) Capitate. When a large number of sessile flowers
the branches; e.g., Amaranthus, (Fig. 23). arise from a suppressed axis forming a globose
(e) Strobile. 1YJ>e of spike in which each flower is structure as in Acacia, Mimosa. It differs from
borne in the axil of a persistent membranous capitulum in the absence of a receptacle.
bract; e.g., Humulus lupulllS. (n) Capitulum. A dense inflorescence comprising an
(f) Spikelet. The unit of the compound inflorescence aggregation of usually sessile flowers arranged
of the grasses; composed of a cluster of one or on a c'onvex receptacle formed by the axis, and
more flowers and their associated bracts; e.g., having one or more whorls of bracts forming
Grasses (Fig. 22). involucre; e.g., Compositae family (Fig. 22).
(g) Catkin. A pendant spike of unisexual flowers 2. Cymose. An inflorescence where the growth
found only in woody plants; e.g., Moms, Salix, of the main axis is soon checked by the development
(Fig. 22). of a flower its apex, and the lateral axix which
(h) Spadix. A thick or fleshy spike subtended or develops below the terminal flower also ends in a
surrounded by a spathe; e.g., Maize or Corn Rower, thus its growth is also checked (Fig. 24).
(Fig. 22). (a) Uniparous. (Monochasial). The main axis ending
(i) Corymb. Indeterminate inflorescence with in a flower producing only one lateral branch at a
shortened main axis, in which the lower flowers time ending in a flower (Fig. 24).
30 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
scorpioid helicoid
UNIPAROUS BIPAROUS MULTIPAROUS
~"~ ~ \
.V'--,"
I
i
B
'h
female
flower I' ~
~
J ' A
THYRUS VERTICILLASTER
Fig. 27. Symmetry of the flower. Fig. 28. Position of floral organs on thalamus.
the flower can be divided into two equal halves along [VII] Position of Floral Organs on
more than one median longitudinal plane; e.g., Thalamus
Dianthus, Ipomoea, etc. (Fig. 27).
2. Zygomorphic. Term applied to a flower in Alternative Terms
which the members of some or all of the floral whorls Hypogynous/Perigynous/ Epigynous.
are unequal. Most irregular flowers can be divided
Meaning of Alternative Terms
longitudinally into two equal halves in only one
1. Hypogynous. A flower in which the ovary is
vertical plane; e.g., Pea, Adhatoda, etc. (Fig. 27).
superior and all other floral organs are situated
[V] Presence of Reproductive Organs below its level; e.g., Citrus (Fig. 28).
2. Perigynous. The floral organs borne and
Alternaive Terms arising from around the ovary and not beneath it;
Hermaphrodite/ Unisexual e.g., Peach, Plum (Fig. 28).
If unisexual whether staminate or pistillate. 3. Epigynous. Used for a flower when the ovary
Meaning of Alternative Terms is inferior and other floral organs arise above it; e.g.,
1. Hermaphrodite. (Bisexual). A flower in which Coriandrum (Fig. 28).
both stamens and pistils are present; e.g., China
rose.
[VIII] Arrangement of Floral Organs
2. Unisexual. A flower having only one sex; e.g., Altemative Term~
Morus. Acyclic/ Spirocyclic/ Cyclic.
(a) Staminate. A unisexual flower with stamens.
Meaning of Altemative Terms
(b) Pistillo.te. A unisexual flower with a pistil.
1. Acyclic. Arranged in spirals and not in whorls;
[VI] Number of Floral Parts e.g., Ranunculus.
2. Spirocyclic. Half cyclic; e.g., Ranunculus.
Alternative Terms 3. Cyclic. Arranged in definite whorls; e.g.,
Dimerous / Trimerous / Tetramerous Solanum.
Pentamerous.
[IX] Colour
Meaning of Alternative Terms
1. Dimerous. 1Wo-merous, the parts in two's or [X] Other Special Characters
multiple of 2; e..". Poppy. If anyone of the following structure is present, it
2. 1rimerous. Three-merous, the parts in three's should be mentioned.
or multiple of 3; e.g., Argemone. 1. Anthophore. Elongated portion of thalamus
3. Tetramerous. Four-merous, the parts in four's between calyx and corolla; e.g., Silene saxifraga.
or multiple of 4. e.g., Mmtard. 2. Androphore. Elongated portion of thalamus
4. Pentamerous. Five-merous, the parts in five's between corolla and androecium; e.g., Passion
or multiple of 5; e.g., Solanum. flower.
(B-IS)
The Method of Studying Angiospe:mic Plant [ 33
3. Gynophore. Elongated portion of thalamus 3. Imbricate. Out of the five sepals one is internal,
between androecium and gynoecium; e.g., Cleome, one external and the other three partly internal, partly
Bauhinia. external; e.g., Iberis amara, Cleome (Fig. 29).
4. Androgynophore. A gynophore associated 4. Quincuncial. A form of imbricate where there
with the androphore ; e.g., Cleome gynandra are five sepals, two internal, two external and one
( = Gynalldropsis gynalldra). partly internal, partly external, e.g., Steliaria,
Dianthus (Fig. 29).
7. CALYX
Calyx. The outer or ftrst whorl of flower, [IV] Duration of Calyx
consisting of sepals. Alternative Thrms
Sepal. One of the separate parts of a calyx, CaducouslDeciduouslPersistent-Marcescent/
usually green and foliaceous. Accrescent.
[I] Number of sepals Meaning of Alternative Thrms
Mention the number of sepals e.g., 4 sepals. 1. Caducous. (Fugacious). Falling off early, or
prematurely; e.g., Poppy.
[II] Cohesion 2. Deciduous. Falling off along with the petals
just after fertilization; e.g., Mustard, etc.
Alternative Thrms
3. Persistent. Remaining attached in the fruit
Polysepalous/ Gamosepalous.
also; e.g., Solanum, Datura. There are two types.
Meaning of Alternative Thrms (a) Marcescent. A persistent calyx assuming a
1. Polysepalous. When the sepals are free; e.g., shrivelled, dried up appearance; e.g., Guava.
Geranium. (b) Accrescent. A persistent calyx growing in size
2. Gamosepalous. When the sepals are fused; along with the fruit; e.g., Physalis, Shorea.
e.g., Dianthus.
[III] Aestivation 8. COROLLA
Aestivation. The arrangement of floral parts Corolla. Second whorl of flower made of petals.
(sepals in this case) in bud. Petal. One of the separate parts of corolla usually
Alternative Thrms coloured and more or less showy.
Valvatefl\visted! Imbricate/Quincuncial.
[I] Number of Petals
Meaning of Alternative Thrms Mention the number of petals, e.g., 4 petals.
1. Valvate. Sepals meeting by the edges without
overlapping; e.g., Solanum (Fig. 29). [II] Cohesion
2. 1Wisted. (Contorted). One margin of the sepal Alternative Thrms
overlaps that of the next one, and the other margin is Polypetalous/Gamopetalous/
overlapped by the third one (Fig. 29). (B-15)
34 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
9. PERIANTH
Perianth. Sometimes calyx and corolla are not
distinguishable from one another and the outer
whorl is thus called perianth.
Thpal. One of the separate parts of perianth ..
~ Alternative Thrms
Superior/ Semi-inferior/ Inferior.
SIMPLE
GYNOECIUM
W
COMPOUND
GYNOECIUM
Meaning of Alternative Thrms
1. Superior. When the ovary occupies highest
position on thalamus and stamens, petals and sepals
are successively inserted below it; e.g., Citnls,
Stellaria (Fig. 39).
2. Semi-inferior. When the thalamus grows
around the ovary to form a cup, and bears sepals,
petals, and stamens on the rim of the cup; e.g., Peach,
Plum, Rose (Fig. 39).
3. Inferior. When the thalamus completely
covers the ovary getting fused with it, and bears
sepals, petals and stamens on the top of the ovary;
e.g., Coriandrum, Mussaenda, Cucurbita, Guava
SYNCARPOUS APOCARPOUS
(Fig. 39).
GYNOECIUM GYNOECIUM
Fig. 38. Types of gynoecium. [IV] Number of Locules
Locule. Chamber or compartment of ovary.
(a) Bicarpel/o,ry. With two carpels; e.g., Fumaria.
Alternative Thrms
(b) Tricarpel/o,ry. With three carpels; e.g., Stellaria.
Find out if it is uni-/ Bi-/ Tri-/ Tetra-/ Penta-/
(c) Tetracarpel/o,ry. With four carpels; e.g., Datura.
Multilocular .
(d) Pentacarpel/o,ry. With five carpels; e.g., Melia.
(e) Multicarpel/o,ry. With many carpels; e.g., Papaver. Meaning of Alternative Thrms
1. Unilocular. With one chamber, e.g.,
[II] Cohesion of Carpels Stellaria (Fig. 40).
Alternative Terms 2. Bilocular. With two (J.ambers; e.g.,
Apocarpous/ Syncarpous. Solanum (Fig. 40).
3. 1iilocular. With three chambers; e.g.,
Meaning of Alternative Thrms Asphodelus (Fig. 40).
1. Apocarpous. A pistil of two or more carpels 4. Thtralocular. With four chambers; e.g.,
which are free; e.g., Clematis (Fig. 38). Ocimum (Fig. 40).
~
"-/
~-qp~-- (1)':::_-
~
. ~.,
-: ...
....
[VI] Placentation
Placentation. Arrangement of placentae and
ovules in the ovary.
Placenta. The region or area of the ovary to
which ovule or ovules are attached.
Ovule. The body which encloses embryo sac or o E
female gametophyte and becomes seed after
fertilizl}tion. Fig. 41. Various types of placentation. A. Marginal, B. Axile,
Alternative Thrms C. Parietal, D. Free-central, E. Basal, F. Superficial.
Marginal / Axile / Parietal / Lamellate I
Free-central I Basal I Superficial. 6. Basal. The ovules are a few, reduced to one
and are borne at the base of the ovary, the ovules
Meaning of Alternative Thrms when solitary often flliing the cavity, the ovary is
1. Marginal. Placentae developing along the unilocular; e.g., Sonchus (Fig. 41E).
junction of the two margins of the carpel in 7. Superficial. Ovary is multilocular, carpels
monocarpellary and one chambered ovary; e.g., pea being numerous as in axile type but placenate in this
(Fig. 4IA).
case develop all round the inner surface of partition
2. Axile. Placentae bearing the ovules developed wall; e.g., Water lily (Fig. 41F).
from the central axis of a compound ovary,
corresponding to the fused margins of carpels; e.g., [VII] Disc
Citrus, Solanum (Fig. 41B). Note if disc is present or absent below the ovary.
3. Parietal. Placentae bearing the ovules on the
inner wall of the ovary and their position [VIII] Style
corresponds to the fused margins of carpels and Style. More or less elongated part of gynoecium
number of placentae is equivalent to the number of between the ovary and the stigma.
carpels; the ovary is one chambered; e.g., Argemone
Alternative Thrms
(Fig. 41C).
Number of styles and their length is given .
. 4. Lamellate. The ovules are borne on plate-like
1YJ>e of style whether terminal! lateral!
lamellae within the ovary. It is a modification of
gynobasicl stylopodium.
parietal placentation; e.g., Papaver.
5. Free-central. The ovules are borne on a Meaning of Alternative Thrms
central column without any septa, the ovary is 1. Thrminal style. A style lying in the same
unilocular; e.g., Stellaria (Fig. 41). straight line with the ovary; e.g., China rose (Fig. 42).
The Method of Studying Angio!>permic Plant [ 41
1
DUMBLE
CAPITATE PLUMOSE DISCOID SHAPED
,~ RADIATE
TERMINAL LINEAR HOOD LIKE BIFID CAPITATE LAMELLATE
Fig. 42. Various types of styles. Fig. 43. Various types of stigmas.
2. Lateral style. A style which is seen to arise 7. Bifid. Forked into two; e.g., Ixora, SOllchus
from the side of the ovary; e.g., Strawberry (Fig. 42). (Fig. 43).
3. Gynobasic style. A style arising from the 8. Knob-like. Shaped like a knob; e.g.,
depression in the centre of the ovary or directly from Cryptostegia, Jllsticia, Achyranthes.
thalamus; e.g., Ocimum (Fig. 42). 9. Lamellate. Provided with many fin like blades;
4. Stylopodium. When the base of the style is e.g., MaZllS (Fig. 43).
swollen to form a pad-like structure; e.g., 10. Sticky. A stigma producing a sticky liquid for
Coriandmm. catching pollen grains; e.g., Cleome viscosa.
[IX] Stigma
Stigma. Terminal part of gynoecium that 12. FRUITS
receives pollen grains.
Fruit. It is a mature or ripened ovary.
Alternative Thrms
Number and shape of stigma- 1Ypes of Fruits
Capitate/ Plumose/Discoid/ Dumb-bell shaped/ Alternative Terms
Linear / Radiate hood- like / Bifid / Knob-like / Simple/ Aggregate/Composite
Lamellate/ Sticky. [I] If simple whether dry or fleshy.
Meaning of Alternative Thrms 1. If dry whether dehiscent / indehiscent /
1. Capitate. Shaped like a cap; e.g., Cleome, schizocarpic
Citms (Fig.43). (a) If dehiscent whether Legume/ Follicle/Siliqual
2. Plumose. Feather-like stigma; e.g., Grasses Siliculal Capsule/ Pyxis/ Utricle.
(Fig. 43). 1YPe of dehiscence- Sutural! Loculicidal/
3. Discoid. Disc-shaped; e.g., Melia, China Septicidal/ Septifragal/ Poricidal/ Circumscissile.
rose (Fig. 43). (b) If indehiscent whether, Caryopsis/ Achene/
4. Dumb-bell shaped. Like a dumb-bell; e.g., Cypsela/ Samaral Nut. f'
Ipomoeajistulosa (Fig. 43). (c) If schizocarpic whether Lom ntum/ Cremocarp/
5. Linear. Long and narrow (Fig. 43). Regma/ Carcerulus.
6. Radiate hood- like. A hood-like stigma with 2. If fleshy whether Drupe/Pome/ Berry/ Pepo/
radiating septae; e.g., Poppy (Fig. 43). Hesperidium/ Balaustal Amphisarca.
42 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
~Al
SEPTICIDAl
(W~)
SUTURAL
(with septicidal)
SEPTIPRAGAL PORICIDAL CIRCUMSCISSILE
2. Fleshy fruits
(a) Drupe. A fleshy, generally one-seeded fruit with
the pericarp differentiated into the epicarp
(forms the skin), mesocarp (flesyhy and edible)
and endocarp (hard and stony); e.g., Mango,
REGMA
Peach, Coconut, Almond (Fig. 48).
(b) Pome. A fleshy fruit surrounded by the
~ thalamus and developing from a two or more
BALAUSTA AMPHISARCA'
HESPERIDIUM
Fig. 48. Simple. fleshy fruits.
The Method of Studying Angiospenmc Plant r 45
and succulent testa is edible; e.g., Pomegranate 3. Etaerio of follicles. An aggregate of follicles;
(Fig. 48). e.g., Michelia champaca, Magnolia (Fig. 490).
(g) Amphisarca. A fleshy fruit with a woody peri carp 4. Etaerio of berries. An aggregate of berries;
developing from a syncarpous, superior, many e.g., Artabotrys, Anona squamosa (Fig. 49E).
seeded ovary. The edible portion is the placenta
and the inner pulpy iayers of pericarp; e.g., Aeg/e Multiple of composite fruit
mannelos (Fig. 48). Fruit composed of a number of closely associated
fruits, derived from entire inflorescence and forming
Aggregate fruit one body at maturity; e.g., Jack fruit·
Fruit developed from a flower having a number 1. Sorosis. A fruit developing from spike or
of free carpels, all of which ripen together, and are spadix in which the flowers fuse by their succulent
more or less coherent at maturity. tepals and axis bearing them becomes fleshy or
1. Etaerio of drupes. An aggregate of drupes; woody thus forming a compact mass; e.g., Pineapple,
e.g., Rubus, (Fig. 49A&B). Mulberry, Jack fruit (Fig. 50).
2. Etaerio of achenes. An aggregate of achenes; 2. Syconus. A fruit developing from
e.g., Strawberry, Naravelia (Fig. 49C). hypanthodium inflorescence, characteristically
having a hollow, pear shaped fleshy receptacle; e.g.,
Fig (Fig. 50).
5. Genus. The genus is subordinate to the family One of the most important contributions of this work·
and in one family there may be several genera. The is the descriptions of taxa of all levels. Thus, this
generic name of the plant is the first of the two words originality of Bentham and Hooker's work has
which comprise a binomial viz. RallullclIllls scleratlls- elevated it, to a level of its own, since all subsequent
RallllllclllllS being the generic name. The latin names systems of classification are compilations from this
of the genera are always adjectives used as such and literature.
are singular names starting with capital letter An outline classification of Bentham and Hooker
without uniform endings. Genus is subdivided into along with important characters of various units is
one or many species. given below.
6. Species. A species is the basic unit of (For the sake of convenience it is slightly
classification. A species indicates or specifies only modified and only those families are listed which are
one kind of a plant such as sweet pea, wild pea, etc. described in the subsequent text).
All the species are related i.e. they have descended
from the same ancestor or ancestors. Individual [III] Classification of Bentham and Hooker
plants belonging to the same speices are similar in
fundamental structure and other characters and CLASSl. DICOTYLEDONAE
moreover these important features are maintained 1. Venation reticulate.
in nature through innumerable generations. 2. Flowers pentamerous.
The above categories are further sub-divided Sub-Class I. Polypetalae
whenever needed. This sub-classification includes- 1. Petals free.
sub-kingdom, sub-division, sub-class, sub-order Series I. Thalami'florae
(ending in illeae), sub-family (ending in oideae), 1. Thalamus dome-shaped.
sub-genus and sub-species or variety. 2. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order 1. Ranales
[Ill Systems of Classification 1. Stamens indefinite.
Many different systems of classification have 2. Carpels free or immersed in torus; very rarely
been proposed from time and again. All these united.
systems have been placed into three categories. Family 1. Ranunculaceae
1. Artificial. It is an arbitrary arrangement of 1. Usually herbs, often with divided leaves.
groups based on incomplete knowledge or simple 2. Flowers hernicyclic, with one to many generally
inconvenience. free carpels.
. 2. Natural. It is based on the true or supposed 3. Stamens indefinite and extrorse .
relationship of the plants. 4. Fruit follicle or capsule.
3. Phylogenetic. It is based on the phylogeny or Family 2. Magnoliaceae
evolutionary trends of the plants. 1. Trees or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate,
For practical purposes system of Bentham and simple leaves.
Hooker (1862-1883) is followed being used by the 2. Flowers spiral or spirocyclic with convex or
different well-known herbaria of the world. This elongated floral axis.
system was published in Genera plalltanlln in three 3. Stamens and carpels numerous and free.
volumes in Latin language. The classification of the 4. Fruits, in etaerio : individual fruit is follicle or
seed plants numbering 97,205 only, was described. samara or berry.
The system in essence is a refinement over the Family 3. Anonaceae
system of A.P. de Candolle. The refinements are to 1. Trees or shrubs with alternate, exstipulate,
be noted in Polypetalae where a new series simple leaves.
Disciflorae has been incorported between 2. Flowers usually trimerous.
Thalamiflorae and Calyciflorae and in the revision of 3. Stamens and carpels usually many.
the classification of Monochlamydeae which is an 4. Fruit etaerio of berries.
apetalous taxa. The Gymnosperms were given a Order 2. Parietales
status parallel in rank to Dicotyledons and 1. Carpels united to form an unilocular ovary
Monocotyledons, and were placed between them. with parietal placentation.
48 J Practical Botany." Vol 2
VI Floral Diagram
The floral diagram is an ideal ground plan of a correspond with the number, relative size and
flower. It is a method with which many of the position of the actual sepals. In case of odd number
characteristics of its parts and symmetry can be of sepals, the odd sepal would either be anterior or
expressed in a gI aphic form. posterior to the flower i.e., opposite the bract or
Firstly, the floral diagram is always circular and opposite the mother axis respectively. Petals are
the differences in floral symmetry are shown by also to be drawn likewise but should alternate the
difference in the size and form of the individual parts sepals. In case of zygomorphic flowers, the petals
in the diagram. The floral whorls are represented in and sometimes the sepals also, are of unequal sizes.
concentric circles, sepals on the outside, then petals, If any portion of sepal or petal has a spur, this may
stamens and carpels towards inner sides be shown by drawmg a loop at the back of the organ.
respectively. If the flowers are spiral, then spiral Next, if parts of the same whorl are fused, draw
arragnement is drawn inwards to the centre. lines to connect their edges together. In case, the
Secondly, the parts are represented by sections, parts of different whorls are joined viz. stamens to
drawn in, upon the respective circles at position petals, draw linking lines between the parts
corresponding to their actual position. An concerned.
observation fo the relationship of the flower to the Stamens are marked hy transverse sections of the
inflorescence ascertains the positions. Above the anthers. It is carefully seen whether they are in one
diagram a small circle is drawn to represent the or more whorls. If they are obdiplostemonous, the
mother axis. Mother axis is not drawn is case of stamens of the outer whorl are drawn opposite to the
terminal flowers, in others it is denoted in the petals. Extrorse anthers are to be faced towards the
following way - petals and the introrse ones towards the gynoecium.
(1) If flower is zygomorphic <D Staminodes are represented either by a cross (X) or
(2) If flower is actinomorphic E9 asterisk (*). The gynoecium is represented by a
If there is bract, draw its section below the transverse section of the ovary. In case the parts are
diagram. The bracteoles if presf.nt, are drawn on the spirally arranged, care should be taken to count their
sides. Now, note whether a sepal or a space between number in one complete turn of the spiral and mark
two sepals, stands towards mother axis. Begin them on the diagram at corresponding intervals.
with this sepal and mark the other sepals to
OUTLINES OF THE SYSTEM .QF CLASSIFICATION PROPOSED BY BENTHAM & HOOKER *
SEED PLANTS OR PHANEROGAMS
I
Class I DICOTYLEDONAE
I
Class II GYMNOSPERMAE Class III MONOCOTYLEDONAE
I
,
I
I
Sub·class 1. Polypetalae
I
Sub·class 2. Gamopetalae Sub·class 3. Monochlamydeae
Series I
I
I
Series I
I I Series 1
Series II Series III Series II Series III Series 1.
Thalamiflorae Disciflorae Calyciflorae Inferae Heteromerae Bicarpellatae Curvembryeae Mlcrospermae
Order 1. Order 1. Order 1. Order 1. Order 1. Order 1. Family (3 families)
Ranales Geraniales Rosales Rublales Ericales Gentianales Amaranthaceae Family
Families Families Families Family (6 famIlies) Families Chenopodiaceae Orchidaceae
Ranunculaceae Rutaceae Leguminosae Rubiaceae Order 2. Apocynaceae Polygonaceae Series 2.
Magnoliaceae Meliaceae Rosaceae (1 more familiy) Primulales Asclepiadaceae (4 other families) Eplgynae
Anonaceae (9 other families) (7 other families) Order 2. (3 families) (4 other families) Series 2. Family
(5 other familie£) Order 2. Order 2. Asterales Order 3 Order 2. MuItiovulatae aquaticae Scitamineae
Order 2. Olacales Myrtales Family Ebenales Polemoniales (1 family) (6 other famIlies)
Parietales (3 families) Family Compositae (3 families) Families Series 3. Series 3.
Families Order 3. Myrtaceae (3 other familIes) Convolvulaceae MuItiovulatae terrestres Coronarieae
Papaveraceae Celastrales (5 other families) Order 3. Solanaceae (3 families) Family
Cruciferae (4 familes) Order 3. Campanales (3 other families) Series 4. Liliaceae
Capparidaceae Order 4. Passiflorales (3 families) Order 3. Microembryeae (7 other families)
(6 other families) Sapindales Family Personales (4 families) Series 4
Order 3. (5 families) Cucurbitaceae Families Series S. Calycineae
Polygalineae (6 other families) Scrophulariaceae Daphnales Family
(4 families) Order 4. Acanthaceae (5 families) Palmae
Order 4. Ficoidales (6 other familIes) Series 6. (2 other familes)
Caryophyllineae (2 families) Order 4. Achlamydosporeae Series S.
Family OrderS. Lamiales (3 familIes) Nudiflorae
Caryophyllaceae Umbellales Families Series 7. (5 families)
(3 other families) Family Verbenaceae Unisexuales Series 6.
OrderS. Umbelliferae Labiatae Families Apocarpae
Guttiferales (2 other families) (3 other families) Euphlorbiaceae (3 families)
(6 families) Urticaceae Series 7.
Order 6. (7 other families) Glumaceae
Malvales Series 8. Families
Families Ordines anomali Cyperaceae
Malvaceae (4 families) Gramineae
Tiliaceae (4 other families)
(1 more family)
• Names of only those families are listed which are described in the subsequent text. ~nt text.
Description of Plant
RAN UN CULACEAE*
Ranunculus scleratus Linn.
Habit. Herb.
Root. Tap, branched.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, angular, fistular, smooth, nodes and internodes very prominent, green in
colour.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate; simple, petiolate, leaf base cheaving, lamina much dissected,
each lobe is ovate, entire, obtuse, glabrous, multicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Dichasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous, thalamus prominent and convex, spirocyclic and yellow.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial, slightly petaloid and boat shaped.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, imbricate, yellow, each petal at its base has a pocket-shaped nectary.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite, polyandrous, spirally arranged, filament long, dithecous, basifixed, extrorse.
Gynoecium. Polycarpellary, apocarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, one ovule in each locule, placentation
basal, style absent, stigma simple and sticky.
Fruit. Etaerio of achenes.
Floralformula. Br, brI, Ef) , r1
,Ks, Cs , A oe , Qoe .
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamij70rae
1. Thalamus dome-shaped.
2. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Orders. Ranales
1. Stamens indefinite.
2. Carpels free or immersed in torus.
Family. Ranunculaceae
1. Usually herbs often with divided leaves.
2. Flowers hemicyclic with one to many generally free carpels.
3. Stamens indefinite and extrorse.
*1. English name. Crowfoot family
2. Systematic position In other systems of claSsification.
Rendle (1925) Engler and PrantI (1931) Hutchinson (1959)
Dicotyledons Dicotyledoneae Dicotyledons
Dialypetalae Archichlamydeae Herbaceae
Ranales Ranales Ranales
Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae Ranunculaceae
Description of Plant : Ranunculacae r 55
flower bud ---+.{llHk
L.S. FLOWER
o~
anther lobe
connective
filament
Stem- Herbaceous, aerial, erect; Leaf-Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, compound, sessile, leaf base sheathing, ultimate
segments linear, entire, acute; Inflorescence- Solitary terminal; Flower- ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic,
hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and spirocyclic; Calyx- Sepals S, polysepalous, imbricate, greenish white
;Corolla-Represented by generally g, bifid, greenisl1 white honey glands; Androecium - Stamens indefinite, polyandrous, spirally
arranged,filaments slender, dithecous, ad nate, introrse; Gynoecium-S-12 carpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, S-12locularwith many
ovules in each locule, placentation axile, style and stigma as many as carpels; Fruit - Capsule;
Floral formula - Ebr, 9 ' r} , Ks, Cg, A oe , Q(S-12) .
Description ~
01' PIant: Ranunculacae r 57
flower
. ~. \ ,,,~ \\~~/11
ovary
ovules
thalamus ) Ii ~
L/F~ER
pedlcel--A
A FLOWERING TWIG
~~
stigma
~~~~LVC} , )
placer,:;:
pedicel locule /
" -ovary wall ~ ~
Habit. A climber.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, weak, climbing with tendrillar petiole, angular, branched, solid, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, exsitpulate, compound, unipinnate and imparipinnate,
petiolate and petiolulate, petiole tendrillar eliptic-ovate, entire, acute, glabous, unicostate reticulate,
leathery.
Inflorescence. Dichasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, incomplete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, tetramerous,
hypogynous, hemicyclic and scented.
Calyx. Sepals 4, polysepalous, valvate, petaloid, white.
Corolla. Absent.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite, polyandrous, ftlaments of the outer whorl longer than those of the inner
ones, monothecous, basifixed, extrorse.
Gynoecium. 4-6 carpellary, apocarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, placentation basal, style short, simple,
some hairy outgrowths arise from the base of the ovary.
Fruit. Achene.
Floral formula. Br, brl, E9, rJ
,K.t, Co, Ace, G 4-6'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub·Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamijlorae
1. Thalamus dome-shaped.
2. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Ranales
1. Stamens indefinite.
2. Carpels free.
Family. Ranunculaceae
1. Flowers hemicyc1ic with one to many free carpels.
2. Stamens indefinite and extrorse.
MAGNOLIACEAE
Michelia champaca Linn.
Stem - I Icrbaceous, lower portIons woody, aerial, erect, cylindncal, branched, soild; Leaf - Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate,
sImple, pelIolate, ovate, enlIre, acute, unicostate reticulate; Inflorescence -- Solitary axillary; Flower - Bracteate, pedicellate,
actinomorphlC, hermaphrodIte. hypogynous and acyclic; Perianth - Tepals indefinIte, polytepalous, spirally arranged;Androecium -
Stamens moetinIte, spIrally arranged on an elongated thalamus, fIlament short, dlthecous, adnate and extrorse; Gynoecium -
MultIcarpellary, apocarpous, carpels are spIrally arranged over an elongated thalamus, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many
placentation margmal, style short and bent, stIgma flattened; Fruit - Etaerio of follIcles.
Floral formula - Hr, ffi, 9. K x, Ace, Qce ..
Cla~sification and Identificalion.Dicotyiclionae VenatIon r~tlllliate, flowers pentamerous; Polypetalne - Petals free; 111alnmij1orae -
Thalamus dome--shaped, and oV,lry ~upenor; Ranuics - Stamens ll1def1l1lte. carpels free: Mllgnoiiaceae - Plower spiral or spirocycIic
WIth elongated floral aXIS, stamens and carpels numerous and free,
Description of Plant: Ranunculacae [ 59
anther lobes
)
ANNONACEAE
Annona squamosa Linn.
Stem- Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, sohd, green, Leaf- Caulme and rdmal, alternate,
exstlpulate, simple, elliptic-Ianceolate, entire, obtuse, glabrous, UnIcostate reticulate; Inflorcsccnce- Dichaslal cyme or solitary axillary;
Flower- Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, actmomorphic, hermaphrodite tnmerous, hypogynous and splrocychc, Calyx- Sepals 3,
gamosepetalous, connate at the base, valvate; CoroUa- Petals 3, polypetalous, valvate; Androecium- Stamens indefinite. spirally
arranged on an elongated thalamus, filament short, dithecous, adnate, extrorse; Gynoecium-Multicarpellary, apocarpous, carpels
spirally arranged on an elongated thalamus, ovarysupenor, Unilocular, basal placentation, .lyle short, stigma long and papillose; I'ruit-
Etaerio of berries'
Floralformula- Br, $,9 .K(3) C" I'\oc, Qoc
Classification and identification. j1icotyledonae- Venation retiCUlate, !lowers pentamerous; Polypelillae- Petals f fee;
Thalnmiflnrae- Thalamus dome shaped. ovary 5upenor; Ranales- Stamens indefinite, carpels free; AnnOlh,u.. ,.:-llu'.'.<:r" l"ually
tnmerou~, stamens and carpels u~ually many. frUit elaeno of bernes.
60 ] Practical Botany: Vol 2
PAPAVERACEAE*
Papaver rhoeas Linn.
Habit. Herb.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, rarely branched, fistular, hairy, green, milky latex present.
Leaf. Alternate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, amplexicaul, lobed, upper leaves not lobed, lobes serrate, hairy,
unicostate. reticulate.
Inflorescence. Solitary terminal.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, dimerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 2, polysepalous, anterio-posterior, caducous, hairy.
Corolla. Petals 4, arranged in two whorls of 2 each, polypetalous, crumpled in the bud.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite, polyandrous, dithecous, basifixed, extrorse.
Gynoecium. Polycarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many, placentation parietal, style
absent, stigma hood-like.
Fruit. Capsule. .
Floral formula. Ebr, EB, ~,K2, C2 + 2, Ace ,G(ce)
C~assification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae·
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. ThalamijIorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Parietales
1. Carpels united to form unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.
Family. Papaveraceae
1. Herbs with alternate exstipulate leaves and latex.
2. Calyx caducous.
3. Flower actinomorphic and di-or trimerous with extrorse stamens.
4. Gynoecium 2-6 carpellary; fruit capsule.
<::J~.~flower
"
'\
, ""
- .
lil l '
r '
f
r .
,!iha,rS
sepal L. S. FLOWER
Habit. Herb.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, angular, branched, solid, glabrous and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, much dissected, sessile, leaf-base sheathing, acute,
glabrous, unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, dimerous, perigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 2, raised on cup-like projection of floral axis, and fused together to form a cap over petals,
caducous.
Corolla. Petals 4 (2 + 2), polypetalous, imbricate, yellow.
Androecium. Stamens indeftnite, polyandrou,s arranged at the brim of the cup, fllaments short, dithecous,
basiflXed, extrorse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary semi-inferior, unilocular with parietal placentation, style short,
stigma 2, each is biftd and linear; out of the 2 portions of a stigma one is shorter than the other.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floral formula. Ebr, E9, ~,K2, C2+ 2, Aoc ,G(2)_
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalar.nU70rae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Parietales
1. Carpels united to form an unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.
Family. Papaveraceae
1. Herbs with alternate exstipulate leaves and latex.
2. Calyx caducous.
3. Flowers actinomorphic and di-or trimerous with extrorse stamens.
4. Gynoecium 2-16 carpellary; fruit capsule:
Description of Plant: Papaveraceae [ 63
l. S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
thalamus
I
.L.filament
I
II
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
(B-J5)
Description of Plant: Papaveraceae [ 65
anther lObes
A FLOWERING TWIG
connective
FUMARIACEAE*
Fumaria indica pnn.
Habit. Herb.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, angular, branched, fistular, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, leaf-base sheathing, compound, decompound, petiolate,
ultimate segments narrow, entire, acute, glabrous, unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Leaf opposed racemose raceme.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, dimerous, hypogynous, purple-pink.
Calyx. Sepals 2, polysepalous, membranous, placed anterio- posteriorly, caducous.
Corolla. Petals 4 in two whorls of 2 each, petals of the outer whorl are large and one of the outer lateral petals
is spurred, petals of the inner whorl are smaller and placed anterio- posteriorly.
Androecium. Stamens in 2 groups and each groups possesses 1/2 + 1 + 1/2 anthers, polyandrous, ftlament
broad at the base and narrow upward, ftlament of the stamen facing the spur has a yellow-green
nectary, basiflXed, extrorse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many, placentation parietal, style
long and stigma bifid.
Fruit. Nut.
Floral formula. Br, <D, o:J, K2, C2+2, A(1/2+1+ 1/2) +(1/2 + 1+1/2) ,G(2)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypelaiae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamiflorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Parletales
1. Carpels united to form an unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.
Family. Fumariaceae
1. Hebrs with alternate exstipulate leaves and latex.
2. Calyx caducous.
3. Flowers transversely zygomorphic and dimerous with extrorse stamens.
4. Gynoecium 1-2 carpellary; fruits capsule or nut.
nectary
L. S. FLOWER
CD
stem
placenta ovule
ovary
II ovary wall
CRUCIFERAE* (BRASSICACEAE)
Brassica campestris Linn. Var. Sarson. Prain
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, lower leaves lyrate with deeply cut margins,
acute, glabrous, unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Racemose raceme.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, tetramerous, hypogynous, cyclic
and yellow.
Calyx. Sepals 4 in two whorls of 2 each, polysepalous, slightly petaloid.
Corolla. Petals 4, polypetalous, cruciform, each petal is distinguished into a claw and a limb, valvate.
Androecium. Stamens 6 in two whorls (2 + 4), polyandrous, tetradynamous, 4 inner long and 2 outer short,
dithecous, basifrxed and introrse, glands are present at the base of 4 longer stamens.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular but becomes bilocular later on due to the
development of a false septum (replum), ovules many in each locule, placentation parietal, style short
and stigma is bilobed.
Fruit. Siliqua.
Floral formula. Ebr, 6), rJ,
K 2 +2, C4, A2+4, 02)·
Classification and identificati"d•
. Class. Dicotyledonae .
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. ThalamiflDrae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Parletales
1. Carpels united to form unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.
Family. Cruciferae
1. Herbs with alternate exstipulate leaves.
2. Corolla cruciform.
3. Stamens tetradynamous.
4. Ovary bicarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular but becomes bilocular due to the development of a false
septum; fruit siliqua.
flower buds
L. S. FLOWER
LYRATE LEAF
STAMEN
,
GYNOECIUM
~""~PI",""
T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
Habit. Herb.
Root. Tap, branched.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, weak, trailing, diffuse, cylindrical, branched, branches form rosettes, solid,
glabrous and green.
Leaf. Some are radical which are larger in size but others are cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate,
compound, unipinnate and imparipinnate, petiolate, petiole base hairy, pinnae have cut margins,
glabrous, unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Racemose raceme.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodIte tetramerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 4, polysepalous, valvate, margins membranous and green.
Corolla. Petals absent.
Androecium. Stamens 2, anterio-posterior in position, polyandrous, fIlaments long, tapering at apex and
broad at base, dithecous, basifixed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular when young but later becomes bilocular due
to the development of a complete but false septum. In very young cases placentation is parietal but
in old cases it is axile due to the false septum with only one ovule in each locule, style reduced and
stigma disc shaped.
Fruit. Silicula.
Floral formula. Ebr, 'E9, ~,~, Co, A 2, 02)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamiflorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Parietales
1. Carpels united to form unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.
Family. Cruciferae
1. Herbs with alternate exstipulate leaves.
2. Corolla cruciform.
3. Stamens tetradynamous.
4. Ovary bicarpellary, Syncarpous, unilocular but becomes bilocular due to the development of a false
septum, fruit silicula.
Description of Plant.' Cruciferae [ 71
FLOWER
(split open)
anther lobes
1,1
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, angular, branched, solid, rough and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, at some places they seem to be opposite, exstipulate, simple, sessile,
lanceolate, margin slightly dissected in the upper portion of the leaf, acute, glabrous, unicostate,
reticulate.
Inflorescence. Racemose corymb.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic,-hermaphrodite, tetramerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 4 in two whorls of 2 each, polysepalous, imbricate, petaloid, boat-shaped.
Corolla. Petals 4, polypetalous, valvate, cruciform, 2 anterior petals are large, each petal is distinguished into
a claw and a limb.
Androecium. Stamens 6 arranged in 2 whorls (2 + 4), polyandrous, tetradynamous - two outer and lateral are
short and 4 anterio- posterior are long; dithecous, dorsifixed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular when young but later becomes bilocular due
to the development of a complete but false septum, placentation parietal, style long, stigma capitate.
Fruit. Silicula.
Floralformula. Ebr, (]), ~,K2+2, C4, A2+4, 02)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thaiamiflo1YllJ
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Parieta/es
1. Carpels united to form unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.
Family. Cruci/erae
1. Herbs with alternate exstipulate leaves.
2. Corolla cruciform.
3. Stamens tetradynamous.
4. Ovary bicarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular but later becomes bilocular due to the development of a
false septum, fruit silicula.
Description of Plant: Cruciferae [ 73
style ~---l~+1
CD
A FLOWERING TWIG
,
qt.
PETAL
anther
connective
I~be
.}-mament
STAMEN
locule _~o...-
FLORAL DIAGRAM
ovule~:--+
GYNOECIUM
placenta
T. S. OVARY
CAPPARIDACEAE*
Cleome gynandra Linn.
(= Gynandropsis pentaphylla D.C.)
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, palmately compound, pentafoliate, some trifoliate leaves are
also present on the inflorescence axis, petiolate, pinnae elliptic-ovate, serrulate, acute, hairy,
unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Corymbose raceme.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, tetramerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 4, in two whorls of 2 each, polysepalous, imbricate.
Corolla. Petals 4, polypetalous, valvate, distinguished into a claw and a limb, white.
Androecium. Stamens 6, (2 + 4), polyandrous, dithecous, dorsiftxed, introrse, floral axis is elongated between
the petals and stamens to form androphore on which the stamens are raised.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular with many ovules, placentation parietal, style
short and hairy, stigma capitate,floral axis is elongated between androecium and gynoecium to form
gynophore.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floral formula. Ebr, ~, ~, K2 + 2, C4, A2 +4, G(2).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamijlorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Parietales
1. Carpels united to form unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.
Family. Capparidaceae
1. Leaves alternate.
2. Floral axis usually elongated below androecium or gynoecium to form androphore or gynophore.
3. Fruit - capsule, berry or drupe.
filament
-It--Iocule
ovules
Cleome viscosa L.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, angular, branched, solid, pubescent and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, palmately compound, 3-5 foliate, petiolate, pinnae sessile,
ovate- lanceolate, ciliate, hairy, multicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Racemose raceme.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, tetramerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 4, arranged in two whorls of 2 each, polysepalous, imbricate.
Corolla. Petals 4, polypetalous, 2 posterior approximate and 2 lateral spreading, clawed, imbricate.
Androecium. Stamens indefInite, polyandrous, fHaments long and slender, dithecous, basifIxed, anthers
curved and introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many, placentation parietal,
gynophore much shortened, style short, stigma capitate and sticky.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floral formula. Br, €I), ~,K2+2, C4, A oc , !12)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. ThalamifWrae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Parietales
1. Carpels united to form unilocular ovary with parietal placentation.
Family. Capparidaceae
1. Leaves alternate.
2. Floral axis usually elongated below androecium or gynoecium to form androphore or gynophore.
3. Fruit - capsule, berry or drupe.
Stem - Woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth and green with spines; Leaf - Cauline and ramal,.alternate, stipulate,
simple, sessile, entire, acute, unicostate, reticulate, highly caducous: Inflorescence - Many flowered cOI)'lllb;
Flower - Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, tetramerous, hypogynous and cyclic; Calyx - Sepals 4
arranged in two whorls of two each, inner sepal saccate, imbricate; Corolla - Petals 4, polypetalous, imbricate, scarlet; Androecium -
Stamens indefinite, polyandrous, present at the base of the gynophore, filaments long, dithecous, dorsifixed, introrse;
Gynoecium - Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, placentation parietal, style and stigma simple, a long gynophore
present; Fruit - Berry;
Floral formula - Br, $, rJ ,K2+2' C4, A oc , Q(2)-
Description of Plant: Capparidaceae [ 77
style'--fP'----+-!-!---!LU
stamens --'''---....,
L. S. FLOWER
stem
A FLOWERING TWIG
anther lobes
\. ~connective
ovary wall
filament
gynophore
~~~~'--placenta
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
CARYOPHYLLACEAE*
Stellaria media Cyrill.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, hollow, smooth, younger portions hairy, green, nodes
swollen.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, exstipulate, simple, lower leaves petiolate and upper leaves
sub-sessile, petiole hairy, ovate, entire, acute, glabrous, unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Axillary dichasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial, hairy, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, valvate, each petal is bifid, white.
Androecium. Stamens 10, in two Whorls of 5 each, generally posterior :3 or all 5 of the outer whorl get reduced
to staminodes, polyandrous, obdiplostemonous, filaments long and slender, dithecous, basifixed,
introrse.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many, placentation free central, style
very much reduced and stigmas 3.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floral formula. Br,'EEl, C:,
Ks , Cs . A s + s, Q(3)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamiflorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. CaryophyUineae
1. Stamens 5 or 10.
2. Ovary unilocular or rarely imperfectly 2-5 locular.
3. Placentation free-central or very rarely axile.
Family. CaryophyUaceae
1. Herbs with opposite decussate leaves.
2. Actinomorphic and hermaphrodite flowers in cymose panicles.
3. Ovary 2-5 carpellary, syncarpous, unilocular with free- central placentation.
4. Fruit'- capsule or berry.
petal
stigma->C..ll~-~-~\
L. S. FLOWER
stigmas A PETAL
":~ I st(Yle
7 ~I ~
A FLOWERING '/ locule
TWIG I,
connective '\
ovary :\
filament
i(,
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, fIstular, sparingly pubescent, green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate (apparently. whorled), stipulate, stipules small, interpetiolar and
scarious, sini'ple, sessile, lamina very much dissected into linear, acicular, acute and fleshy segments.
Inflorescence. Dichasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial, per~fstent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, imbricate, membranous, white.
Androecium. Stamens 10, arranged in two whorls of 5 each, polyandrous, obdiplostemonous, filament
slender, dithecous, dorsiflxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. 'fricarpellary or pentacarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many,
placentation free-central, stvle absent, stigmas, 3 or 5.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floralformula. Br, Brl, e, ~,~s, Cs, A s+ s, Qc30rS)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Tha/amiflorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Caryophy1Jineae
1. Stamens 5 or 10.
2. Ovary unilocular, or rarely imperfectly 2-5 locular.
3. Placentatior. free-central or very rardy axile.
Family. Caryophyllaceae
1. Herbs with opposite decussate leaves.
2. Actinomorphic and hermaphrodite flowers in cymose panicles.
3. Ovary 2 to 5 carpellary, syncarpous, unilocular with free-central placentation.
4. Fruit - capsule or berry.
(B-15)
Description of Plant " Caryophyl/aceae [ 81
L. S FLOWER
anther
lObes
connective
petal
ovule
ovary
sepal
disc
pedicel
L. S. FLOWER
GYNOECIUM
A FLOW
ERING TW~~ary ~itrUle
wall
filament
. I. placenta
T. S. OVARY
STAMEN
FLORAL DIAGRAM
Fig. 15. Dianlh us caryophylllls.
1. E~nU~h
<UfiL"" name Ca
2. &onomi . rnation.
c importanceo Grown as a nornamental.
84 J Practical Botany: vui 2
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, flat at the nodes, branched, solid, hairy and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, leaf base s,emi-amplexicaul,
linear-Ianceolate, entire, acute, hairy, unicostate, reticulate, coriaceous.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, torming a flask-like structure.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, twisted, corolla caryophyllaceous, pink.
Androecium. Stamens 10 in two whorls of 5 each, polyandrous, obdiplostemonous, dithecous, basiftxed,
introrse.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, lower portioI' trilocular with many ovules in each
locule, placentation axile, the upper portion of the ovary unilocular with free- central placentation,
styles 3, stigmas 3 and capitate.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floralformula. Ebr, ;E;9, r}, ~s), Cs , A s+ s, G(3)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub·Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamiflorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
O.·der. CaryophyUineae
1. Stamens 5 or 10.
2. Ovary unilocular or rarely imperfectly 2-5 locular.
3. Placentation free· central or rarely axile.
Family. Caryophyllaceae
1. Herbs with opposite decussate leaves.
2. Actinomorphic and hermaphrodite flowers in cymose panicles.
3. Ovary 2-5 carpellary, syncarpous, unilocular with free-central placentation.
4. Fruit - capsule or berry.
Description of Plant,' Caryophyl/aceae [ 85
( l. S. FLOWER
STAMEN
A FLOWERING TWIG
T. S.OVARY
(upper region)
ov ul e -.1!L-:::::f-
T. S. OVARY
GYNOECIUM (lower region) FLORAL DIAGRAM
·1
~:I
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigmas
anther lobes
style
ovary wall
filaments
~
ovary
, thalamus
placenta
MALVACEAE*
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, glabrous, green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free- lateral, simple, petiolate, ovate, serrate, acute,
glabrous, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous, cyclic.
Epicalyx. A whorl ofbracteoles (5-8) is present aroundlhe calyx.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, united at the base and adnate to the staminal tube, twisted, red.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite, monadelphous, staminal tube united with corolla (epipetalous), upper
portions of fllaments and anthers free, anthers reniform, monothecous, extrorse.
Gynoecium. Pentacarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, pentalocular, with many ovules in each locule,
placentation axile, styles 5, long, passing through the staminal tube and each ending into a discoid
stigmatic lobe.
Fruit. Capsule. ,.--....
Floral formula. Ebr, e, rJ,
ES-8, ~S), Cs, Ace, 0s)·
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Po/ypetaflle
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamij70rae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Malvales
1. Stamens usually indefinite and monadelphous.
2. Ovary 3 to multicarpellary with axile placentation.
Family. Malvaceae
1. Leaves stipulate.
2. Calyx often With an epicalyx.
3. Stamens monothecous and anthers reniform.
4. Fruit - capsule or schizocarp.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, pubescent and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, simple, petiolate, deltoid, serrate, acute, slightly hairy and rugose
above, velvety, multicostate, reticulate, divergent type.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, free at the tips, valvate, persistent, green.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, slightly connate at the base and adnate to staminal tube, twisted.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite, monadelphous forming a tube around the style, the tube being united with
the petals (epipetalous). In the upper part of the staminal tube are borne monothecous and extrorse
anthers.
Gynoecium. Multicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, multilocular, with one ovule in each locule,
placentation axile, style long and stigmas as many as carpels.
Fruit. Capsule. ---.
Floral formula. Br, E9 , 1
,~5), C5 , A( ex), G(5- oc}.
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1.Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetaiae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thaiamiflorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Malvales
1. Stamens usually indefinite and monadelphous.
2. Ovary 3 to many carpellary with axile placentation.
Family. Malvalceae
1. Leaves stipulate.
2. Calyx often with an epicalyx.
3. Stamens monothecous and anthers reniform.
4. Fruit - capsule or schizocarp.
Root - Branched, tap root; Stem- Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy and green; Leaf - Cauline and ramal,
alternate, stipulate, simple, petiolate, cordate, crenate, obtuse, upper surface glabrous and lower hairy, multicostate reticulate;
Inflorescence - AxIllary cyme; Flower - Bracteate, bracteolate, bracteoles 3, pedIcellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous,-hypogynous and cyclic; Calyx - Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, persIstent; Corolla - Petals 5, polypetalous, basifixed,
extrorse; Androecium - Stamens indefinite, monoadelphous formmg a staminal tube around the style, epipetalous, anthers
reniform , monotheous, basifixed, extrorse; Gynoecium _ Multicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior. multilocular, placentation
axile, style and stigma as many as carpels; Fruit - Capsule .
.r---..
Floral formula - Br, brl, e, rJ, K(5} C5, A (00), 9.(5)'
Description of Plant: Malvaceae { 91
L. S. FLOWER
leaf
A FLOWERING TWIG
ovary wall
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free- lateral, simple, petiolate, ovate -lanceolate,
irregularly serrate, acute, glabrous, unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
Flower. Bracteate, bract eo late, bracteoles 3, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, slightly connate at the base, twisted, yellow.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite, monadelphous, forming a staminal tube around the style, epipetalous,
monothecous, anthers reniform, basifixed, extrorsc.
Gynoecium. Multicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, multilocular, placentation axile, styles and stigmas
as many as carpels, capitate.
Fruit. Capsule. ~
Floral Formula. Br, brl, E9, ~,K(S), C s, A(oc), G(cx.).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetatae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamijlorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
Order. Malvales .
1. Stamens usually indefinite and monadelphous.
2. Ovary 3 carpellary with axile placentation.
Family. Malvaceae
1. Leaves stipulate.
2. Calyx often with an epicalyx.
3. Stamens monothecous and anthers reniform.
4. Fruit - capsule or schizocarp.
Stem- Herbaceous, aenal, erect, cylIndrical, branched, solId, puberulous, green; Leaf - CaulIne and ramal, alternate, stipulate, cordate,
serrate, acute, pubescent, unicostate reticulate; Inflorescence - SolItary axillary; }<'Iower - Bracteate, pediceliate, complete,
actinomorphic, hermaphrodIte, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclIc; Calyx - Sepals S, gamosepalous, deeply partite, valvate;
Corolla- Petals S, polypetalous, connate at the base, twisted, yellow; Androecium - Stamens indefinite, monoadelphous forming a
staminal tube around the style, epipetalous, anthers reniform , monotheous, basifixed, extrorse; Gynoecium - Multicarpeliary,
syncarpous, ovary supenor, mlultilocular, placentation axile, style passing through the stamInal tube, stigmas as many as the carpels and
capitate; Fruit - Schizocarp;
r----
Floralformula- Br, $, ~,K(S)' CS, A(oc), Q(oo).
Description of Plant: Malvaceae f 93
L S FLOWER
EB
A FLOWFRING TWIG
,I filament
,1\\
STAMEN
ovary wall
ANDROECIUM AND
GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
1. Economic importance. Leaves are applied to inflammed sores and wound for cooling and healing. Decoction is given in dysentry.
Stem fibre is used for making brooms.
94 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
TILIACEAE*
Corchorus aestuans Linn.
(= Corchorus aculanguius Lamk.)
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy and dark red.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, free-lateral, simple, petiolate, petiole filiform, ovate, serrate,
acute, rough, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Axillary cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, persistent, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, valvate, membranous.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, valvate, yellow.
Androecium. Stamens 15-20,5 in each whorl, polyandrous, filaments thin and weak, dithecous, dorsifIxed and
introrse.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular with 2 ovules in each locule, placentation
axile, style short, stigma trifid and each lobe is again bifurcated.
Fruit. Wmged capsule.
Floral formula. Br, brl, ED, <}, Ks, Cs , As +5 +5, G(3).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Poiypetaiae
1. Petals free.
Series. Thalamiflorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary slll'erior.
Order. Malvales
1. Stamens usually indefinite and monadelphous.
2. Ovary 3 to mutlicarpellarywith axile placentation.
Family. Tiliaceae
1. Alternate stipulate leaves.
2. Stamens indefinite or rarely 10, free or in bundles with dithecous anthers.
3. Ovary of 2-8 fused carpels and 2-8 locular.
4. Fruit - capsule.
A FLOWERING TWIG
connective
RUTACEAE*
Citrus medica Linn.
Stem. Woody, aerial, cylindricat, branched, solid, sparsely spin}' .andgreen.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, palmately compound, unifoliate, petiolate, petiole winged,
elliptic-Ianceolate, crenate, obtuse, glabrous, gland dotted, unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Axillary umbellate cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bract small and caducous, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, penta-
or tetramerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5 or 4, gamosepalous, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5 or 4, polypetalous, imbricate, white, coriaceous and gland dotted.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite, polyadelphous, dithecous, dorsiflxed, introrse, pointed at the apex.
Gynoecium. Multicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, multilocular with generally one ovule in each locule,
placenation axile, a nectariferous annular disc is present below the ovary, style stout, stigma
capitate.
Fruit. A hesperidium.
Floral formula. Br, e, ~, ~5) or (4), C5 or 4, A(oo, Polyadel)., Q(oc).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. DisciJlorae
1. Flowers hypogynous and ovary superior.
2. A disc is usually present below the ovary.
Order. Geraniales
1. Disc usually annular, adnate to the stamens or reduced to glands.
2. Ovary multicarpellary, syncarpous with axile placentation.
3. Ovules ascending or pendulous and raphe usually ventral.
Family. Rutaceae
1. Leaves exstipulate and containing aromatic oil glandS.
2. Stamens 2-5 or and obdiplostemonous.
3. Disc annular.
4. Fruit hesperidium .
stigma -t-~'--+f-!HC;"
stamens
styles
ovules ..
~--,..-;;
disc_~.....
thalamus _ _~~,
L.S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
anthers
connective
placenta --I• •
I
locule -,,<:I
STAMEN ovule
T.S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
L. S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigma
MELIACEAE*
Melia azedarach Linn.
Stem. Woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, older portions glabrous and brown, younger portions
minutely hairy, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, leaf base pulvinus, compound, bipinnate and imparipinnate,
pinnae ovate or lanceolate, coarsely serrate or entire, glabrous, unicostate reticulate, pinna base
more or less oblique.
Inflorescence. Axillary panicle cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, pedicel long, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous or rarely tetramerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, basally connate, valvate, hairy.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, imbricate or quincuncial, purple.
Androecium. Stamens 10, monadelphous, forming a staminal tube enclosing the ovary, tube cylindrical,
dilated at apex and base, apex ten toothed, anthers inserted near apex, dithecous, basifIxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. 5-8 carpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, 5-8 locular with one or two ovules per locule,
placentation axile, style long and slender, stigma 5 lobed, a nectariferous disc is present below the
ovary. '
Fruit. Drupe.
Floral formula. Br, brI, ED, C}, K s, Cs, A(lO), G(S.8)·
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub·Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals f ~ce.
Series. Di5ciflotae
1. A disc is usuaiiy present below the ovary.
2. Ovary superior and flowers hypogynous.
Order. Geraniales
1. Disc usually annular, adnate to the stamens or reduced to glands.
2. Ovary superior and flowers hypogynous.
Family. Meliaceae
1. Leaves pinnately compound and exstipulate.
2. Flowers in cymose panicles.
3. Stamens obdiplostemonous and form a staminal tube.
L. S. FLOWER
anthers _=::it..J...,L..J,-
stigma
ovule
PAPILIONACEAE*
Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merr.
(=S. aegyptioca Pers.)
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, cylindrical, branched, solid, glabrous, green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free- lateral, leaf base pulvinus, compound, unipinnate
and paripinnate, oblong, entire, mucronate, glabrous, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Axillary racemose raceme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, persistent, odd sepal anterior.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, vexillary aestivation, corolla papilionaceous, yellow.
Androecium. Stamens 10, diadelphous 1 + (9), 'dithecous, dorsifixed and introrse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, marginal placentation, style long and curved, stigma
capitate.
Fruit. Pod.
Floralformula. Br, brl, <D,~, ~5), C1+2+(2), Al+ (9), Gl.
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty/edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flower pentamerous.
Sub·Class. Polypetallle
1. Petals free.
Series. Calyciflorae
L Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary inferior or semi-inferior.
Order. Rosales
1. Alternate, stipulate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Family. Papi/.iQ1UlCetlI!
1. Flower zygomorphic.
2. Gynoecium usually one.
3. Corolla papilionaceous with descending imbricate aestivation.
4. Ovary monocarpellary.
flower bud
placenta
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy and green.
Leaf. CauIine and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free-lateral, palmately compound, trifoliate, petiolate,
leaf base pulvinus, obovate, entire, hairy, multicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Racemose raceme.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, odd sepal anterior, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, vexillary aestivation, corolla papilionaceous.
Androecium. Stamens 10, monadelphous, dithecous, dorsiflXed, ·Iltrorse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, ~vules many, placentation marginal, style long and
curved, stigma capitate.
Fruit. Legume. .
Floral formula. Br, <D, ~ ,~5), C 1 + 2 + (2), A (10)' Gl.
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calyciflorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary inferior or semi-inferior.
Order. Rol·ales
1. Alternate, stipulate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Family. Papilionaceae
1. Flowers zygomorphic.
2. Gynoecium usually one.
3. Corolla papilionaceous with descending imbricate aestivation.
4. Ovary monocarpellary .
Indigofera enneaphyllJl L.
Stem - Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid and green; Leaf - Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, free lateral,
compound, unipinnate and imparipinnate, petiolate, leaf base pulvinus, pinnae oblanceolate, entire, mucronate, unicostate reticulate;
Inflorescence- Racemose spike; Flower - Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous
and cyclic; Calyx - Sepals 5, gamosepalous, deeply partite, odd sepal anterior, valvate; Corolla - Petals 5, polypetalous,
papilionaceous, vexillary; Androecium - Stamens 10, diadelphous 1 + (9), Gynoecium - Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular,
ovule's two placentation marginal, style curved, stigmas simple; Fruit - Pod.
~--,:-""'-~stigma
L. S. FLOWER
CD
stem
A FLOWER TWING
anther lobe
, 1\1\
~ OOM'::~ o_~,oceom
L
'~I. ~ "",I.
1 filament
) ii
"! pedicel
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T.S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
Fig. 26. Crotaillrill medicaginea.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, weak, climbing, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, modified into a tendril, stipulate, stipules are in pairs, appressed to the
stem and foliaceous, hastate, entire and acute.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, pedicel long, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous, cyclic.
Calyx:. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, persistent, odd sepal anterior.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous,vexillary, corolla papilionaceous.
Androecium. Stamens 10, diadelphous 1 + (9), dithecous, basiflxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, placentation marginal, style long and curved, stigma
capitate.
Fruit. Legume.
Floralformula. Br, <D, cj, Kc.5), C1+2+(2), Al+ (9), Gl,
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty/edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypeta1ae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calycijlorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary inferior or semi-inferior.
Order. Rosales
1. Alternate stipulate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Family. Papilionaceae
1. Flowers zygomorphic.
2. Gynoecium usually one.
3. Corolla papilionaceous with descending imbricate aestivation.
4. Ovary monocarpellary.
Stem - Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, soild, glabrous and green; Leaf - Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate,
compound, trifoliate, petiolate, pinnae sub- sessile, obovate, serrate, mucronate, unicostate reticulate; Inflorescence - Racemose
raceme; Flower - Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic; CaIyx- Sepals
5, gamosepalous, valvate, odd sepal anterior; Corolla - Petals 5, polypetalous, vexillary; papilionaceous, yellOW; Androceium-
Stamens 10, diadelphous 1 + (9), dithecous, dorsiflXed, introrse; Gynoecium - Monocarpellaty,ovaty superior, unilocular, placentation
marginal, style curved and stigma simple; Fruit -Pod;
stamen --I"..;i;.!~H
foliaceous stipules
CD
ovary wall
CAESALPINIACEAE*
Tamarindus indica Linn.
Stem. Woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, rough, brown, upper portions greenish brown.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, compound, unipinnate and pari pinnate, petiolate, elliptical,
entire, obtuse, unicostate reticulate, glabrous.
Inflorescence. Axillary racemose raceme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 4, polysepalous, imbricate, posterior sepal large, greenish yellow.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, anterior two petals reduced, ascending imbricate, brightly coloured.
Androecium. Fertile stamens 3, staminodes 4, all the 7 forming a staminal column, monadelphous, dithecous,
versatile, introrse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, ovary superior, placentation marginal, ovules many, style long and stigma
knob-like.
Fruit. Legume.
Floral formula. Br, brI, <D, c;},~, Cs, A(3 + 4), Gl.
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalne
1. Petals free.
Series. Calyciflnrae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary inferior or semi-inferior.
Order. Rosales
1. Alternate stipulate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Family. Caesalpiniaceae
1. Flowers zygomorphic.
2. Corolla with ascending imbricate aestivation.
3. Gynoecium usually monocarpellary.
L. S FLOWER
CD
stigma
locule
STAMENS
T. S. OVARY
thalamus
GYNOECIUM
FLORAL DiAGRAM
Fig. 28. Tamarindus indica.
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, compound, unipinnate and paripinnate, petiolate, petiolulate,
leaf-base pulvinus, ovate, entire, acute, unicostate reticulate, glabrous, coriaceous.
Inftorescence. Axillary or extra axillary, pendant, racemose raceme.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial, odd sepal anterior, petaloid.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, ascending imbricate, yellow.
Androecium. Stamens 10, in two whorls of 5 each, the anterior 3 stamens are reduced to staminodes,
polyandrous, dithecous, dorsifixed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, placentation marginal, ovules many, ovary sickle
shaped, style short, stigma capitate.
Fruit. Legume.
Floral formula. Br, brI, <D, r:,~, C5, As + 5, Gl.
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty1edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calyciflorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary inferior or semi- inferior.
Order. Rosales
1. Alternate stipUlate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Family. Caesalpiniaceae
1. Flowers zygomorphic.
2. Corolla with ascending imbricate aestivation.
3. Gynoecium usually monocarpeUary and semi-inferior.
Stem - Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, glabrous and red; Leaf - Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate,
free-lateral, compound, unipinnate and paripinnate, petiolate, petiolulate, a single gland present at the base of the petiole,
elliptic-lanceolate, entire, acute, pubescent, unicostate reticulate; Inflorescence - Axillary cyme; Flower - Bracteate, pedicellate,
complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic; Calyx - Sepals 5, polysepalous, odd sepal anterior,
quincuncial, boat- shaped; Corolla - Petals 5, polypetalous, ascending imbricate, yellOW; Androecium - Stamens 10 in two whorls of
5 each, in outer whorl two posterior and one anterior stamen, and in the inner whorl one posterior stamen, are reduced to staminodes,
rest stamens are fertile, 2 anterior stamens of inner whorl are large, polyandrous, filaments short, dithecous, basifixed, dehisce by apical
pores; Gynoecium - Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many, placentation marginal, style curved, Fruit - Legume
petal
rrfl'£I-}~~L- staminode
L. S. FLOWER
CD
A FLOWERING TWIG
style
placenta
Stem. Woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, rough and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free- lateral, simple, petiolate, petiole pulvinus, cordate,
entire, emarginate, multicostate reticulate divergent, minuterIy hairy.
Inflorescence. Panicle cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, odd sepal anterior, margins membranous, all the sepals are placed on
one side.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, ascending imbricate, pink coloured with prominent red veins.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, fIlaments long, dithecous, versatile, introrse, bent in bud condition.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many, placentation marginal, ovary is curved
and is raised on a small gynophore, style short, stigma simple and sticky.
Fruit. Legume.
Floral formula. Br, brI, <D, cJ, K(s), Cs, As, Gl..
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Poiypetaiae
1. Petals free.
Series. Caiyciflorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary inferior or semi-inferior.
Order. Rosales
1. Alternate stipulate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Family. Caesa/piniaceae
1. Flowers zygomorphic.
. 2. Corolla with ascending imbricate aestivation.
3. Gynoecium usually monocarpellary.
(B-15)
Description of Plant.' Caesalpiniaceae [ 113
L. S FLOWER
gynophore,
wall
I,
STAMEN GYNOECIUM
~
FLORAL DIAGRAM
MIMOSACEAE*
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wt. & Am.
Stem. Woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth and light brown.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free- lateral, pinnately compound, bipinnate, petiolate,
leaf base pulvinus, petiolules sub-sessile, oblong, entire, acute, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Axillary pendent spike. The flowers are polygamous. The flowers in the proximal half of the
inflorescence are sterile, long and pink while the flowers in the terminal half are bisexual, yellow and short.
[I] Flower. (From proximal half of inflorescence) Ebracteate, sessile, incomplete, actinomorphic, sterile,
pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, membranous.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, membranous.
Androecium. All the stamens have been reduced to staminodes which are pink in colour.
Gynoecium. Absent.
Floral formula. Sterile flower. Ebr, EB. sterie, K(s), C(S), Ao, Go
[II] Flower. (From terminal half of inflorescence) Ebracteate, sessile, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, membranous.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, membranous.
Androecium. Stamens 10, in two whorls of 5 each, polyandrous, fIlaments of some inner stamens sometimes
small, versatile, dithecous, introrse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, placentation marginal with many ovules on ventral
suture, style filiform, stigma capitate.
Fruit. Sub-articulated, twisted pod.
Floral formula. Fertile flower. Ebr, ED, c} ,K(s), As + 5, Gl
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calycijlorae
1. Alternate stipulate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Order. Rosales
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary usually inferior or semi-inferior.
Family. Mimosaceae
1. Flowers actinomorphic.
2. Gynoecium usually one and superior. 3. Corolla valvate. 4. Fruit generally lomentum.
STER I LE FLOWER
A FLOWFRING TWIG
stigma
stamens
anther lobe
style
! "'m,",
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy and green, lower
portions brown.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free-lateral, modified into thorns, compound, bipinnate
and paripinnate, petiolate, leaf-base pulvinus, leaflets sub-sessile, oblong, entire, acute, glabrous,
unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Capitate.
Flower. Bracteate, sessile, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, tetra-or pentamerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5 or 4, gamosepalous, valvate, membranous
Corolla. Petals 5 or 4, gamopetalous, valvate.
Androecium. Stamens indefInite, polyandrous, fIlaments long, dithecous, dorsifIxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Mon0carpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, with many ovules, marginal placentation, style long,
stigma capitate.
Fruit. Lomentum.
Floraiformula.Br, E;9, ~'~5)Or(4)' C(5)or(4), A oc ,G1.
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calyciflorae
1. Alternate stipulate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Order. Rosales
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary usually inferior or semi-inferior
Family: Mimosaceae
1. Flowers actinomorphic.
2. Gynoecium usually one and ovary superior.
3. Corolla valvate.
4. Fruit generally lomentum.
Stem - Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, diffuse, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy; Leaf - Cauline and ramal,
altemate,stipulate, free -Iat.!ral, compound, bipinnate, petiolate, leaf base pulvinus, pinnae 10-20 pairs, sessile, oblong., entire, acute,
hairy, unicostate, reticulate, sensitive to touch; Inflorescence - Axillary capitate; Flower - Bracteate, sessile, complete,
actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, tetramerous, hypogynous and cyclic; Calyx - Sepals 4, gamosepalous, valvate; Corolla - Petals 4,
gamopetalous, valvate; Androecium - Stamens 4, polyandrous, filament long, dithecous, dorsifixed, introrse,
Gynoecium - Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, ovules many, placentat: "n marginal, style long and stigma simple; Fruit -
Lomentum:
style'~-':':'~-!lJ!.-.1lL
petal
inflorescence
<::~~fg/jf;;;7 leaflets
stem
anther lobes
rr~%, ~!) III
\j~~~c:O&c9D ~
~onnective i'
~~2
'. ,1, style
L~.m
\
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T.S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
ROSACEAE*
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, caducous, simple, sub-sessile, lanceolate, serrulate, acute,
unicostate reticulate, coriaceous,
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
Flower. Bracteate, sessile, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, perigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, quincuncial.
Corolla.Petals 5, polypetalous, imbricate.
Androecium. Stamens about 40, in 4 whorls, each wliorl carries 10 stamens in five pairs of 2 each. The outer
whorl of stamens is antesepalous and subsequent whorls alternate with each other, polyandrous,
fIlaments long, dithecous, dorsifixed, introrse, bent in bud condition. •
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, rarely bicarpellary, overy semi- inferior, unilocular with 2 pendulous ovules,
placentation marginal, style long and stigma capitate, ovary and lower portion of style hairy.
Fruit. Drupe.
Floral formula. Br,E9r~' ~s), Cs, Arx,~!t.
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. CalycifWrae
1. Thalamus usually cup-shaped.
2. Ovary usually inferior.
Order. Rosales
1. Alternate stipulate leaves.
2. Carpels one or more.
Family. Rosaceae
1. Corolla rosaceous.
2. Stamens usually many and bent in bud condition.
3. Thalamus flat or hollowed.
L. 5 FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
"" stigma
[
I, style
placenta ovule
ovary wall
)
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
Habit. Herb.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid and hairy.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite, stipulate, stipules adnate to petioles, compound, pinnately 3-9 foliate,
pinnae obovate, serrate and obtuse.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and
spirocyclic.
Epicalyx. 5, alternating with sepals.
Calyx. Sepals 5, connate with epicalyx, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, valvate.
Androecium. St~ens indeftnite, polyandrous, fIlaments slender, anthers dithecous, basiftxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Multicarpellary, apocarpous, ovary superior, carpels are spirally arranged on an elongated
receptacle, ovule in each carpel on basal placentation, style short and lateral, stigma pointed.
Friut. An etaerio of achenes.
Floral formula. Ebr, $ ! ~, E 5 , ~5), C5, Ace:, G ce:.
Classification and ·indentification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
_ 1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calycijlorae
1. Thalamus usually cup-shaped.
2. Ovary usually inferior.
Order. Rosales
1. Alternate stipulate leaves.
2. Carpel one or more.
Family. Rosaceae
1. Corolla rosaceous.
2. Stamens usually many and bent in bud condition.
3. Thalamus flat or hollowed.
Stem-Woody, aerial, erect or climbing, branched, solid, prickly and green: Leaf-Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules adnate,
compound, unipinnate and imparipinnate, petiolate, petiolulate, ovate, serrate, acute, unicostate, reticulate; InOorescence-Fiowers
solitary or in terminal pairs or sometimes in clusters; Flower- Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite,
epigynous, and cyclic; Calyx-Sepals 5, gamosepalous, quincuncial, persistent and hairy; Corolla-Petals 5 or more, polypetalous,
imbricate, rosaceous, variously coloured; Andtoecium-Stamens indefinite, polyandrous, filaments slender and unequal, dithecous,
dorsifixed, introrse; Gynoeclum-Polycarpellary, apocarpous, ovary inferior, enclosed in calyx tube, basal placentation, style short, stigma
capitate; Frult- Etaerio of achenes;
Floral formula- Ebr, ~, 'l, Es, ~5)' C5, Ace:, Qoc:
Description of Plant,' Rosaceae [ 121
L.S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
GYNOECIUM
MYRTACEAE*
Callistemon citrinus (Curtis) Skeels
(=CaUistemon lanceo/atus, DC.)
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portion woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid and glabrous, younger
portions puberulous, brown.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate 2/5, exstipulate, simple, sub- sessile, lanceolate, entire, acute, unicostate
reticulate, leathery, gland dotted.
Inflorescence. Pendent intercalary spike.
Flower. Bracteate, sessile, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, epigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, imbricate or valvate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, imbricate, boat-shaped.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite, polyandrous, filaments bright red and united at the very base forming a
staminal sheath, dithecous, versatile, introrse.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, trilocular, placentation axile, many ovules in each
locule, style long and stigma capitate.
Fruit. Capsule. _
Floral formula. Br, e, ~ , ~s), Cs, A ac , G(3).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calycijlorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary inferior.
Order. Myrtales
1. Leaves simple and entire.
2. Ovary syncarpous, usually inferior.
3. Placentation axile.
Family. Myrtaceae
1. Woody, with opposite or alternate, exstipulate leaves.
2. Stamens indefinite sometimes in bundles.
3. Carpels 2 to 8.
style --'':':-f:-~+-+I
sepal
petal
L.S. FLOWER
stem
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigma
anther lobe
style ovary wall
GYNOECIUM
STAMEN (calyx tube split open) T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth, purple brown.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, falcate, acute, unicostate reticulate, glabrous
and gland dotted, coriaceous.
Inflorescence. Panicle cyme.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, epigynous and
cyclic.
Calyx and Corolla. Calyx and corolla are fused to form a cup that falls off as an operculum as soon as the
flower opens.
Androecium. Stamens indefinite arising from the brim of the cup- shaped thalamus, polyandrous, fllaments
long and incurved in bud condition, anthers dithecous, versatile and introrse.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, trilocular, ovules in each locule on axile placentation,
style long, stigma simple, ovary wall gland dotted.
Fruit. Loculicidal capsule. _
Foral formula. Ebr, ~(9, ~,K(fused), C(fused), Ace, G(3).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Poly petalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calycijlorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped.
2. Ovary inferior.
Order. Myrtales
1. Leaves simple and entire.
2. Ovary syncarpous, usually inferior
3. Placentation axile.
Family. Myrtaceae
1. Woody with opposite or aiternate exstipulate leaves.
2. Stamens indefinite, sometimes in bundles.
3. Carpels 2 to 8.
L. S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigma
thalamus
CUCURBITACEAE*
Coccinza cordi/olia (L.) Cogn.
(= Coccinia indica Wight & Arn.)
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, weak, climibing, tendril climber, tendril leaf opposed and unbranched, angular,
branched, solid, glabrous, green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, palmatifid, petiolate, cordate, denticulate, acute,
glabrous, multicostate reticulate diverging type venation, coriaceous.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
[I] Male flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, incomplete, actinomorhpic, unisexual, staminate, pentamerous,
cyclic.
Calyx:. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, campanulate.
Androecium. Stamens 5, arranged in 3 groups, there are two stamens in 2 groups and in 1 group there is only
one stamen, monothecous and extrorse.
Gynoecium: Absent.
Floral formula. Ebr, 'Ea, a,
~5)' C(5), A(2) + (2) + h Go·
[II] Female flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, pistillate, pentamerous;
, cyclic.
Calyx:. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, campanulate.
Androecium. Absent.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, placentation parietal, placentae intruding,
style short, ~tigma 3, forked and feathery.
Fruit. Pepo.
Floral formula. Ebr, Ea, 9, ~5), C(5), Ao, G(3).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate. 2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Poiypeta/ae
1. Petals free.
Series. CalyciJlorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped. 2. Ovary inferior.
Order. PassiJlorales
1. Tendril climbers. 2. Ovary usually inferior, syncarpous, unilocular with parietal placentation.
Family. Cucurbitaceae
1. Flowers usually unisexual. 2. Stamens 5, free or each 2 united or all the 5 in a central synadrium.
3. Carpels usually 3, stigma forked. 4. Fruit a pepo.
support
stamens
~
ANOROECIUM T. S, OVARY
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, weak, climbing by tendrils, angular, branched, solid, rough and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, palmately lobed, lobes denticulate, acute and hairy,
multicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Male flowers in clustered raceme and female flowers solitary.
[I] Male flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, staminate, pentamerous,
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, basally connate, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, imbricate or quincuncial, basally connate.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, adnate to the petals at the very base, monothecous, basiflXed, extrorse.
Gynoecium. Absent.
Floral formula. Br, ED, 0, Ks , Cs, As, Go.
[II] Female flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, pistillate, pentamerous,
epigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, valvate, basally connate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, imbricate, basally connate.
Androecium. Absent
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, placentation paretal, placentae intruding,
styles 3, terminating into 3 lobed stigmas.
Fruit. Pepo.
Floral formula. Br, ED, 9, K s , CS, A o, G(3)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledons
1. Venation reticulate. 2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypetalae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calycijlorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped. 2. Ovary inferior.
Order. Passiflorales
1. Tendril climbers. 2. Ovaery usually inferior, syncarpous, unilocular with parital placentation.
Family. Cucurbitaceae
1. Flowers unisexual. 2. Stamens 5, free or each 2 united or all the 5 in a central synandrium. 3. Carpels
usually 3, stigmas forked. 4. Fruit a pepo.
stigma ...-lbiL.,---=~
pedicel
I.. S. MALE FLOWER
'../6lIO~ placenta
..
~"' (~~£ 10,,1.
~ ovary wall
UMBELLIFERAE* (APIACEAE)
Coriandrum sstmun UDD.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, angular, branched, solid, glabrous, nodes are very prominent, aromatic smell
present.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, compound decompound, petiolate, leaf base sheathing, pinnae
narrow, entire, acute, unicostate reticulate, aromatic smell present.
Inflorescence. Compound umbel consisting of many umbellules.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, central flowers actinomorphic, peripheral flowers zygomorphic due
to unequal size of petals, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, epigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, valvate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, valvate, each petal is bilobed. In central flowers (actinomorphic) the lobes of
all petals are equal in size. In case of peripheral flowers (zygomorphic) one anterior petal has 2 large
equally developed lobes, two lateral petals have one bigger and one smaller lobe and the rest two
petals have two equal small lobes.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, filaments long and slender, dithecous, dorsiflXed and introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, bilocular, with one pendulous ovule in each locule,
placentation axile, styles 2, stigmas 2 and capitate. A disc called stylopodium is present below the
style.
Fruit. Cremocarp splitting into 2 mericarps.
Floral formula.
(a) Centralflower. Br, e. ~,Ks. Cs , As, G. 2)·
(b) Peripheralflower. Br, (J), <}, Ks. CS, As, G(2)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation retic,:ulate. 2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Polypeta/ae
1. Petals free.
Series. Calyciflorae
1. Thalamus cup-shaped. 2. Ovary inferior.
Order. Umbellales
1. Inflorescence umbel. 2. Ovary inferior with 1, 2, or 8 fused carpels and as many locules. 3. Ovules
solitary, pendulous in each locule.
Family. UmbeUiferae
1. Stems fistular. Leaves alternate, exstipulate usually much dissected with sheathing leaf base. 2.
Carpels 2, fused, with 2 styles on swollen style base (stylopodium). 3. Fruit schizocarp, splitting into
2 mericarps.
CD
STAMEN A FLOWERING TWIG
RUBIACEAE*
Mussaenda luteola Delile.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, nodes and inter nodes very prominent, solid, hairy
and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, stipules interpetiolar, simple, subsessile, ovate, entire, acute,
ciliate,unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Dichasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, younger flowers actinomorphic, older flowers
zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, some are tetramerous also, epigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, valvate, persistent, in zygomorphic flowers one of the sepals is modified into a
yellow leaf-like structure.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, hypocrateriform, throat and mouth hairy.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, inserted at the throat of the corolla, epipetalous, filament short,
dithecous, dor:;ifIxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, bilocular with many ovules on T-shaped placentae,
placentation axile, style long, stigma bifid.
Fruit. Berry, .......--. _
Floraal formula. Br, brl, e or <D, <}, K s, C(S), As, G (2) .
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotykdonae.
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Inferae
1. Ovary inferior.
2. Stamens usually as many as corolla lobes.
Order. Rubiaks
1. Leaves opposite.
2. Stamens epipetalous.
3. Ovary 2-8 locular.
Family. Rubiaceae
1. Opposite decussate, entire leaves with interpetiolar stipules.
2. Flowers in cymes. .
3. Gynoecium bicarpefIat;y, syncarpous, inferior, each locule with 1-8 ovules.
4. Placentum T -shaped.' '.
connective anther
lobe·
filament
STAMEN
, ,
• I style
corolia tube'
ovule
style
,,
, ,'
A FLOWERING TWIG
T.S. OVARY
A FLOWERING PLANT
stigma
anther lobel
connective
ovary wall locule
--
Pentacarpellaty, (sometimes hexacarpellaty), syncarpous, inferior, pentalocular (sometimes hexalocular) with one ovule in each locule,
placentation axile. style filiform, stigmas as many as carpels and linear; Fruit· Capsule;
petal
thalamus
L. S. FLOWER
A-FLOWERING TWIG
.rAMEN STAMEN
(front view) I (back view)
placenta
sepal ovary wall
ovule
locule
COMPOSITAE* (ASTERACEAE)
Sonchus brachyotes DC.
(=S. arvensis Linn.)
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, fistular, glabrous, younger portions with glandular
hairs, green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, amplexicaul, hastate, dentate, acute, glabrous,
unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Capitulum, homogamous and ligulate, involucre of bracts present at the base of inflorescence.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, epigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Reduced to pappus.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, corolla ligulate, with 0/5 arrangement..
Androecium. Stamens 5, syngenesious, epipetalous, anthers are joined around the style, dithecous, basiflXed
and introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, placentation basal, ovule only one, style long
and stigma bifid.
Fruit. Cypsella. ,..---.....
Floral formula. Br, e, c}, Kpappus, C(O/5), A(5), G(2)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Inferae
1. Ovary inferior.
2. Stamens usually as many as corolla lobes.
Order. Asterales
1. Stamens epipetalous.
2. Ovary unilocular with one ovule.
Family. Compositae
1. Leaves generally alternate.
2. Inflorescence capitulum.
3. Calyx reduced to hairy pappus.
4. Stamens epipetalous' and syngenesious.
Inflorescence
A FLOWER
amplexicaul
leaf bare (split open)
CD
,,.------ ............ ,,
STAMEN
A FLOWERING TWIG
," , "',
style - I " ",\
I
,,
I
\
\
,
ovary wall I I
I I
~anther
II lobes
I
,
\ ,,
,
ovule
~connective
\
\ , ,
I
I
" ~..
'.. '-----_ ... ",.,', "
~'
ovary
filament
1. Economic importance. The plant is used medicinally in many parts of this country.
140 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Stem. Herbaceous,aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, glabrous, hairy and light brown.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, elliptic-Ianceolate, crenulate, acute,
hairy, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Capitulum. It is heterogamous - the peripheral flowers (ray florets) are ligulate and central
flowers (disc florets) are tubular, involucre of bracts present.
[I] Ray florets. Present on periphery, bracteate, sessile, incomplete, zygomorphic, unisexual, pistillate,
tetramerous, epigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 4, reduced to pappus.
Corolla. Petals 4, gamopetalous, valvate, ligulate, the posterior two petals reduced to dentate structures.
Androecium. Absent.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, placentation basal, style short and stigma
bifid.
Floral formula. Br, <D, 9, Kpappus' C(2/2), Ao, G(2).
[II] Disc florets. Present in centre, bracteate, sessile, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, tetramerous,
epigynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 4, reduced to pappus.
Corolla. Petals 4, gamopetalous, valvate, corolla tubular.
Androecium. Stamens 4, syngenesious, epipetalous, filaments long, dithecous, basiftxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, 'syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, basal placentation, style short and stigma
bifid.
Fruit. Cypsella. __
Floral formula. Br, $, rJ, Kpappus, C(4), A(4), G(2)·
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty/edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetaiae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Inferae
1. Ovary inferiOi .
2. Stamens usually as many as corolla lobes.
Order. Asterales
1. Stamens epipetalous.
2. Ovary unilocular with one ovule.
Family. Compositae
1. Leaves generally alternate.
2. Inflorescence capitulum.
3. Calyx reduced to hairy pappus.
4. Stamens epipetalous and syngenesious.
Description of Plant: Compositae [ 141
petal
calyx
ovary
Stem - Extremely reduced; Leaf - Radical, exstipulate, simple, sessile, somewhat Iyrate, margins spinulose, unicostate reticulate;
Inflorescence - Homogamous heads (capitula), raised on a scape, scape is aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched., solid and smooth; Flower
- A1lligulate, bracteate, bracts form involucre, sessile, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, epigynous, epigynous
and cylic; Calyx - Reducrd to papus; Corolla - Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, Iigulate forming a short tube at the base, yellow;
Androecium - Stamens 5, syngenesious, epipetalous, anthers joined around the style, dithecous, basifixed, introrse;
Gynoecium- Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, with one ovule, placentation basal, style long, stigmas two and
plumose; Fruit - Cypsella.
stigmas
.. ~ A FLOWER
(split open)
style
A FLOWERING TWIG
anther lobes
ovary wall
fiiament
ovule
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite or alternate, exstipulate, simple, ovate, serrate, acute, hairy, unicostate,
reticulate.
Inflorescence. Heterogamous capitulum, peripheral ray florets are ligulate and the central disc florets are
tubular. Involucre of bracts is also present.
[I] Ray floret. Present in the peripheral region of the inflorescence, bracteate, sessile, incomplete,
zygomorphic, unisexual, pistillate, pentamerous, epigynous, cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 2, anterio-posteriorly situated, reduced to pappus.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, ligulate, 0/5.
Androecium. Absent.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, one chambered, placentation basal, style short, stigma
bifid.
Fruit. Cypsela.
Floral formula. Br, <D,~, K2 (pappus), CO/S, Ao, G(2)'
[II] Disc floret. Situated in the centre of inflorescence, bracteate, sessile, complete, actinomorphic, bisexual,
pentamerous, epigynous, cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 2, anterio-posteriorly situated, redced to pappus.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, tubular.
Androecium. Stamens 5, syngenesious, anthers fused to form a tube around the style, epipetalous dithecous,
basiflXed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, one chambered, placentation basal, style short, stigma
bifid.
Fruit. Cypsela. ,.--...
Floral formula. Br, 6), rJ, K 2 (pappus), C(S), A(S), G(2)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotykdonae
1. Reticulate venation.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub·Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
Series. lriferae
1. Ovary inferior.
2. Number of stamens equal to the number of petals.
Order. Asterales
1. Stamens syngenesious.
2. Ovary unilocular and with one ovule.
Family. Compositae (Asteraceae)
1. Leaves generally alternate.
2. Inflorescene capitulum.
3. Calyx reduced to pappus.
4. Stamens epipetalous and syngenesious.
(B-15)
Description of Plant.' Compositae [ 145
"#'~,/";r,,...,..,;;'---involucre
of bract!!
RAY FLORET
calyx
ovary
DISC FLORET
APOCYNACEAE*
Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don
( = Vinca rosea Linn.)
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, angular, branched, solid, puberulous, purple-red, milky latex present.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, stipulate interpetiolar, simple, elliptic-obovate, entire,
mucrollate, puberulous, unicostate reticulate, latex present.
Inflorescence. Axillary dichasial cyme or solitary axillary.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, valvate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, twisted, corolla hypocrateriform, purple.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, inserted at the mouth of the corolla tube, epipetalous, dithecous,
dorsifrxed , introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovaries are free and superior, placentation marginal, style long, stigma
drum- shaped and sticky. 1\vo ligulate hypogynous nectaries are present one on the anterior side and
the other on the posterior side of the ovary.
Fruit. Etaerio of follicles. ,--
Flora formula. Ebr, e, 9,
Ks, C(5)' As, 9(2).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
~eries. Bicarpel/ntae
1. Carpels two
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Gentianales
1. Leaves opposite.
2. Flowers actinomorphic.
3. Stamens epipetalous.
Family. Acocynaceae
1. Inflorescence cymose.
2. Stamens not gynandrous.
3. Ovules one or two in each locule.
4. Ovaries two, free, but united by the style.
S. Latex present.
style
A FLOWERING TWIG
L.S.FLOWER
stigma
style
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, smooth, green, muky latex is present.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, sub-sessile, pulvinus, linear-Ianceolate, entire, acute, glabrous,
unicostate reticulate, milky 1atex present.
Inflorescence. Axillary dichasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial, green and persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, twisted, infundibuliform, yellow coronary outgrowths present.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, inserted at the throat of the corolla, filament short, anther
sagittate, dithecous, basiflxed and introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular, two ovules in each locule, placentation axile,
style long, stigma capitate, a hypogynous somewhat 5 lobed nectar secreting disc is present.
Fruit. Drupe. .--
Floral formula. Br, brI, e, rJ.
Ks, C(S), As, Q(2)
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledons
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpel/atae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Gentianales
1. Leaves opposite.
2. flowers actinomorphic.
3. Stamens epipetalous.
Family. Apocynaceae
1. Inflorescence cymose.
2. Stamens not gynandrous.
3. Ovules one or two in each locule.
4. Ovaries two, free, but united by the style.
S Ll.tex present
petal
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigma
STAMEN
-style
locule
petal
stamen
ovary
ovules
style
STAMEN
I ovary
ASCLEPIADACEAE*
Calotropis procera (Willd.) Dryand. ex W. Ait.
(=Asc/epios procera Willd.)
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, lower portions smooth,
upper portions covered with woolly hairs, pale green, milky latex present.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, acute, hairy, woolly, unicostate reticulate, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic.
InOorescel\.ce. Polychasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, twisted, coloured. •
Androecium. Stamens 5, united with the stigma to form gynostegium, each stamen is represented by
two pollinia with their retinaculae. The'pollinia of the adjacent anthers are joined by their retinaculae
to corpusculum in a groove, to form a unit known as translator. A coronary outgrowth is present at
the back of each stamen.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, ovaries free but upper portion of style and stigma are fused, superior, placentation
marginal, ovules many per locule, stigmati r head pentagonal.
Fruit. Etaerio of follicle. ,,--...
Floral formula. Br, brI, ED, ~,Ks, C(S), A(Sj, Q 2'.
Classification and identification
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetalo.e
1. 'Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpelllltae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Gentiana/es
1. Leaves opposite.
2. Flowers actinomorphic.
" 3. Stamens epipetalous.
Family. Asc/epiadaceae
1. Flowers solitary or in cymose umbels.
2. Petals usually convolute.
3. Stamens gynandrous, pollen usually in pollinia with translators.
4. Ovaries two, free, but united by the style.
petal
gynostegium -+-........-'1"t~"'!i
coronary _-+-~~~
out growth
L.S. FLOWER
Ii
/""~, / A FLOWERING TWIG
~
" tovarywan
pollinium ovules
locule" placenta
•
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, weak, climbing, twiner, cylindrical, branched, solid, rough,
green, milky latex present, nodes prominent.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate but due to the twining nature of stem they appear to be
superposed, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, petiole swollen, elliptic-ovate, entire, acute, glaucous,
unicostate reticulate, coriaceous.
Inflorescence. Dichasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial, green, margins membranous.
Corolla. Sepals 5, gamopetalous, twisted, violet coronary outgrowths present.
Androceium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, dithecous, introrse, pollen grains are shed from each lobe
of the anther and are deposited in the translator, translator spoon - shaped and attached by adhesive
disc in between the two stamens.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, ovary superior, ovaries free bilt style and stigma fused, ovules many per locule,
placentation marginal, style very short and stigma knob-like.
Floral formula. Br, brI, e, ~,Ks, C(s):As, G2'
Classification and identification. ..
Class. Dicoty/edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetallle
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpel/atae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior
Order. Gentianales
1. Leaves opposite.
2. Flowers actinomorphic.
3. Stamens epipetalous.
Family. Asc/epiadaceae
1. Flowers solitary or in cymose umbels.
2. Petals usually convolute.
3. Stamens gynandrous; pollen usually in pollinia with translators.
4. Ovaries two, free, but united by the style.
Description of Plant : Asclepiadaceae [ 155
petal
TRANSLATOR
(0
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, glabrous, milky latex present.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, lanceolate, entire, acute,
unicostate reticulate, glabrous.
Inflorescence. Extra axillary umbel.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, petals are only basally connate, twisted and brightly coloured.
Androecium. Stamens 5, fused with the stigma to form a pentangular gynostegium. Each stamen is
represented by two pollinia with their retinaculae.The pollinia of the adjacent anthers are joined by
their retinaculae to corpusculum in a groove, to form a unit known as translator. A coronary
outgrowth (appendage) is present at the back of each stamen.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, ovaries superior and free but style and stigma are fused, placentation marginal,
ovules many per locule.
Fruit. Etaerio of follicles ,--...
Floral formula. Br,e, -rJ, K s, C(S), A(S),~:b
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty/edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetalo.e
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpellatae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Gentiana/es
1. Leaves opposite.
2. Flowers actinomorphic.
3. Stamens epipetalous.
Family. Asc/epiadaceae
1. Flowers solitary or in cymose umbels.
2. Petals usually convolute.
3. Stamens gynandrous; pollen ususally in pollinia with translators.
4. Ovaries two, free, united by the style.
Description of Plant : Asclepiadaceae [ 157
gynostegium -....I,fI.~~tzI\iJ1
FLOWER
T.S. OVARY
CONVOLVULACEAE*
Convolvulus microphyllus Sieb ex. Spreng.
(=C. pluricaulis Choisy)
Stem. Herbaceous, weak, prostrate, diffuse, cylindrical, branched, solid, hairy and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, lanceolate, margin entire and hairy, acute,
surface hairy, unicostate, reticulate.
Inflorescence. Axillary dichasial cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial, hairy, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, induplicate valvate, infundibuliform, light purple.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, filaments unequal, 3 short and 2 long, broader at the base,
dithecous, dorsiflXed and introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular with 2 ovules in each locule, placentation axile,
an annular nectary is present below the ovary, style short, stigma bifid and spreading.
Fruit. Capsule. ,.---...
Floral formula. Br, brI, Ea, ~, Ks , C(S), As, 2(2).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub- Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpe/latae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Polemoniales
1. Leaves alternate, exstipulate.
2. Flowers actinomorphic.
Family. Convolvulaceae
1. Gynoecium bicarpellary, syncarpous with basal ovules in each locule on axile·placentation.
2. Fruit capsule.
peta
flower
A FLOWERING TWIG
anther lobes
onnective
placenta ovary wall
filament
~ locule
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
Fig. 53. Convolulus microphyllus.
(B-15)
Description of Plant : Convolvulaceae [ 161
stamen-+~~
coronarY outgrowth
L. S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigmas
ovary wall
anther lobes
~
d
I '
L.S.FLOWER
EB
A FLOWERING TWIG
~
ahther lobe
connective
)
STAMEN
T.S. OVARY
GYNOECIUM
FLORAL DIAGRAM
Fig. 55. lponwea fistuloSll.
SOLANACEAE·
Solanum nigrum Linn.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth or puberulous and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, but due to the fusion of the petiole with the stem axis, the leaves at some
places seem to be opposite, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, ovate, entire or slightly lobed or sometimes
serrate, acute, glabrous, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Extra-axillary cyme.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, rotate, white.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, ftlaments broad at the base and hairy, anthers conniving,
dithecous, basifixed and dehisce by apical pores.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular with many ovules in each locule, placentation
axile, septum oblique, placentae highly swollen, style long and hairy, stigma bilobed.
Fruit. Berry. ~
Floral formula. Ebr, e, '1,
~S)' C(S), As. §(2).
Classification and identification.
Class. DicotyWoIllllJ
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopeta/.tu
1. Petals fused.
Series. BicarpefIIIttuJ
1. 'Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Po1emonillles
1. Alternate, exstipulate leaves.
2. Flower.s actinomorphic.
Famiky. Solllnaceae
1. Flowers solitary terminal or cymosely umbelled.
2. Septum is oblique and the placentae are highly swollen.
3. Fruit - berry or capsule.
thalamus
L
\-\
pedicel
L S. FLOWER
'II
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigma
pores
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, covered with woolly hairs
and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, ovate, entire, acute, glabrous, unicostate
reticulate.
Inflorescence. Axillary umbellate cyme.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, campanulate.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, anthers conniving, dithecous, basiflxed and introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular, ovules many per locule, placentation axil(4,
septum oblique, placentae highly swollen, style long and stigma capitate.
Fruit. Berry. ___
Floral formula. Ebr, e, r}, ~S), C(S), As, Q(2).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpellatae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Polemoniales
1. Alternate exstipulate leaves.
2. Flowers actinomorphic.
Family. Solanaceae
1. Flowers solitary, terminal or cymosely umbelled.
2. Septum is oblique and the placentae are highly swollen.
3. Fruit berry or capsule.
Stem - Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, pubescent, green; Leaf - Cauline and ramal, alternate or sub- opposite,
exstipulate, simple, petiolate, fused with the axis to some distance, ovate, entire, acute, pubescent, unicostate reticulate;
Inflorescence - Solitary axillary or extra- axillary; Flower - Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic; Calyx -Sepals S, gamosepalous, twisted, persistent; Corona - Petals S, gamopetalous, twisted,
trumpet-shaped, white; Androecium - Stamens S, polyandrous, epipetalous, anthers conniving, dithecous, basifixed, introrse;
Gynoecium - Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular at the apex and tetralocular at the base due to the false septum, ovules
many per locule, placentation axile, septum oblique, placentae highly swollen, style long and stigma dome-shaped; Fruit - A septifragal
--
capsule.
sepal--~
stamen - .........-11
L.S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigma
anther lobe ovary wall
connectiVe]". , "",.
fl~~nt ~
STAMEN
''"'''' J
GYNOECIUM
placenta
T.S. OVARY
FLORAL DIAGRAM
Fig. 57. Withania -"ifem.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, lanceolate, entire, acute, unicostate
reticulate, glabrous.
Inftorescence. Axillary cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, sub-sessile, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and
cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, induplicate valvate, corQlla hypocrateriform, yellow-green.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, ditheccus, dorsiflXed, introrse.
Gynoeclum. Bicarpellary, synacarpous, ovary superior, bilocular, axile placentation, with many ovules in each
locule, setpum oblique, placenta highly swollen, style long, stigma bilobed.
Fruit. Berry. ,--
Floral formula: Br, Ea, ~,~s), C(s), As, Q(2)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty/edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub·Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpelllltae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary ususally superior.
Order. Polemoniales
1. Alternate exstipulate leaves.
2. Flowers actinomorphic.
Family. Solanaceae
1. Flowers solitary, terminal or cymosely umbelled.
2. Septum is oblique and the placentae are highly swollen.
3. Fruit berry or capsule.
Stem - Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, hailY and green; Leaf - Cauline and ramal, alternate in the lower region
but opposite decussate in upper region, exstipulate, simple, sessile, elliptic-ovate, entire, acute, hailY, unicostate reticulate, coriaceous;
Inflorescence - AxillalY dichasial cyme; Flower - Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaporodite, pentamerous,
hypogynous and cyclic; Calyx - Sepals 5, gamosepalous, deeply partite, persistent and hairy; Corolla - Petals 5, gamopetalous,
induplicate valvate, infundibuliform, varioursltcoloured; Androec:ium - Stamens 5, polyandrous, epipetalous, filaments unequal,
dithecous, basifIXed, introrse; Gynoec:ium - BicarpellalY, syncarpous, ovalY superior, bilocular, with many ovules in each locule,
placentation axile, septum Oblique, placentae highly swollen, style long, stigma capitate and sticky a disc below the ovary; Fruit -
Capsule.
IK,'-+-- petal
stamen
style
flower bud
I,
L S. FLOWER
stigma
anther lobe
'connective
style STAMEN
c~
~W
ovule
locule
placenta
ovary
disc
~
GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY
FLORAL DIAGRAM
Fig, 58, Cestrum nocturnum.
SCROPHULAR1ACEAE*
Mazus pumilus (Brum.f.) Steen.
(=Mazus rugosus Lour.)
Habit. Prostrate herb.
Root. Tap root, branched.
Stem. Reduced.
Leaf. Radical, forming a rosette; others are opposite decussate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, spathulate, margin
crenate, acute or obtuse, puberulous, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Racemose raceme raised on a scape, scapes many and some bear a few leaves.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous, cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate or sometimes quincuncial, campanulate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, corolla 2/3 personate, upper lip short and 2 lobed, lower lip spreading and
three lobed, valvate, throat with a 2-lobed palate, pale blue with streaks.
Androecium. Stamens 4, polyandrous, epipetalous, didynamous, ftlaments long and curved, anthers
dithecous, basifIxed, introrse, anthers of pairs are confluent in young condition.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular with many ovules in each locule, axile
placentation, style filiform, stigma 2 and lamellate.
Fruit. Capsule enclosed inside the persistent calyx.
Floral formula. Br, (J), ~, ~5), C(2I3),A.., 02).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Ganwpetaiae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpellatae
1. Carpels two,
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. PersonaTes
1. Flowers zygomorphic.
2. Corolla personate.
-3. Stamens usually 4, didynamous or 2.
4. Ovary uni-bi-or rarely tetralocular; ovules usually indefInite.
Family. Scrophulariaceae
1. Flowers never terminal.
2. Gynoecium bicarpellary, syncarpous, bilocular.
3. Ovules man~ on axile placentation.
·1. English name. Figwort family.
2. Systematic position in other systems or classffication.
Rendle (1925) Engler and Prantl (1931) Hutchinson (1959)
Dicotyledons Dictyledoneae Dicotyledons
Sympetalae Sympetalae Herbaceae
Tetracyclicae Tubiflorae Personales
Superae Scrophulariaceae Scrophulariaceae
Tubiflorae
Solanineae
Scrophulariaceae
Description of Plant : Scrophulariaceae [ 171
L S FLOWER
CD
A FLOWERING PLANT
Slem- Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, soild, puberulous, green; Leaf-Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate,
exstipulate, simple, ovate, serrate, acute, pubescent, unicostate reticulate; Inflorescence-- Solitary axillary; Flower- Ebracteate,
sub-sessile, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic; Calyx- Sepals 5, gamosepalous, imbricate,
hairy; Corolla- Petals 5, gamopetalous, corolla 2/3 bilabiate personate, Imbricate; Androecium- Stamens 4, polyandrous.
epipetalous, didynamous, anthers are separated from one another by the elongation of the connective, dithecous, introrse;
Gynoecium- Bicarpellary, :;yncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular with many ovules in each locule, placentation axile, style long, stigma
fimbriate; Fruil- Capsule;
,..---..,.
Floral formula- Ebr, <D, r}, ~5)' C(2/3), A2 + 2, Q(2)'
Description of Plant : Scrophulariaceae [ 173
L. S. FLOWER
CD
root
A FLOWERING TWIG
anther lobes
connective
stigma
ovary
ovules?/~1JJJj~~rr
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
1. Economic importance. The herb is used as a blood purlfer and also cures skin diseases.
174 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
ACANTHACEAE*
lusticia ~endarussa L. f.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, nodes prominent and flat, branched, solid, glabrous, red-brown.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, stipulate, simple, petiolate, petiole small, lanceolate, crenate,
obtuse, glabrous, unicostate reticulate, coriaceous.
InOorescence. Dichasial cyme, arranged in a racemose fashion.
~'Iower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, pedicel small, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, valvate, corolla 2/3, bilabiate personate.
Androecium. Stamens 2, polyandrous, epipetalous, dithecous, anther lobes are situated at unequal heights and
lower one bears an appendage, basifIxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular ~th one ovule in each locule, axile
placentation, style long) stigma simple and knob- like.
Fruit. Capsule. ,..--
Floral formula. Br, brI, e, ~, K5, C(2/3), A 2, &(2).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub- Class. Gamopetaiae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpelkltae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Personales
1. Flowers zygomorphic.
2. Corolla bilabiate personate.
3. Stamens usually 4 didynamous, or two.
4._0vary uni-,bi-or tetralocular, ovules usually indefInite.
Famil)'. Acanthaceae
1. Herbs or shrubs with opposite leaves.
2. Flowers in spikes, racemes or cymose umbels.
3. Anthers are situated at unequal heights.
4. Gynoecium bilocular, each locule with indefInite to two ovule
5. Jaculators are present between the seeds.
flower bud
L. S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG CD
stigma
anther lobes
style
ovary wa~1
........:.. locule
1\t.~Vl'.'L<':ir- inflorescence
L.S. FLOWER
CD
A FLOWERING TWIG
style
appendage
filament
ovule locule
ovary wall
L. S. FLOWER
A FLOWERING TWIG
connective
filament
ovary
ovule
VERBENACEAE*
Duranta repens Linn.
(=D. plumieri J,:,cq.)
Habit. Shrub.
Root. Tap root, branched.
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, puberulous and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, exstipulate, simple, sub-sessile, leaf base pulvinus, ovate, entire,
some leaves serrulate, acute, unicostate reticulate, glabrous.
Inflorescence. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, complete, slightly zygomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, valvate.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, quincunical, hypocrateriform, corolla 2/3 bilipped, anterior 3 petals are
large, blue, corolla tube hairy from inside.
Androecium. Stamens 4, polyandrous, epipetalous, didynamous, dithecous, adnate, introrse, anthers sagittate.
Gynoecium. Tetracarpellc.ry, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, placentae intruding and each carrying 2
ovules, placentation parietal in young, but later due to the inward growth of the placentae,
placentation becomes apparently axile, style short, stigma capitate.
Fruit. Drupe.
Floral formula. Br, brl, (1), .c}, ~5), C(2/3), A2+2, G(4)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty1edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Gamopetalae
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpelllltae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually superior.
Order. Lamia1es
1. Flowers zygomorhpic:
2. Corolla bilipped.
3. Stamens 4 didynamous or 2.
4. Ovary 2 to 4 locular,
5. Ovule one in each locule, rarely more.
Family. Verbennceae
1. Opposite or whorled leaves.
2. Gynoecium usually tetracarpellary by formation of secondary septa.
3. Fruit, drupe or schizocarpic.
• 1. English name. Verbena family.
2. Systematic position in othO!r systems of classmcaton.
Rendle (1925) Engler and PranO (1931) Hutchinson (1959)
Dicotyledons Dicotyledoneae Dicotyledons
,Sympetalae Sympetalae Lignosae
TetracycJicae Tubiflorae Verbenales
Superae Verbenaceae Verbenaceae
Tubiflorae
Verbenineae
Verbenaceae
Description of Plant : Verbenaceae [ 181
\ filament
STAMENS
A FLOWERING TWIG
stigma
l. S. FLOWER
CD
A FLOWERING TWIG
anther
lobes
~I
(i ~
connective
lif-filament
placenta
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T.S.OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
LABIATAE* (LAMIACEAE)
Ocimum sanctum Linn.
Habit. Herb or undershrub.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, quadrangular, branched, solid, pubescent, green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, opposite decussate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, ovate, serrate, acute, pubescent,
aromatic smell present, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Verticillaster.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Calyx. Sepals 5, gamosepalous, calyx 1/4 bilabiate, valvate, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, gamopetalous, corolla 4/1 bilipped, 'valvate.
Androecium. Stamens 4, polyandrous, epipetalous, didynamous, dithecous, dorsiflXed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, placentation axile, tetralocular with one ovule in each
locule, a disc is present below the ovary, style gynobasic and stigma bifid.
Fruit. Carcerulus.
Floral formula. Br, <D, ~'~1/4)' C(4/1), A2+2, G (2)·
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty1edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub·Class. Gamopetallle
1. Petals fused.
Series. Bicarpellatae
1. Carpels two.
2. Ovary usually 3uperior.
Order. Lamia1es
1. Flowers zygomorphic.
2. Corolla bilipped.
3. Stamens 4, didynamous or 2.
4. Ovary 2 - 4 locular.
5. Fruit drupe or schizocarpic.
Family. Labiatae
1. Stem quadrangular. 2. Decussate or whorled exstipulate leaves. 3. Inflorescence verticillaster.
4. Gynoecium generally bilocular with 2 ovules in each locule, sometimes tetralocular with one ovule
in each locule. 5. Style gynobasic. 6. Fruit carcerulus.
stigma _ _-rr....'I,
stamen --~~~I
style _-..,~,-+,-....L\
L. S. FLOWER
CD
A FLOWERING TWIG
connective
~POSt.liP
,
'~i"
I
stigma
calyx
9ynobasic ---+..u.~~J
style
ovary
nectary ---'"''&'.
L.S. FLOWER
CD
Wl' "om.
i style
I
II\)
filaments'
\ L connective
l '
Y
nectary
sterile
lobe
ovary
ovule
placenta
nectary
FLORAL DIAGRAM I
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T.S. OVARY
AMARANTHACEAE*
Amaranthus spinosus Linn.
Habit. Herb.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, terete, branched, solid, spines present and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, elliptic-ovate, entire, mucronate, unicostate,
reticulate, membranous, 2 spines are present in the axil of each leaf which represent modified axillary
branch.
Inflorescence. Condensed compound spike, terminal or axillary.
[I] Male flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, sessile, incomplete, actinomorphic, staminate and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 5, polytepalous, quincuncial, membranous and chaffy.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, anteposed, filaments thin and long, dithecous, versatile, introrse.
Gynoecium. Absent.
Floral formula. Br, br~ $. a, Ps , As, Go.
[II] Female flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, sessile, incomplete, actinomorphic, pistillate and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 5, polytepalous, quincuncial, membranous and chaffy.
Androecium. Absent.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, with a single basal ovule, styles 2 spreading,
stigma bifid and hairy.
Fruit. Utricle.
Floral formula. Br, brl, E9 J ~,Ps, Ao, 02).
Classification and identifICation.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Monoch/amydeae
1. Flower usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or none.
Series. Curvembryae
1. Embryo curved.
Family. Amaranthaceae
1. Opposite or alternate leaves.
2. Flowers small, haplochlamydous, usually hermaphrodite and actinomorphic.
3. Tepals 4 or 5, usually sepaloid.
4. Stamens 1 to 5 anteposed.
5. Gynoecium 2-3 carpellary, syncarpous, superior, unilocular with indefInite to 1 ovule.
anther lobes
stamen
Habit. Herb.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, quadrangular, branched, solid, hairy, and green.
Leaf. Cauline anJ ramal, opposite decussate, exstipulate, simple, sub-sessile, elliptic-ovate, entire, acute,
unicostate, reticulate, rough, coriaceous.
Inflorescence. Spike in which flowers are sharply deflexed.
Flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, bracts and bracteoles have spinous tips, sessile, complete, actinomorphic,
hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 5, polytepalous, quincuncial, membranous and chaffy.
Androecium. Stamens 10 in 2 whorls of 5 each, the outer whorl is reduced to fImbriate staminodes,
monadelphous, fllaments thin, dithecous, versatile and introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular with a single ovule on a basal placentum,
style short, stigma knob-like.
Fruit. Utricle.
Floral formula. Br, brl, EB" <:,
P5, ~ +;;), G(2)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicoty/edonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Monochlamydeae
1. Flowers usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or none.
Series. Curvembryae
1. Embryo curved.
Family. Amaranthaceae
1. Opposite or alternate, exstipulate leaves.
2. Flowers small, haplochlamydous, usually hermaphrodite and actinomorphic.
3. Tei>als 4 or 5, usually sepaloid.
4. Stamens 1 to 5, anteposed.
5. Gynoecium 2-3 carpeUary, syncarpous, superior, unilocular with indefInite to 1 ovule.
~~- inflorescence
A FLOWERING TWIG
anther lobe
connective
ovary
CHENOPODIACEAE*
Chenopodium album Linn.
Habit~ Herb.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, angular, branched, solid, pubescent, green, some parts are even red.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, petiole filiform, ovate or elliptic-Ianceolate,
entire, unicostate reticulate, coriaceous.
Inflorescence. A condensed cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, sessile complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 5, polytepalous, quincuncial, boat shaped, sepaloid, nerved.
Androecium. Stamens 5, polyandrous, anteposed, fUament long, dithecous, basiflxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, with. one basal ovule, style sh,ort and stigma
bifid.
Fruit. Utricle.
Floral formula. Br, e, ~,Ps, As, 9(2)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Monochlamydeae
1. Flowers usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or none.
Series. Curvembryae
1. Embryo curved.
Family. Chenopodiaceae
1. Leaves alternate, often fleshy.
2. Flowers small, homochlamydous, actin~}morphic and either hermaphrodite or unisexual.
3. Tepals usually 5.
4. Stamens as many as tepals and anteposed, bent inwards in bud condition.
5. Gynoecium bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular with one basal ovule .
(B-15)
Description of Plant " Chenopodiaceae [ 193
inf/orescence--'\I11K'll tepal
stamen-"'---Jf
stigma_~-"-.,,.I.
stvle'--'~'--U.,I
FLOWER
(split open) L. S. FLOWER
I
'"
A FLOWERING TWIG
if """,,ti~
anther lobes
/t-filament
POLYGONACEAE*
Polygonum giabrum WilJd.
Habit. Herb.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, weak, prostrate, cylindrical, branched, solid, glabrous, nodes and internodes are
very prominent.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules ochreate, simple, lanceolate, entire, acute, unicostate
reticulate.
Inflorescence. Axillary cyme.
Flower. Bracteate, bract glabrous, pedicellate, pedicel small, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite,
pentamerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 5, polytepalous, quincuncial.
Androecium. Stamens are generally 7 or 8 situated in two whorls, the outer of 5 and inner of 2 or 3,
polyandrous, basifixed, the stamens of the inner whorl extrorse and those of outer whorl introrse.
Gynoecium. Bricarpellary, syncarpous, 'ovary superior, unilocular, with a single basal ovule, style short and
sigma bifid.
Fruit. Nut.
Floralformula. Br, e, cJ,Ps, As + 2, ~2)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotykdona
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-class. Monochlamydeae
1. Embryo curved.
Family. Polygonaceae
1. Leaves usually with ochreate stipules.
2. Flowers haplo-to heterochlamydous, hermaphrodite and regular.
3. Gynoecium superior and unilocular with usually one basal erect ovule .
:i
-I
;~~ --inflorescence
,~'
.)
~l:>\
"\\
\L.- Ieaf
~-----II.--ochreate
stipule
L. S. FLOWER
""'!-_ _ _ _ stem
I
,I
A FLOWERING TWIG
anther lobAs
style
oVarYW~1I
ovule
locule~
ovary
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, angular, branched, solid, glabrous and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal,alternate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, petiole filiform, elliptic-Ianceolate, undulate,
acute, glabrous, unicostate reticulate.
InOorescensce. Flowers are arranged in panicled racemose clusters.
Flower. Ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, trimerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 6 in 2 whorls of 3 each, polytepalous, valvate, sepaloid. The inner tepals enlarge in the fruiting
conditon and cover the fruit.
Androecium. Stamens 6 in 2 whorls of 3 each, the outer whorl is opposite the outer tepals and the inner whorl
is opposite the inner tepals, polyandrous, dithecous, basifIxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular, placentation basal, style short, stigma 3 and
hanging downward.
Fruit. Nut.
Floral formula. Ebr, e, f}, P3+3, A 3 +3, G(3).
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Monochfllmydeae
1. Flowers usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or none.
Series.Curvemhryae
1. Embryo curved.
Family. Polygonaceae
1. Leaves usually with ochreate stipules.
2. Flowers haplo-to heterochlamydous, hermaphrodite and regular.
3. Gynoecium superior and unilocular with usually one erect basal ovule.
style
l. S. FLOWER
"
A FLOWERING TWIG
anther lobes
connective
filament
f\
EUPHORBIACEAE*
I!uphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotz.
(=Poinsettia pulcherrima R.Grah.)
Habit. Shrub.
Root. Tap, branched.
Stem. Herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, angular, branched, solid, rough and green, milky latex
present.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, petiolate, petiole ftliform, ovate, entire, acute, smooth,
unicostate reticulate, milky latex present.
Inflorescence. Cyathium, some bracts are red coloured and leaf-like, whereas others, which are insignificant
form a cup-like structure, on outside of which is present a nectary and inside a number of male
flowers, surrounding a single female flower.
Male flower. It is represented only by a single stamen which has a long and slender filament having a joint in
the middle. The anther is monothecous, basifixed and introrse. Male flowers are in the axils of scaly
bracts.
Floral formula. Br, d, 1<0, Co, Ah Go.
Female flower Represented only by a gynoecium placed on a long stalk. Gynoecium is tricarpellary,
syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular with one ovule in each locule, placentation axile, style short,
stigmas three and each is bifid.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floral formula. Br, 9, 1<0, Co, Ao, g(3)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub- Class. Monochlamydeae
l. Flowers usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or none.
Series. Unisexuales
1. Flowers unisexual.
2. Perianth sepaloid or much reduced or absent.
3. Ovules 1 or 2 per carpel.
Family. Euphorbiaceae
1. Alternate stipUlate leaves with latex.
2. Perianth usually in one whorl or absent.
3. Stamens 1 to indefinite, free or united or branched.
4. Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular with one or two ovules in each
locule.
5. Styles Three.
L. s. CYATHIUM
."f;+~ _ _ stigmas
,anther
lobe ovary wall locule
I pedicel
p acenta
MALE FLOWER FEMALE FLOWER Fl.ORAL DIAGRAM CYATHIUM
branched stamens
axillarv branch
Habit. Herb.
Root. Branched tap root.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, stipules free- lateral, simple, sub-sessile, elliptical, entire, obtuse,
glabrous, unicostate reticulate.
Inflorescence. Solitary axillary.
[I] Male flower. Present on lower side, ebracteate, pedicellate, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual,
staminate, trimerous, and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 6, present in two whorls of 3 each, polytepalous, imbricate, at the base of each tepal of inner
whorl 2 nectaries are present.
Androecium. Stamens 3, monadelphous, ftIaments fused to form a staminal column, monothecous, basifixed, extrorse.
Gynoecium. Absent.
Floral formula. Ebr, ED d, P 3 + 3 , A(3), Go.
[II] Female flower. Present o~ the upper sides of the branches, ebracteate, pedicellate, incomplete,
actinomorphic, unisexual, pistillate, trimerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 6, in two whorls of3 each, polytepalous, imbricate, margins membranous.
Androeciucm.Absent.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular, with two ovules in each locule, placentatiori
axile, style very short or absent, stigma trifid, each branch is for~ed and sticky.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floralformula.Ebr, Ea, 9,P3+3" An, 03)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate. 2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Monochlamydeae
1. Flowers usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or none.
Series. Unisexuales
1. Flowers unisexual. 2. Perianth sepaloid or much reduced or absent. 3. Ovules 1 or 2 per carpel.
Family. Euphorbiaceae
1. Alternate stipulate leaves with latex. 2. Perianth usually in one whorl or absent. 3. Stamens 1 to
indefinite, free or united or branched. 4. Gynoecium tricarpellary syncarpous, superior, trilocular
with one or two ovules in each locule.
':~~~~S':
leaf~'
' / l/)~.:/i)
gland '~1I1 " ~\
'\~ ,r~'/-'
J Ie>
MALE FLOWER
FEMALE FLOWER
ovary wall
A FLOWERING PLANT
T.S. OVARY
Habit. Shrub.
Root. Tap, branched.
Stem. Woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, upper portions red while lower portions green,
glandular hairs present.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, exstipulate, simple, deeply lobed, petiolate, petiole filiform, covered with
many glandular hairs, lobes elliptic-ovate, serrulate, acute, glaucous, venation multicostate
reticulate, divergent type, texture coriaceous.
Inflorescence. Panicle cyme.
[I] Male flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, staminate,
pentamerous, cyclic, 5 nectariferous discs are present alternating to petals.
Calyx. Sepals 5, polysepalous, quincuncial, persistent, margins glandular.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, twisted, red.
Androecium. Stamens 10 in 2 whorls of 5 each, monadelphous at the very base only, fIlaments short,
dithecous, dorsiflXed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Absent.
Floral formula. Br, brl, E9, a, K s, Cs, A(S +S), Go·
[II] Female flower. Bracteate, bracteolate, pedicellate, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, pistillate,
pentamerous, hypogynous, a nectariferous disc present below the ovary.
Calyx. Sepals, 5, polypetalous, quincunical, persistent.
Corolla. Petals 5, polypetalous, twisted.
Androecium. Absent.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular, placentation axile with one ovule in each
locule, styles 3, stigma 3 and each is bifid.
Fruit. Regma splitting into 3 cocci.
Floral formula. Br, brl, Ea, !(, K s, Cs Ao, 03)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotykdonae
1. Venation reticulate.
2. Flowers pentamerous.
Sub-Class. Monochlamydeae
1. Flowers usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or none.
Series. Unisexuaks
1. Flowers unisexual.
2. Perianth sepaloid or much reduced or absent.
3. Ovules 1 or 2 per carpel.
Family. Euphotbioceae
1. Alternate stipulate leaves with latex.
2. Perianth usually in one whorl or absent.
3. Stamens 1 to indefinite, free or united or branched.
4. Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous, superior, trilocular with one or two ovules in each locule.
5. Styles three.
Description of Plant : Euphorbiaceae [ 205
'
,:1 pedicel
l. S MALE FLOWER
L S FEMALE FLOWER
c;If
anther lobe
~
.
: ~) - connective stigma
'lstYle
tL "'moO< ,~
i' ,
\:::::#
Jj) ovary
STAMEN GYNOECIUM
ovary WJII
T. S OVARY
URTICACEAE (MORACEAE)*
A10ms alba Linn.
Habit. Tree.
Stem. Upper portions herbaceous, lower portions woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth
and green.
Leaf. Cauline and ramal, alternate, stipulate, simple, petiolate, ovate, serrate, acute, unicostate reticulate,
glabrous.
Inflorescence. Catkin.
[I] Male flower. Ebracteate, sessile, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, staminate, tetramerous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 4, in two whorls or 2 each, polytepalous.
Androecium. Stamens 4, opposite the tepals, filaments long, dithecous, basiflxed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Absent.
Floral formula. Ebr, (D, 0, P2 + 2 , A 4 , Go.
[II] Female Ilower. Ebracteate, sessile, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, pistillate, tetramerous,
hypogynolls and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepab 4, in two whorls of 2 each, polytepalous.
Androecium. Absent.
Gynoecium. Bicarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, unilocular with one pendulous ovule, style short,
stigmas two.
Fruit. Sorosis.
Floral formula. Ebr, e, 9, P2 + 2, Ao, G(2)
Classification and identification.
Class. Dicotyledonae
1. Venation reticulate.
Sub-Class. Monochlamydeae
1. Flowers usually with one whorl of perianth, commonly sepaloid or none.
Series. Unisexuales
1. Flowers unisexual.
2. Perianth sepaloid or much reduced or absent.
3. Ovules one or two per carpel.
Family. Urticaceae (Moraceae)
1. Leaves stipulate with latex.
2. Tepals usually 4 or absent.
3. Stamens as many and opposite the tepals.
4. Gynoecium bicarpellary, syncarpous, superior, unilocular with usually one pendulous ovule.
MALE BRANCH
~
ov u I e -.::-t~+-''f-
ovary
tepal Iii
STAMEN
MONOCOTYLEDONS
ORCHIDACEAE*
Zeuxine strateumatica (Linn.) Schlect.
(=Z. sulcata Lindl.)
Habit. Herb.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, unbranched, solid and smooth.
Leaf. Alternate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, leaf base sheathing, linear, acuminate, parallel.
Inflorescence. Terminal raceme.
Flower. Bracteate, pedicellate, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, trimerous, epigynous and cyclic,
resupinate at anthesis.
Periantb. Tepals 6 in two whorls of 3 each, polyphyllous, the anterior tepal of the outer whorl large; the
posterior tepal of the inner whorl saccate forming the lip or the labellum, labellum adnate to the
column or gynostegium, lip yellowish, other tepals pinkish, inner whorl imbricate and outer valvate.
Androecium. Fertile stamen one imd staminodes two, one on either side of 'the stamen and attached to the
base of the anther. The fertile stamen is united with the style to form a column or gynostegium which
is opposite the labellum, column or gynostegium short, having a pair of flaps or wings covering the
anther. The stamen is connected to the ovary by rostellum. The anther is modified into a pair of
pollinia, each having a caudicle which are attached to the corpusculum.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, unilocular, parietal placentation, ovules many on each
placenta. The column has 2 fertile stigmas and a specialized organ rostellum which represents the
third stigma.
Fruit. Capsule.
Floral formula. Br, <D, <}, P 3 + 3, AI> G(3).
Classification and identification.
Class. Monocoty:edonae
1. Venation parallel.
2. Flowers trimerous.
Series. Microspermae
1. Inner perianth petaloid.
2. Ovary inferior with 3 paerietal or rarely axile placentae.
3. Seeds minute.
Family. Orchidaceae
1. Flowers hermaphrodite, zygomorphic and often resupinated.
2. Perianth in two whorls of 3 each.
3. Stamen one or two, united with the sytle to form column.
4. Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous, inferior with indefinite ovules.
5. Stigmas 3, the third usually rudimentary or forming a rostellum.
ovules ~\ I
pedicel ¥\
L. S. FLOWER
corpusculum'
POLlINl.o\
LABELLUM
(seen from above)
ovary wall
COLUMN
(front view) T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
(B-15)
210 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
SCITAMINEAE (MUSACEAE)*
Musa paradisiaca Linn.
(= M. sapientum L.)
Stem. Underground rhizome.
Leaf. Cauline, alternate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, leaf-base forming below a false aerial stem, elliptical,
entire, obtuse, glabrous, uniocstate parallel venation.
Inflorescence. Spadix.
Flower. Bracteate, sessile, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, trimerous, epigynous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 6, arranged in two whorls of 3 each, the three outer and two inner anterior tepals are united
to form a tube-like structure, the inner posterior tepal is free, large and petaloid.
Androecium. Stamens 6 arranged in two whorls of 3 each, the posterior stamen is reduced to staminode,
dithecous, dorsifixed, introrse.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary inferior, trilocular with many abortive ovules in each locule,
placentation axile, style long and stigma capitate.
Fruit. Elongated berry. _
Floral formula. Br, <D, ~,P1+(5), A 3+ 2• G(3)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Monocotyledonae
1. Venation parallel.
2. Flowers trimerous.
Series. Epigynae
1. Perianth partly petaloid.
2. Ovary usually inferior.
Family. Scitamineae (Musaceae)
1. Compound inflorescence with large petaloid bracts.
2. Flowers zygomorphic, hermaphrodite or unisexual.
3. Perianth in two whorls and petaloid.
4. Gynoecium tricarpellary, syncarpous, trilocular with one to indefmite ovules.
5. Fruit berry or capsule .
FLOWER
L. S. FLOWER
INFLORESCENCE
CD
anther lobes
stigma
connective . L
J style
II::
~I
1\1 / filament
I
STAMEN GYNOECIUM T. S. OVARY FLORAL DIAGRAM
LILIACEAE*
Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.
Habit. Herb.
Root. Adventitious.
Stem. Reduced underground.
Leaf. Radical. arising in a rosette-like manner, acicular, acute, cylindrical, venation multicostate paralle1.
Inflorescence. Scapiferous racemose raceme, the scape is aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid, smooth
and green.
Flower. Bracteate, bracts boat-shaped and keeled at the back, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic,
hermaphrodite, trimerous, hypogynous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 6, present in two whorls of 3 each, polytepalous, valvate, petaloid, white, a prominent
brownish ridge is present in the centre of each tepal.
Androecium. Stamens 6, in two whorls of 3 each, polyandrous, epitepalous, ftlaments of outer whorls are
longer and that of ianer whorl short, ditbecous, versatile, introrse.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, syncarpous, ovary superior, trilocular with two rows of ovules in each locule,
palcentation axile, style slender and stigma bilobed.
Fruit. Capsule. ~
Floral formula. Br, E9, 9,
P3+3, A3+3, !!(3)'
Classification and identification.
Class. Monocotyledonae
1. Venation paralle1.
2. Flowers trimerous.
Series. Coronarieae
1. Inner perianth petaloid.
2. Ovary superior.
Family. Liliaceae
1. Inflorescence usually scapiferous racemose type.
2. Perianth in two whorls and petaloid.
3. Stamens also in two whorls and epiptepalous.
4. Gynoecium 2-5 locular and placentation axile.
."
{213
Description of Plant : Liliaceae
tepa's
stigma'--':\----.lUILL!L:::-£-..
flower bud
l. S. FLOWER
ovary wall
I" 'ocu'e
Il,l, FLORAL DIAGRAM
STAMEN
Fig. 81. Asphodelus lenui/olius.
PALMAE*
Phoenix sylvestris (Linn.) Roxb.
(=Elate sylvestris Linn.)
Habit. Tree.
Stem. Woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, covered with the persistent bases of petioles, unbranched, solid, rough
and brown. It is known as caudex.
Leaf. Cauline, forming a dense terminal crown, exstipulate, compound, unipinnate petiolate, pinnae
sub-sessile, lanceolate, entire, glabrous, unicostate parallel venation.
Inflorescence. Spadix.
[I] Male flower. Bracteate, sessile, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, staminate, trimerous and cyclic.
Perianth. Tepals 6, in two whorls of 3 each, the outer 3 tepals connate in a cupular 3 toothed calyx, inner tepals
free, twisted.
Androecium. Stamens 6 in two whorls of 3 each, polyandrous, ftlaments short, dithecous, dorsiflXed and
introrse:
Gynoecium. Absent.
Floralformula. Br, e, <5, P (3) + 3, A 3 + 3, Go·
[II] Female flower. Bracteate, sessile, incomplete, actinomorphic, unisexual, pistillate, trimerous, hypogynous
and cyclic:
Perianth. Tepals 6 in two whorls of 3 each, the outer 3 connate in a globose accrescent calyx, the inner 3 free
and imbricate or valvate.
Androecium. Absent.
Gynoecium. Tricarpellary, apocarpous, ovary superior, ovule one per carpel, style absent, stigma uncinate.
Fruit. Berry.
Floralformula. Br, e, «.i?, P(3) +3, Ao,lli.
Classification and identification.
Class. Monocotyledonae
1. Venation parallel.
2. Flowers trimerous.
Series. Calycineae
1. Perianth sepaloid, herbaceous or membranous.
2. Ovary superior.
Family. Palmae
1. Tree-like plants with fan leaves.
2. Flowers actinomorphic, unisexual and in spikes.
3. Perianth in two whorls and sepaloid.
4. Stamens 3 + 3, or 3, 9 or 8.
S. Gynoecium tricarpellary, trilocular with one ovule in each locule.
6. Fruit berry or drupe.
MALE
INFLORESCENCE carpels
FEMALE
INFLORESCENCE
CYPERACEAE*
Cyperus rotundus Linn.
A FLOWER
ovule
T.S.OVARY
A FLOWERING PLANT
stvle
anther lobes
connective
ovary
ll.l---filament
POACEAE (GRAMINEAE)*
Triticum aestivum Linn.
( = Triticum vulgare Viii.)
Habit. Herb.
Root. Adventitious, fibrous.
Stem. Herbaceous, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, branching is only at the basal region of the stem and is
known as tillering, culm, smooth and green.
Leaf. Alternate, exstipulate, simple, sessile, leaf distinguished into a linear leaf blade and a leaf sheath, and
at the junction of these two a small membranous ligule is present, lamina lanceolate, entire, acute,
minutely hairy, multicostate parallel.
Inflorescence. Spike of spikelets. Each spikelet consists of the following parts-
(1) A pair of glumes present at the base; outer one is called the first glume and the inner one as second
glume. These glumes are barren.
(2) After glume, is present lemma or inferior palea.
(3) There is present superior palea or pale. The essential organs of flower lie between superior palea or
lemma and inferior palea or pale.
Flower. Sessile, complete, zygomorphic, hermaphrodite, hypogynous and cyclic.
Perianth. Represented by 2 rudimentary free tepals known as lodicules.
Androecium. Stamens 3, polyandrous, filaments long, dithecous, versatile and introrse.
Gynoecium. Monocarpellary, ovary superior, unilocular, with one marginal ovule, style absent, stigma 2 and
feathery.
Fruit. Caryopsis.
Floral formula. Br, (D, rJ,
Pz, A 3, ~h.
Classification and identification.
Class. Monocotyledonae
1. Ventation parallel.
2. Flowers trimerous.
Series. Glumaceae
1. Flowers solitary, sessile in the axil of bract.
2. Perianth of scales or none.
3. Ovary usually unilocular and one ovuled.
Family. Poaceae
1. Joined stems with alternate 2 ranked leaves with split sheath and ligule.
2. Inflorescence spilelet and each begins with one or two empty glumes then palea with axillary flowers.
3. Stamens usually three.
4. Gynoecium superior With one ovule.
5. Fruit caryopsis .
gynoecium --~4_~,
stamen
lodicule
pale--~~\
barren glume
A DISSECTED SPIKELET
A FLOWERING TWIG
4. The grains are used after removal of the husk and 4. It is chiefly grown in V.P., Rajasthan, Orissa,
are very nutritious. Grain contains considerable Maharashtra, Bihar, M.P., etc. India also export
amount of proteins, fat and starch. It also forms small quantities to V. K., France, Sri Lanka,
a raw material for alcoholic beverages. The Burma, etc.
stems are used as hat fibres and straw for
mushroom cultivation. 2.Soyabean
5. China produces about 32% of the worlds rice, Botanical name. Glycine max
India following with 21%. The highest yield in Hindi name. Soyabean
India comes from West Bengal and Bihar. Family. Papilionaceae
Edible part is the seed produced in pod or legume.
3. Maize or Corn
1. It is a small, bushy, erect or prostrate annual that
Botanical name. Zea mays grows from 1-6 feet. Each pod contains 3-4 seeds.
Hindi name. Makka, Bhutta 2. It is grown alone or mixed with maize or sorghum;
Family. Gramineae or Poaceae in fertile loam or sandy loam soils.
Edible part is caryopsis which is a fruit called grain. 3. Soyabean contains 32-42% proteins and has the
1. The plant is anO:ual grass. It possesses both male highest lysine content (3.8%).
and female flowers on the same plant. Grains 4. Besides being used variously as a food article,
are fruits (caryopsis) which contain proteins soyabean flour, oil and milk are also extensively
besides starchy endosperm. used.
2. Maize is used as a food for livestock; flour is used 5. Manchuria leads the production followed by
in the preparation of corn bread. Other uses Korea, Japan, China and Indonesia. India also
include corn flakes, corn starch, syrup, corn oil, grows a small amount of this crop.
dextrins, industrial alcohol. Fibres are also
obtained from the main plant for making paper, 3. Black gram
yarn and as pith. Zein-the maize protein is
useful in the manufacture of artificial fibres. Botanical name. Vigna mungo(= Phaseolus mungo)
3. U. S. A. produces half the world's output. Other Hindi name. V rd
corn producing countries include China, Family. Papilionaceae
Argentina, Brazil, India, Mexico, etc. Edible part is the seed produced in pod or legume.
4. In India, maize was introduced by East India 1. It is a herbaceous annual with procumbent
<.;ompany in 12th century. It is now chiefly branches, wooly in appearance. The leaves are
cultivated in V. P., Bihar, Rajasthan, M. P., trifoliate and the flowers are borne in clusters of
Punjab, A. P., etc. five to six.
2. It is grown as a mixed crop in loamy or heavy soils
PULSES OR LEGUMES in \\d.fm climate with good amount of rain.
3. It is highly prized for its high phosphoric contents.
1. Cajan pea or Pigeon pea It is preferred in the preparation of papars,
Botanical name. Cajanus cajan kachoris, etc. The seeds are eaten raw,
Hindi name. Arhar germinated, salted or boiled. They are also used as
Family. Papilionaceae dal. Straw is fed to the cattle.
Edible part is the seed produced in pod or legume 4. The major areas of production in India include
(fruit). M.P., V.P., Punjab, Maharashtra, West Bengal,
1. This annual plant is 6-7 feet tall. The leaves are A.P. and Karnataka.
trifoliate and flowers are borne in an axillary 4. Green gram
raceme.
2. It is grown as a mixed crop withjowar, bajra, ragi, Botanical name. Vigna radiata (= Phaseolus
cotton, maize, ground nut, etc. radiatus)
3. Cajan pea is extensively used as dal; the green Hindi name. Moong
leaves and tops as animal feed and also as a Family. Papilionaceae
green manure. Edible part is a seed produced in pod or legume.
222 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
1. This small herbaceous annual grows tC' a height 2. The heartwood is brownish in colour with darker
of 1-3 feet. The leaves are trifoliate and the streaks. It is hard and mod~rately heavy to very
yellow flowers are produced in clusters. heavy.
2. It grows on loams as well as on red and black 3. It is diffuse porous. Growth rings are indistinct
soils as a kharif crop. It requires rainfall and ripple marks are present.
between 25-35 inches distributed throughout 4. The wood can be seasoned without much
the year. difficulty. It can last for about 288 months.
3. The green pods are used as vegetable, seeds as a 5. The tree occurs throughout the sub -Himalayan
pulse and straw and husk as fodder for cattle. tract from Indus to Assam. It has also been
Seeds are eaten as whole, as dal, parched, extensively cultivated in many parts of the
salted, germinated or boiled. country especially Punjab, V.P., West Bengal
4. It is widely cultivated in India. The major states and Assam.
are M.P., V.P., Punjab, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, 6. Shisham is very commonly used for building
Karnataka, Tamil N adu, Bihar and A.P. purposes, furniture, carriages, carving, etc.
3. Heart wood is dark brown and turns almost black MEDICINAL PLANTS
with age. Annual rings are distinct, marked with
regularly arranged pores. 1. Belladona
4. Teak. wood is used for construction purposes, Botanical name. Atropa belladonna
furmture and cabinet work. Hindi names. Sag-angur, Angurshefa
5. The tree grows in western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, Family. Solanaceae
M.P., Orissa, Mysore and Bihar.
Part of the plant used is the root for extraction of a
SUGAR & STARCH drug atropine.
1. Drug is applied externally to relieve pain, taken
1. Sugarcane internally to check excessive perspiration,
whooping coughs, as sedatives, antispasmodic,
Botanical name. Saccharum officinarum
mydriatic in diseases of eye, to dilate pupil
Hindi name. Ganna
during eye testing, antidote in poisoning by
Family. Gramineae or Poaceae
opium and in asthma.
Part of the plant used is stem for sugar extraction.
2. Plant grows abundantly in Himalayas and is
1. This perennial grass grows 8 to 12 feet tall and is
cultivated in Europe and America.
supported by stilt roots.
2. It grows best in warm humid weather. 2. Poppy (Opium)
3. The juice extracted from stem by expres~ion is
crystallised to manufacture sugar. The bagasse, Botanical name. Papaver somniferum
molasses and filter mud which are by-products Hindi names. Afim, post
of sugar extraction are also used variously. Family. Papaveraceae
4. Chief cane sugar producing countries include Part of plant used is unripe capsule from which latex
Brazil, Cuba, India, China, Australia, etc. based drug morphine is extracted.
5. Eighty per cent sugar cane in India is grown in 1. The dried juice or latex obtained from unripe
north India with U .P. leading the list capsules is used.
2. The incisions are made on the unripe capsules,
2. Potato shortly after the fall of petals. The crude latex
contains resins, oils and alkaloids including
Botanical name. Solanum tuberosum
Hindi name. Aalu morphine and codeine.
3. The latex has narcotic and soothing properties
Family. Solanaceae
Part ot'the plant used is underground stem tuber. and is used as a nervous stimulant to induce
sleep and relieve spasms. Large quantities are
1. It is rich in starch and forms one of the most
injurious or even lethal. Oils from the poppy
commonly used vegetable
seeds are medicinally used.
2. Plant, a native of South America, is about foot
4. The herb is a native of West Asia and is grown
tall, spreading annual. The undergound
in India, China and Asia Minor. In India, the
branches swell at the tip to form tubers.
plants are cultivated in U.P., Punjab, Rajasthan
3. It grows over a wide range of soil and climatic
and M.P.
conditions.
4. It is a universal table food and is also used for 3. Rauvolfia
sizing cotton and paper, production of dextrins, Botanical name. Ravolfia serpentina
alcohol, adhesives, etc. Hindi names. Sarpa gandha, Chota chand
5. About 90% production comes from Europe. In Family. Apocynaceae
India it is largely cultivated in U.P., H.P., Punjab, Part of the plant used is root from which drug is
M.P., etc. extracted.
224 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
1. This plant is being used since ancient times. Root Parts of plant used are leaves which give a popular
and bark contain many alkaloids inclu~ing beverage called tea.
serpentine and reserpine. 1. Plant is a shurb. Three to four feet tall. It grows
2. It is used in the treatment of epileptic fits, snake at an altitude of about 5000' above MSL on
bites, high blood pressure and has hypnotic, steep slopes.
sedative and tranquilising effects. 2. Tea contains 2.5% theine, 13-18% tannin, volatile
1. Plant grows in tropcial Himalayas and in plains oils and a small amount of caffeine.
near the foot hills. The best growth occurs in 3. The leaves are plucked and cured and an infusion
north and south Kanara along the western ghats. in boiled water yields most popular of the
It is grown in West Bengal, Bihar and U.P. beverages.
4. India is one of the leading producers and
4. Quinine exporters of tea. About 73% of the total output
Botanical name. Cinchona officinalis (also C. calisaya, comes from south-east region, especially Assam
C. succirubra) and West Bengal.
Hindi name. Cinchona
Family. Rubiaceae
2. Coffee
Part of the plant used is bark for extraction of Botanical name. Coffea arabica (also C. robusta,
antimalarial drug quinine. C. !iberica)
1. Twelve year old bark of the tree, is used to extract Hindi name. Kafi
quinine - a white granular substance with a bitter Family. Rubiaceae
taste. It contains about 20 or so alkaloids of Parts of the plant used are seeds which are used for
which cinchonidine, cinchonine and quinidine the preparation of a beverage called coffee.
are useful as medicine. 1. The plant grows in hot, moist climate. These are
2. Medicinally it is used against malaria, as a tonic, raised from seeds or seedlings and come into
antiseptic and in the treatment offever. bearing in the third year.
3. The plant is distributed in India, Java, some parts 2. The fruits are berries and the skin is removed.
of Europe and central and south America. The seeds are then roasted to develop aroma,
flavour and colour. Seeds contain 0.75 to 1.5%
5. Datura caffeine, a volatile 'oil caffeol, glucose, dextrin,
Botanical name. Datura stramonium proteins and fatty oils.
Hindi name. Dhatura 3. Arabian coffee (c. arabica) is a source of 90% of
Family. Solanaceae the world supply. Brazil tops the world
Parts ofthe plant used are leaves, flowering tops and production. U.S.A. leads in per capita
seeds for the extraction of a drug useful in consumption.
asthma. 4. In India, coffee is cultivated in Karnataka, Tamil
1. The active principles are alkaloids e.g. Nadu and Kerala.
hyoscyamine, atropine and scopalamine.
2. It is used for relaxing bronchial muscles 10
OILS
asthma, as intoxicant, emetic and digestive. 1. Sesame
3. Datura seeds are smoked for asthma.
4. Plant is native of Asia, and grows as a weed in Botanical name. Sesamum indicum
India, particularly in temperate climate. Hindi name. Til
Family. Tiliaceae
BEVERAGES Part of the plant used are seeds for extraction of oil.
1. It yields one of the most important semi-drying
1. Tea oils. The oil content varies from 46.0 to 52.0 per
Botanical name. Camellia sinensis (= Thea sinensis) cent. The oil is extracted by cold pressure.
Hindi name. Chai 2. The finer grades of oil are nearly colourless and
fl'amily. Ternstroemiaceae tasteless. It is used in cooking, medicine, as a
(B-J:j)
Plants & Human W'elfare [ 225
4. In India Linum is chiefly grown for its oil 1. It is a small perennial plant. This herb with
and fibres in M.P., U. P. and Maharashtra as decompound leaves bears an umbel
rabi crop. inflorescence. The fruit is a cremocarp, splitting
iDto two mericarps.
SPICES 2. It is used as a common flavouring agent for its
pleasant aroma. It also has stimulant,
1. Cardamom carminative and antiseptic properties. Oil of
Botanical name. Elettaria cardamomum coriander is used to flavour beverages such as
Hindi name. Choti elaichi gin, whiskey, etc.
Family. Zingiberaceae 3. It is a native of Mediterranean region. Coriander
Partsof the plant used are fruits which are valuable is now extensively grown in Europe, Morocco,
as a spice. India and South Africa.
1. The plant is native of India, indigenous to moist,
evergreen forests of South India. It is grown FIBRES
either as a pure plantation crop or as subsidiary
to coffee and areca nut. It is also found as a 1. Jute
natural undergrowth in some forest tracts.
2. The fruits are triangular capsules and seeds have Botanical name. Corchorus capsularis
delicate flavour. It is used for flavouring curries, (also C. olitorius)
cakes and pickles. The seeds contain 2 to 8% of Hindi name~. Pat, Titapat.
strongly aromatic volatile oil with a pleasant Family. Tiliaceae
cooling taste. Parts of plant used are fibres from phloem (bast
3. The crop is cultivated in hilly forest regions of fibres) of stem.
entire Western Ghats, Mysore, Kerala, Assam 1. The plant is an annual shrub and is grown from
and Tamil Nadu. seeds. It is best grown in humid regions with
moderate rains, on light, sandy, deltaic loams.
2. Pepper 2. The fibres are obtained from the secondary
phloem by retting the stem. The stems are
Botanical name. Piper nigrum
beaten and fibres separated.
Hindi name. Kali mirch
3. The fibre is used for manufacturing packing cloth,
Family. Piperaceae
hessian, bags for transport and storage, rugs,
Part of the plant used are fruits used as a spice.
curtains, upholstry, linings, ropes, twines, etc.
1. Seeds yield an oil of aromatic odour. The pungent
4. This is the most important cash crop of north-east
taste is due to the presence of an oleoresin. It
India, especially valleys of Ganges and
stimulates the flow of saliva and gastric juices and
Brahamputra in Assam, West Bengal, Bihar and
has a cooling effect. -
Orissa. About 67% of the products are
2. It is chiefly cultivated in India, Malayasia and
consumed at home while the rest are exported
Indonesia. In India, most of the pepper
to U.S.A., U.K., Australia, Canada, Argentina,
comes from Kerala, other states being
etc. Other major jute producing country is
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and
BangIa Desh.
Assam.
3. Coriander 2. Sannhemp
Botanical name. Coriandrum sativum Botanical name. Crotafllria juncea
Hindi name. Dhania Hindi name. Sann
Family. U mbelliferae Family. PapilioIl1.ceae
Parts of the plant used are fruits as flavouring agent Parts of the plant used are bast (phloem) fibres from
and a spice. the stem.
Plants & Human Welfare [ 227
(b) The shells are used as containers and as fuel. 1. Latex occurs in special cells of the bark, leaves
(c) The milk (watery endosperm) is a refreshing and other soft parts of the tree. The latex cells
drink. are distributed in between phloem. The latex
(d) The meat (the cellular endosperm) is eaten raw or from the lower parts of the tree is usually
dried to form copra from which oil is extracted. commercially important.
Coconut oil is used in the manufacture of 2. The tree is a native of Amazon. It is 60 to 140 feet
margarine, vegetable ghee and hard soaps. in height.
(e) Unopened inflorescence yields palm sugar and 3. Rubber is elastic, flexible, air tight, water proof,
(f) Leaves are used for thatching. long lasting and a good insulator of heat and
(3) Indonesia leads the production followed by electricity.
Philippines, India and Sri Lanka. 4. Latex rubber contains 92 to 94 per cent rubber
hydrocarbon, 3 per cent resin, 2 per cent
FUMITORY proteins and 0.2 per cent ash.
5. In India rubber is extracted on commercial scale
Tobacco in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Assam,
Rotanical name. Nicoliana tabacum Andaman and West Bengal.
Hindi name. Tambaku
Family. Solanaceae II. MICROCHEMICAL TESTS
P-drts of the plant used are leaves which are smoked
as tobacco. 1. Cellulose
1. The plant is a native of West Indies and is grown Purpose: To detect the presence of cellulose.
under varying conditions in almost every
country. Materials
2. The leaves are removed one by one as they Microscope, slides, cover glasses, iodine
mature. Later these are cured (dry solution, sulphuric acid 75%, water, paper or cotton
fermentation) to develop aroma, harshness and fibres, etc.
other desirable qualities. Procedure
·3. Tobacco has narcotic and soothing properties 1. Tear the paper or cotton in a way so that fibres
due to the presence of an alkaloid nicotine. The are exposed.
aroma and flavour is due to essential oils and 2. Place the fibres in a drop of water on a slide.
other aromatic substances developed during 3. Add a few drops of iodine and allow the fibres to
processing. take stain.
4. Before use, tobacco leaves of various grades are 4. The fibres turn brown.
blended. It is used for cigars, cigarettes, chewing 5. Add a drop of 75% sulphuric acid and then wash
purposes, for hookah and snuff. It is said to with water.
produce pulmonary emphysema and incidence 6. The colour of the fibres changes.
of cancer and cardiac diseases among tobacco
smokers is higher. Results
5. U.S.A. leads the world production. In India it is The fibres turn blue.
grown in parts of Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Conclusion
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh The change into blue indicates the presence of
and Karnataka. cellulose in the wall thickenings.
This is because cellulose dissolves in cold
RUBBER
concentratp.d sulphuric acid and is precipitated as
Rubber amyloid on d,l;ltion.
2. Cutin Procedure
Follow any of the two methods given below.
Purpose: To detect the presence of cutin. 1. Method 1. Prepare thin slices of the material.
Materials Place them in 1% alcoholic phloroglucin. Cover
Microscope, slides, cover glasses, razor or blade, the section with coverglass. Allow 25%
watch glasses, water, potassium hydroxide (KOH), hydrochloric acid to diffuse along the edges of
Ficus or Nerium leaf, etc. coverglass.
2. Method 2. Treat the section with 1% aq. neutral
Procedure potassium permanganate for about 15-20
1. Cut the section ofthe leaf and piace in water. minutes. Wash with 2% hydrochloric acid
2. Treat the section with KOH solution. followed by repeated washings with water. Add a
3. Observe the colour of the outermost deposit on few drops of either ammoium hydroxide or
epidermis. sodium bicarbonate.
Results and conclusion Results and conclusion
The yellow colour of the deposition on epidermis 1. In the first case red violet colour is taken by
indicates that it is composed of cutin-a fat-like lignified walls.
subtance. 2. In the second method, deep red colour develops
in the lignified clements of the deciduous pl~nts.
3. Suberin
Purpose: To detect the presence of suberin. 5. Mucilage
Materials Purpose: To detect the presence of mucilage.
Bottle cork/natural cork, Sudan IV (alcoholic), Materials
alcohol 50%, slides, cover glasses, water, glycerine, etc. Linseed testa, copper sulphate (10%), potassium
hydroxide (10%), water, slides, cover glasses,
Procedure
1. Cut thin slice of the material. glycerine, etc.
2. Leave the fresh section in Sudan IV to take stain Procedure
for about 20 minutes. 1. Cut thin section of linseed testa.
3. Wash the excess of stain with 50% alcohol. 2. Soak the sections in 10% copper sulphate solution
4. Transfer the section to water and mount In for 20 minutes.
glycerine. 3. Wash the section in water and transfer to 10%
5. Observe the colour under the microscope. potassium hydroxide.
4. Mount the section in glycerine and observe the
Results and conclusion
colour.
The suberised portions become red stained
indicating the presence of suberin in the wall. Results and conclusion
The cells with mucilage arc stained bright blue
4. Lignin indicating that the material possesses mucilage.
Purpose: To detect the presence of lignin. 6. Latex
Materials
Purpose: To detect the presence of latex.
Match shavings/match sticks/ wood shavings,
phloroglucin (1% alcoholic), hydrochloric acid Materials
(25%), 1% neutral aqueous potassium permanganate, Latex from Caiotropis/members of Euphorbiaceae/
ammonium hydroxide (sodium bicarbonate), slides, Apocynaceae, sucrose, alcohol conc. sulphuric
cover glasses, water, etc. acid, test tubes, test tube holder, water, etc.
230 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
Procedure Conclusion
1. Prepare an alcoholic extract of latex. The tests reveal the presence of glucose.
2. Add an equal amount conc. sulphuric acid and Sugar when treated with alkali undergoes
sucrose to the latex extract. enolization to produce enediols. These being highly
Results and conclusion . reactive reducing agents, are capable of reducing
The colour turns pinkish-purple indicating the oxidising Cu + + + ions. Both Fehling's and
presence of latex. Benedict's solutions contain soluble Cu + + ions in
soluble form as complexes with citrate or tartrate.
7. Hemicellulose On coming in contact with enediols Cu + + ( cupric)
ions are reduced to Cu + (cuprous) ions which later
Purpose: To test for the presence ofhemiceUulose.
'C()Jllbine to precipitate yellow cuprous hydroxide.
Materials Yellow precipitate of cuprous hydroxide on heating,
Soyabean seeds, iodine, water, slides, cover gets converted to reddish cuprous oxide.
glasses, glycerine, etc.
alkali
Procedure sugar - - - enediols
enediols
1. Cut a thin section of the seed. Cu++ ~ Cu+
2. Observe the section under microsocpe. Cu + + OH ~ CuOH (yellow)
3. Treat the section with iodine for a few minutes. 2CuOH - - + CU20 (Red) + H20
4. Observe the colour of the section. Overall reaction:
Boil
Results and conclusion C6H1606 + 2Cu (OH)z --+ ~H12 07 + CU20+H20
(Glucose) (Gluconic (Cuprous
The colour turns blue indicating the presence of acid) oxide)
hemicelluloses.
8. Glucose (Reducing sugars) 9. Sucrose (Non-reducing sugars)
Purpose: To test for the reducing sugar: glucose Purpose : To test for starch/sucrose (non-
(grape-s~gar) reducing sugars).
Materials Materials
Fehling's solution, Benedict's solution, test tubes, Sucrose/starch/beet root, Fehling's solution,
test tube holder, spirit lamp, water, glucose Benedict's solution, hydrochloric acid, sodium
(grape-sugar),.etc. carbonate/sodium bicarbonate, test tubes, test tube
Procedure holder, spirit lamp, etc.
There are two tests to detect the presence of Procedure
glucose. These are given below. 1. Add to sugar equal volume of concentrated
(a) Fehling's test. 1. Take about 5 ml of Fehling hydrochloric acid. -
solution in a test tuhe. 2. Boil the mixtrue for about five minutes.
2. Add few drops of glucose solution and boil. 3. Neutralise the resulting solution with sodium
(b) Benedict's test. 1. Take about 5 ml of Benedict's carbonate or bicarbonate.
solution in a test tube. 4. Then subject the solution to the test of reducing
2. Add a few drops of glucose solution and boil. sugars by adding Fehling's or/and Benedict's
solutions.
Results
1. The Fehling's solution gives brownish red Results
precipitate. 1. Fehling's solution gives brownish red precipitate.
2. Benedict's test gives red yellow or green 2. Benedict's solution gives yellow red or green
precipitate. precipitate.
Plants & Human Welfare [ 231
Conclusion Conclusion
The test reveals the presence of non-reducing The colour changes indicate the presence of
sugars. protein.
Sucrose occurs widely in plants. It is formed by Biurete develops violet colour when treated with
condensation of one molecule of glucose with one dilute CUS04 solution. This reaction is also shown by
molecule of fructose. On hydrolysis these are formed compounds containing-CONH2 groups joined
once again and then give the same results as directly or by C or N atoms. Proteins also give this
reducing sugars when subjected to Fehling's and reaction because they possess CO - NH-
Benedict's solution. C - CO - NH - peptide bond architecture.
OiH1206 + OiH 1206 -... C12H220U + H2 0 In Xanthoproteic reaction nitration of phenyl
(Glucose) (Fructose) (Sucrose) rings occurs to yield yellow substitution products
which turn orange upon the addition of alkali (salt
10. Proteins
formation).
POl-pose: To test the presence of proteins.
11. Fats or oils
Materials
Gram flour!1egumes/soya bean, Millon's reagent Purpose: To test for the presence of fats/oils.
a and b, nitric acid, ammonium hydroxide, sodium Materials
hydroxide (20%), copper sulphate (1%), test tubes, Seed of almonds/soyabean/ground nut, Sudan III
test tube holder, water, spirit lamp, etc. (alcoholic), water, osmic acid 1%, test tubes, test
Procedure tube holders, glycerine, microscope, slides,
There are two methods for testing the presence coverglasses, etc.
of proteins. Procedure
(a) Xanthoproteic test. 1. Treat the suspension of Any of the two following methods could be
tissue in water. Add concentated nitric acid. A followed.
white precipitate is formed. 1. Method 1. Cut thin sections ofthe material. Place
2. Heat the solution. Yellow colour is developed. the section in Sudan III for about 10 minutes. Wash
3. Now add a few drops of concentated ammonium the sections with 50% alcohol. Mount in glycerine
hydroxide. Observe the change in colour. The after repeated washes with water. Observe the
colour deepens to orange. colour under microscope.
(b) Biuret test. 1. Prepare a suspension of material in 2. Method 2. Add a few drops of osmic acid to the
water. material in the test tube. Observe the developing
2. Add 1 ml of sodium hydroxide (20%) and a drop colour.
of copper sulphate to the suspension.
3. Observe the developing cplour. Add Millons Results
reagent (a or b). Mix thoroughly and boil. 1. The oil drops take red stain
4. Note the change in colour in both cases-Millons 2. Black colour is developed.
reagent 'a' and/or 'b'. 12. Starch
Results Purpose: To test the presence-of starch.
(a) Xanthoproteic test. The yellow colour changes to
orange. Materials
(b) Biurete test. The colour developed is violet. On Starch, test tube, test tube holder, spirit lamp,
addition of Millon's reagent 'a' it turns to red on iodine, HCI, Benedicts solution, Na OH (or Na2
heating and with Millon's reagent 'b' it turns C03) etc.
reddish on heating.
232 1 Practical Botany,' Vol 2
Procedure Results
Follow anyone of the two methods given below. 1. Black colour appears.
1. Method 1. Take a pinch of starch and add water. 2. Red precipitate is formed.
Add a few drops of iodine.
Conclusions
2. Method 2. Take a pinch of starch and add water.
The tests indicate the presence of starch.
Boil it by adding HCl. Make this solution alkaline
by adding NaOH or Na2 C03. Test with Benedicts
solution.
1. Cereals and pulses (a) Foreign matter Take a known quantity (50 g)and pick up all foreign
matter by hand or forceps. Weigh the amount and
calculate the percentage (it should not exceed 4%).
(b) Insect infec'tion (i) Take a known quantity (50 gm). Pick up all the
damaged grains. Calculate percentage (it should not
exceed 1%).
(ii) Put the grains in water. Infested grains float on the
surface, Calculate the percentage.
2. Pulses (arhar, masoor Khesari dal Pick up the Khesari dal (triangular and gray coloured
and chana) seeds) and calculate percentage as before (it should
not exceed 1%).
3. Turmeric (Haldi) Lead chromate Weigh 2 g of Haldi powder, reduce it to white ash in
crucible (600C for 4 hours). Cool. Add 5 ml of 1:7: dil.
H2S04 and filter. Add a few drops of 0.2% diphenyl
carbazide (alcoholic). Pink colour indicates the
prcsence of lead chromate.
4. Milk (a) Water added or (a) SpecifIc gravity determination of milk by lactometer.
fat removed
(b) Starch (b) Iodme tcst.
S. Tea leaves Arificial colour (i) Place the Icaves on white paper. The appearance of
yellow or reddish colour over the paper will show the
prescnce of artificially added colour.
(ii) Spread a little slaked lime on glass plate. Sprinkle a
little tea dust on the lime. Any colour (e.g. red,
orange, etc.) other than greenish ycllow (due to
I pressence of naturally occurring chlorophyll) indicates
the presence of coal tar dye.
6. Chillies Coloured saw dust, Ash a spoonful of chillies. Abundant amount of ash
brick powder, talcum indicates adulteration.
powder.
7. Oil (a) Mineral oil (a) Take 2 ml of sample. Add an equal amount of N/2
alcoholic potash. I Ieat for 15 minutes in boiling water
bath. Cool and add about 10 ml of water. Presence of
turbidity indicates prcsence of mineral oil.
---~---------
(b) Argemone 011 (b) Add nitric acid. If red colour appears, it indicates the
presence of argemone oil.
Plants & Human Welfare [ 233
8. Puregbee Vanaspati ghee Bodoudouin test (for the presence of sesame oil). To
5 ml of melted ghee add 0.1 g of sucrose dissolved in 5
ml of dilute HC\. Shake well and keep for 15 minutes.
A permanent pink colour indicates the presence of
sesameoi\.
9. Sweets Metanil yellow Dissolve a little sample in water, shake and transfer
the water extract to another tube. Add dilute IIC\. A
violet red colouration indicates the presence of
meta nil yellow.
Embryology of Angiosperms
Reproduction in angiosperms occurs within the ANTHER
flowers. The essential organs include anthers and
ovules wherein ,all reprodctive processes take place. 1. Structure of young anther
Basically these are sporophytic structures. The
Study the slide showing T.s. of young anther.
sporogenous tissue and later spore mother cells
formed Within these organs undergo meiotic division Observations
and the gametophytic phase ensues. This results in The section shows following characters.
formation of pollen tetrads or microspores and 1. The section appears slightly lobed.
megaspore tetrad, the processes being called as 2. The outermost is a single layered epidermis. The
micro-and megasporogenesis respectively. The cells are cuticillarised.
microspore further develops partly inside the 3. At four corners of the anther, the derivatives
microsporangium and after dispersal germinates on formed as a result of archesporial cells are
the stigma to produce pollen tube. Inside the pollen nresent.
tube are two male gametes. The formation of male 4. Of these, wall layers are situated below the
gametes is called microgametogenesis and the epidermis and mass of sporogenous cells near
transference of pollen grains from the anther to the the centre of the lobe.
stigma as pollination. Inside the ovules, out of the 5. The epidermis is followed by a layer or two of
four megaspores of a tetrad, generally the chalazal parenchymatous wall layers. The innermost wall
one remains functional to form an embryo sac or layer is called tapetum. It is nutritive in function.
female gametophyte. The process is called as
megagametogenesis.
An embryo sac is generally 8 nucleate (polygonum developing wall
layer
type) in large number of angiosperms, consisting of
aRi~~~'\- tapetum
two synergids and egg at the micropylar end, two polar
nuclei in the centre and three antipodals at the
chalazal end. One of the male gametes, fuses with
the egg and another with 2 polar nuclei; the forme:-
process is called true fertilization and the latter as
triple fusion. These together are known as double
fertilization.
The zygote thus formed due to fertilization
procamblal strand
ultimately produces an embryo. The processes
involved are known as embryogeny. Double
fertilization results into triploid endosperm, Fig. 1. Anther: 1'.s. Developing anther.
characteristic of angiosperms.
Embryology of Angiospenns [ 235
6. The sporogenous cells lie inside the wall. These POLLEN GRAINS
act as pollen or micros pore mother cells and
divide meiotically. 1. Characters of pollen grains
? In the middle of the anther lobe, procambial for study
strand is present.
Following characters of the pollen grains are
2. Structure of mature anther observed.
1. Polarity. The pollen grains are often formed in
Study the slide showing T.s. of mature anther. tetrads. While in tetrad, one end of the individual
grain is noted (Fig. 3A). .
Observations
(a) Proximal pole. The end of the pollen gram
It shows following characters.
directed towards the centre of the tetrad (Fig. 3A).
1. An organized anther is four chambered in a
(b) Distal pole. The end of the pollen grain directed
transection.
away from the centre of the tetrad (Fig. 3A).
2. The wall consists of an outer epidermis, an
Accordingly following are the axes.
endothecium, one to three middle layers and an
(a) Polnr axis. Hypothetical line connecting the
innermost tapetum.
3. The tapetum at maturity is multinucleate and two poles (Fig. 3B). ...
(b) Equatorial axis. Hypothehcal hne that hes
contains dense cytoplasm which is finally used
perpendicular to the polar axis (Fig. 3B).
up by the developing microspores.
2. Symmetry. The pollen grains may be
4. Prior to dehiscence, the tapetum and also the
(a) Symmetric- bilateral or radial.
middle layers degenerate. The cells of the
(b) A.\ymmetric-without any symmetry. ..
endothecium are radially elongated and exhibit,
3. Apertures. The exine of the pollen ~ams IS
characteristic fibrous thickenings.
often provided with apertures which are thin, more
5. The microspores or pollen grains, are at first
or less distinctly delimited areas formed only of a
arranged in tetrads, (as a result of reduction
hyaline membrane. The following are the major types.
division of the microspore mother cell). Later,
(a) lnaperturate-aperture absent.
these separate and occur as individual pollen
(b) Aperturate-aperture present.
grains, dispersed throughout the chamber. Each
The shape of aperture. On the basis of shape
shows characteristic shape, size and structure.
these can be further divided.
wall of the
sporangium
Ectoporium_
Endoporiu
A
Px
' ---=E=----'
A ...
J P B
B
E
ECtinl
EXinel
E~lne
free slightly E
united
A 1'; '!'f 1"f if" ~
II " ~ "1'-; ~ y
C
., ., ., ., ., .,
ftj '"
ftj ftj ftj ~ .~ ~
'0
~
.,>
'0 :;
<.>
:;
<II
'"2
C> ;; '5.
10
2
:l5
2<.> 2"' ~
F
"'
Fig. 3. A-F. Diagrams showing different characters of pollen grains. A. Schematic representallon of a tetrad showing individuals
slightly apart. (Di. = distal end, E = Equatorial diameter, P = polar diameter, Px = proximal end). n. typical 3-
zonopororate grains showing various parts and size measurements. (/\ = polar view, B = equatOrIal view, E = equatorial
diameter, I' = polar diameter). C. Typical 3-zonocolporate grains showing various parts and size measurements (1\ =
polar view, 13 = equatlorial view, E = equatorial diameter, P = polar diameter). I). Typical bilateral grains showing size
measurements (L = lateral view, S = surface view, E and 1\1 = equatorial diameter, I' = polar diameter). I~. EXine
slrallfication.}<'. Ornamentation of exine surface (/\ = outlme of the outer surface of exine in optical sections, B = surface
patterm at the upper focus. C = surface pattern at the lower focus).
(i) Those in which the outer (ectocolpium) and (5) Pororate. When the inner face of the endocoi-
the inner (endocolpium) surfaces are pium is generally circular.
congruent. Distribution of apertures. On the basis of
(1) Col pate-aperture elongated. distribution following types are further recognised
(2) Porate-aperture circular. (Fig. 38,C).
(3) Spiraperturate-aperture a continuous (i) Zono-colpate, - pomte. - colporate or -
spiral. poror.lte. If apertures arc arranged in a
(ii) Those in which outer and inner faces are circular zone around thc grain.
incongruent. (ii) Pan- or P-dnto-colpate, porate, - colporate or -
(4) Colporate, If the outer face (ectoeolpium) is pororate. If pores or apertures arc
elongate and the inner face (endocolpium) may distributed over the entire surface.
be circular, longitudinally elongated (lolongate) 4. The shape of'the pollen grain. It is determined
or laterally elongated (lalongate). by P x lOO/E formula, where P is the polar diameter
Embryology of Angiosperms [ 237
G
Fig. 4. A - I Pollen grains of some common plants. A.Arachis hypogaea, B.Argemone mt:Xlcana, C. Canna indica, D. Cleome viscosa,
E. Datura stramonium, F. Eriocaulon decangulare, G. Hibiscus esculentus, H. Lathyrus otioratus, I. Mirabilis jalapa.
Grains 3-colporate, prolate (34. 4 x 22; range Grains pantoporate, spheroidal, diameter 225 #;
33 - 40.7 x 18.5 - 25.9 #). Ectine thicker than endine, (range 162 - 238 #). Membrane provided with one or
reticulate (muri distinctly simplibacculate). Colpi few spinules. Ectine thicker than endine,
almost running from pole to pole, coarsely granulate. subtegillate, punctate, spionse, spines of various
5. Datura stramonium Linn. (Fam. Solanaceae, heights (Fig. 41)
Vern. Dhatura).
Distribution in apertUTe classes
Grains 3-zonocolporate, spheroidal, size 46 x 47#
1. Zonocolpate:Argemone, Arachis
(range 43-49 x 43- 52 #). Colpi short, tips acute,
2. Zonocolporate: Cieome, Lathyrus
Ectine thicker than endine, tegillate. Exine surface
3. Zonoporclte: Datura
striated, in some reticulate,(Fig. 4E)
4. Pantoporate: Hibiscus, Mirabilis
6. Eriocaulon decangu/are Linn. (Fam.
5. Spiraperturate: Erincau/on
Eriocaulaceae)
6. Inaperturate: Canna
Spiraperturate (pantoaperturate), size 32 #
(range at aperture margins). Endine very' thin. 4. Germination of pollen grains
Ectine surface spinulose. Spinules minute and
sparse (Fig. 4F) Materials
7. Hibiscus esculentus Linn. (Fam. Malvaceae, Anthers of Anti"hinum (snap dragon),
Vern. Bhindi) (Fig. 4G) Catharanthus roseus (Periwinkle; Sada bahar) ,
Grains pantoporate, spheroidal, pore size 10#, Papaver somniferum (Poppy; Afim) or any other
surface spiniferous, interspinal areas reticulate. easily available plant; sugar, boron, cavity slides,
s. LathyTU.v odoratus Linn. (Fam. PapiIionaceae; cover slips, microscope, water, etc.
Eng. Sweet Pea) Procedure
Grains 3-zonocolporate, sUbprolate (37-44 x 1. Prepare 15% sugar solution by dissolving 1.5 gm
30-33 #) or prolate, ecto-exine thicker than sugar in 100 ml of water.
endo-exine, surface reticulate (Fig. 4H) 2. Add a pinch of boron to sugar solution.
9. Mirabilis jalapa Linn. (Fam. Nyctaginaceae; 3. Clean the cavity slide and place a drop of this
Vern. Gulabbas) solution in the cavity.
Embryology of Angiosperms [ 239
A B c
antipodals
\:;;;'~~.,L-,l..-''''''n apparatus
(B-15)
Embryology of Angiospenns [ 241
(B-I5)
242 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
ENDOSPERM
Endosperm, in angiosperms provides nutrition to the
developing embryo. It is formed as a result of divisions of
the primary endosperm nucleus, which is triploid.
The primary endosperm nucleus (3n) is formed
due to the fusion of second male gamete (n) with the
two polar nuclei (n and n) or their fusion p(oduct,
the secondary nucleus (2n). Thus, the endosperm, in
angiosperms, is a triploid tissue formed after
fertilization.
On the basis of development, the endosperm is Fig. 13. Endosperm. A. to C. Different stages In the
divided into 3 types. Type of endosperm is development of nuclear endosperm.
determined by the behaviour of first and subsequent
divisions of primary endosperm nucleus. In quite division of the nucleus is not followed by wall
advanced stage of development, all the types formation. This type of division is also known as
endosperms become cellular. free nuclear division.
7. Many free nuclei formed by this method lie
1. L.s. of ovule showing towards the periphery in the cytoplasm.
nuclear endosperm
2. L.s. of ovule showing
Study the slide of longitudinal section of ovule
and observe the endosperm. cellular endosperm
Observations Study the slide of longitudinal section of ovule
It shows following characters. and observe the endosperm.
1. The ovule is made of stalk and the body. Observations
2. The body consists of integuments, nucellus, It shows the following characters.
embryo and the endosperm. 1. The ovule is made of stalk and the body.
3. There are two integuments which form the 2. The body consists of integuments, nucellus,
outermost covering of ovule. embryo and the endosperm.
4. A small amount of nucellus lies inner to 3. There are two integuments which form the
integuments. outermost covering of the ovule.
5. The major and the central part of ovule is 4. A small amount of nucellus lies inner to
occupied by a large amount of endosperm. It integuments.
surrounds a small embryo present near the 5. Most of the central region of ovule is filled with
micropylar end. cellular endosperm.
6. The endosperm is nuclear endosperm. In this 6. In this type of endosperm formation, the first and
type the primary endosperm nucleus divides subsequent divisions of the primary endosperm
amitotically to form many free nuclei. The nucleus are followed by wall formation.
244 J Practical Botany,' Vol 2
Observations
It shows following characters.
1. Heart-shaped embryo consists of a suspensor and Fig. 17. Embryo. Heart shaped embryo.
a heart-shaped mass of cells.
2. The suspensor is a row of cells arranged in a single 6. Heart-shaped embryo is differentiated into outer
senes. dermatogen, middle periblem and innermost
3. The uppermost cell of suspensor lies closer to plerome.
micropyle. It is swollen and is known as vesicular
cell.
3. To remove mature dicot embryo
4. The lowermost cell of suspensor lies close to the
embryo proper. It is known as hypophysis. Crucifer embryo is typical of dicotyledons.
5. Heart-shaped embryo is formed as a result of cell Capsella bursa- pastoris is the commonest example.
divisions in globular embryo at places where However, mustard seeds would equally be useful.
cotyledons develop.
246 J Practical Botany,' Vol 2
pericarp
and seed
coat fused
radicle -...:---:~~
proca m bi a11-:--'Ft=ttt:l88::O::d
strand
A 8
Fig. 19. Embryo. L.s. of maize gram showing monoco! embryo.
The plants are made of organs. There are only This growth is known as secondary growth. ,It
three fundamental organs - stem, root and leaves. occurs due to the activity of a secondary meristem
All these organs are made of tissue systems. These that occupies the lateral position the i. e. vascular
an> the groups of different types of tissues but cambium. The plants become woody and the girth
perform only one function. The tissues constituting increases. The tissues added by the vascular
the tissue system are derived from meristematic cambium are secondary xylem (wood) and
tissues. These are situated only at a few places called secondary phloem.
meristems. There are various types of meristems.
One of these is the shoot ~ical meristem. It is I. Meristems
responsible for growth of plant in length and the
formation of primary permanent tissues. Another There are two major types of meristems which
type of meristematic tissue is the cambium. It can be studied. These include shoot apical meristem
produces secondary permanent tissues which and root apical meristem. The organization of
increase girth of the plants. meristems shows regions contributing to the
The tissues are classified into two major groups- formation of different parts of the plant body.
simple tissues and the complex tissues. The simple
Work to be done
tissues are made of only one type cells. These include
parenchyma, sclerenchyma, collenchyma, etc. The [I] Study the slide showing L.s. of the shoot apex.
complex tissues are made of more than one type of [II] Study the slide showing L. s. of the root apex.
cells. Complex tissues include xylem and phloem.
The xylem consists of cell types such as tracheids, Practical Work and study
vessels, xylem fibres and xylem parenchyma. The [I] Study of the slide showing L.s. of the shoot apex
phloem is composed of sieve cells, sieve tubes, 1. The stem apex or the shoot apex is
companion cells, phloem_ fibres and phloem hemispherical to slightly flattened m
parenchyma. longituamal plane.
Groups of some of these different types of tissues 2. It remains protected by the covering ~ young
together perform a common function and are called and developing leaves.
tissue system. There are three tissue systems- 3. The shoot apex shows an apical promeristem. It
epidermal tissue system, ground or fundamental consists of tunica and corpus.
tissue system and vascular tissue system. 4. Tunica is the outermost covering. It is one to
Each plant organ shows a typical organization of two layered. The cells of the tunica divide in
these three tissue systems. These are so anticlinal plane and increase surface area of the
characteristic that it is possible to distinguish one shoot apex.
organ from the other. 5. Corpus is the mass of randomly dividing cells. It
The primary organization of a plant is due to lies immediately below the tunica. Sometimes
activity of shoot apical organization and general the initial layer of the corpus gets regularly
structural pattern of an organ remains basically arranged and appears similar to tunica.
similar in all types of plants. 6. In the centre, just below the corpus; is present rib
In dicotyledons, the stem and the root both grow meristem. The cells of this region are arranged in
once again after the plant acquires primary structure. regular files. This region gives rise to pith.
248 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Fig. 1. L.s. shoot apex, A. Outlines showing major regions, B. Cellular details.
Fig. 2. L.s. root apex, A. Outlines showing major regions, B. Cellular details.
7. Near the periphery, surrounding the rib meristem 4. Inside the calyptrogen lies the root apex which
lies the peripheral or flank merisrem. This region is subterminal in position. The cells in this
shows actively dividing cells and lateral organs region are actively dividing and contribute to
like leaf and branches arise from these cells. the tissues of the root.
5. Three regions based on structure and growth of
[II] Study of the slide showing L. s. ofthe root ape!
the root apex are recognised. These are
1. The longitudinal section of the root apex
plerome, periblem and dermatogen.
appears gradully tapering.
6. Dermatogen is single layered. It gives rise to
2. It is the terminal portion of the root covered by
the outermost layer or epiblema.
root cap.
7. Periblem is single layered at the apex and
3. Calyptrogen follows root cap and lies closer to
becomes many layered higher up. It forms
the root apex. It gives rise to the tissue of the
middle region or the cortex of the root.
root cap.
Anatomy [ 249
1. Parenchyma Living Cellulose, pectins Usually isodiametric, Packing tissue. Support Cortex, pith, medullary
and hemicelluloses sometimes elongated in herbacceous plants. rays and packing tissue in
Metabolically active. xylem and phloem.
Intercellular air spaces
allow gaseous exchange.
Food storage. Transport
of materials through cells
I or cell walls.
2. Modified parenchyma
(a) Epidermis Living Cellulose, pectins and Elongated and flattened Protection from desiccation Single layer of cells
hemicelluloses, and and infection. covering entire primaty
covering of cutin Hairs and glands may plant body.
have additional functions.
(b) MesophyU Living Cellulose, pectins and Isodiametric chlorench- Photosynthesis (contains Between upper and
hemicelluloses yma, irregular or column chloroplasts). Storage lower epidermis of leaves.
shaped depending on of starch.
location
(e) Endodermis Living Cellulose, pectins and As epidermis Selective barrier to Around vascular tissue.
hemicellouloses, and movement of water and (innermost layer of cortex)
deposits of suberin mineral salts (between
(Casparian strips) cortex and xylem) in roots.
Starch sheath with possible
role in geotropic response
in stems.
(d) Pericyele Living Cellulose, pectins As parenchyma In roots, it retains In roots between central
and hemicelluloses meristematic activity vascular tissue and
producing lateral roots endodermis.
and contributing to
secondary growth if this
occurs.
3.Collenchyma Living Cellulose, pectins and Elongated and polygonal Support (a mechanical Outer regions of cortex,
hemicelluloses with tapering ends function). e.g. angles of stems,
midrib of leaves.
4. Sderenchyma
(a) Fibres Dead Mainly lignin. Cellulose Elongated and polygonal Support (purely Outer regions of cortex,
pectins and hemi- with tapering interlocking mechanical). pericyc1e of stems, xylem
celluloses also present. ends. and phloem
(b )Selereids Dead As fibres Roughly isodiametric, Support or mechanical Cortex, pith, phloem,
though variations occur protection shells and stones of
fruits, seed coats.
250 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
5. Xylem. Mixture fo living and dead cells. Xylem also contains fibres and parenchyma
(a) Tracheids. I Dead Mainly lignin. Elongated and tubular Translocation of water Vascular system
Cellulose, pectins and and mineral salts.
hemicelluloses also Support.
present.
(b) Vessels. Dead Mainly lignin. Elongated but broad Translocation of water Vascular system
Cellulose, pectins and cylindrical and mineral
and hemicelluloses salts. Support
also present
5. Phloem. Mixture of living and dead cells. Phloem also contains fibres and sclereids
(a) Sieve tubes. Living Cellulose, pectins and Elongated and tubular Translocation of Vascular system
hemicelluloses. organic solutes (food)
(b) Companion Living Cellulose, pectins and Elongated and narrow Work in association Vascular system
ceUs. hemicelluloses. with sieve tubes
'1
parenchyma chlorenchyma
palisade
. .:::
~
.....
Practical Botany: Vol 2
c D E F G
Fig. 5. Different types of sclerenchyma. A.-G. Sclereids, A-D. Stone cells or brachysclereids, H-I. Fibres.
6. The cells are dead and, therefore, lumen does not 6. Tracheids are water conductit:\g vascular tissues.
show protoplasm, organelles, nucleus, etc. 7. These are found in all the vascular plants viz
7. The major functions of stone cells are mechanical pteridophtyes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.
support and protection.
8. Stone cells are found in cortex, pith, phloem, fruit [VI] Vessels
walls, seed cqats, etc. These show following characters.
1. Vessel is made of a series of vessel members.
[V] 1racheids 2. Vessel member is a more or less elongated cell,
1. These are narrow, elongated and tubular cells. non-living at maturity. The secondary wall is
2. The primary cell wall deposits are cellulose, highly lignified.
hemicellulose and pectins. The thick secondary 3. The end walls show variety of perforations. The
wall is made of lignin. perforated part of the end wall is called the
3. Lignin deposition occurs in different forms viz. perforation plate.
annular, spiral, scalariform, reliculate and 4. The secondary walls are pitted. The pits may be
pitted. either simple or bordered pits may be present.
4. The cells are dead and are without any The arrangement of pits varies from species to
protoplasnic contents. species.
5. The ends of tracheids are narrow and tapering. 5. The pits may be arranged in a single row
The end walls are intact and the contact with the (uniseriate) or may be present in two or more
neighbouring tracheids is made through the rows (multiseriate). The adjacent vessel
common pits. members show common pit pairs.
··. . 0
"'n
':::':::0
A B c o E G H K
Fig, 6. Tracheids : Walls shOWIng different types of thickenings, A. Annular, B. Spiral, C. Scalariform, D. Reticulate,
E-. Pitted, E, G, 11. Simple pits, F, I, J, K. Bordered pits,
Anatomy [ 253
O~
00 vesseI
successfully used to observe chloroplasts), etc.
0 0 0
<:>
Method
~ 0
Separate the young leaves from the moss plant.
.~ Mount in water and study under the microscope.
Observations
; ~ 1. Discoid or oval-flattened chloroplasts can be
:~ .
seen close to the cell wall.
2. Chloroplasts are green in colour due to the
Fig. 7.
a A
0
B
Vessels. A. Vessel with a simple perforation plate,
B. Vessel with multiperforate plate.
3. Other pigments present in the chloroplast include
xanthophylls and carotenes.
4. Chloroplasts are the seats of photosynthesis and
therefore, end product in the form of starch
grains is also seen.
m.Cell Components
The cell is a unit of structure and function of an ~~=- __ nucleus
organism. It is made of three major parts-cell wall,
protoplasm and vacuole. Protoplasm is the physical
basis of life. It is further made- of cytoplasm and chloroplasts
nucleus. There are many organelles in the cytoplasm.
Some of these take active part in the metabolic
activities of the cell e.g. chloroplasts, mitochondria,
golgi bodies. etc. These are known as protoplasmic
inclusions. The other types are the reserve products
or waste materials formed during activities of the A
B
cell, such as starch grains, aleurone grains, etc. Fig. IS. Chloroplasts. A. Position in the cell. B. A part
enlarged.
Work to be done
This part of the book includes the study of Exercise 2
[I] Chloroplasts
[II] Chromoplasts Purpose: To study the chromoplasts
[III] Leucoplasts Materials
[IV] Starch grains Fruits of tomato, slides, coverslips, microscope,
[V] Aleurone grains water, etc.
254 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
nucleus
Method
3. Wash the sections with water.
Peel off a part of fruit wall with a small amount of
4. Mount in glycerine.
pulp attached to it. Mount in a drop of water and
observe under the microscope. Observations
1. Leucoplasts are seen as pink-coloured structures
Observations amongst starch grains.
1. The cells are filled with numerous orange or red 2. The shape of the leucoplasts is extremely variable.
coloured chromoplasts. 3. It is filled with numerous starch grains.
2. In ripe fruits chromoplasts occur in groups. 4. Leucoplasts are the storage plastids which
3. Chromoplasts may be discoid or flattened. These generally store starch.
occur close to the wall.
4. The chromoplasts have abundance of Exercise 4
xanthophylls and carotenes and hence their Purpose: To study starch grains.
colour. Chlorophyll though present is lesser in Materials
amount. Potato tuber, seeds of pea, slides, coverslip,
S. The major function of the chromoplasts is to microscope, Iodine solution, glycerine, etc.
protect the organ from the bright sunlight. It Method
also helps in photosynthesis by absorbing light. 1. Cut a thin sction of potato tuber or seed of pea.
2. Place the section on a slide and stain it with a drop
Exercise 3
of iodine.
Purpose: To study leucoplasts. 3. Wash the section by pouring water and draining
Materials ·it off. Repeat till excess stain is washed off.
Potato tuber, slides, covers lips, microscope, acid 4. Mount the section on another clean slide using
fuchsin, glycerin~, water, etc. glycerine as a mounting medium.
Method Observations
1. Cut thin sections of potato tuber. 1. Each starch grain has a hilum which is a point of
2. Place them in a watch glass containing 1% origin of starch deposition.
aqueous solution of acid fuchsin. Cover the 2. Starch is deposited in layers around hilum.
watch glass with another but larger watch glass. 3. In the starch grains of pea, hilum is located in the
Allow the sections to take stain for at least 3-4 centre and the layers of starch are uniformly
hours. deposited arollnd it. These starch grains are
Anatomy [ 255
lines of
IJ stratification
,~
i-compound
grain
hilum
Exercise 5
Purpose: To study Aleurone grains.
Materials
c o Seeds of castor, safety blade, slides, coverslips,
microscope, water, glycerine, etc.
Fig. 11. Starch grains. A. and B. Starch grains in cotyledons of
pea, C. and D. Starch grains in potato tuber. Method
1. Remove the seed coat from castor seeds.
called concentric and simple. Sometimes two or 2. Cut a thin section of the endosperm.
more starch grains get attached to one another. 3. Mount the section in glycerine and observe under
.Such starch grains are called concentric and the microscope .
compound. Observations
4. In the starch grains of potato, hilum is located in 1. Each cell shows many spherical or ova~ aleurone
one corner and layers of starch are dposited grains.
eccentrically around it. Such starch grains are 2. Each aleurone grain is made of crystalloid and
eccentric and simple. Sometimes two or more globoid.
starch grains remain attached to one another. 3. Crystalloid is large and has many angles. It is
Such starch grains are called eccentric and mostly made of proteins.
compound. 4. Globoid is a small globular or oval structure. It
5. The starch grains are characteristic of a particular is made of calcium or magnesium diphosphate.
plant and can be easily identified. The characters 5. Aleurone grains are abundant in the aleurone
of starch grains of some of the common plants are layer found in grains of cereals like wheat,
listed below. maize, rice, etc.
(a) Grains of wheat - simple, concentric, spherical and flattened.
(b) Grains of rice - simple, concentric, with many arms. Exercise 6
(c) Grains of maize - simple, concentric, angular.
(d) Seeds of pea - simple, concentric, spherical or elongated. Purpose: To study Inulin crystals.
(e) Seeds of gram - simple, concentric. spherical or elongated. Materials
(f) Tuber of potato - simple, eccentric, spherical or oval. Thberous roots of Dahlia, safety blade, test
(g) Fruit of banana - simple. concentric, spherical.
tubes/specimen tubes, 95% alcohol, glycerine,
256 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Exercise 7
Purpose: To study Raphides.
Materials
Onion bulb, safety blade, slides, cover slips,
water, glycerine, microscope, etc.
Method
1. Cut a thin section of outer scaly leaf of onion
bulb.
2. Mount the section in glycerine and observe under
the microscope.
Observations
1. The cells show raphides of different shapes e.g.
prism-shaped, rod-like, needle-like, etc.
crystals
(B-15)
Anatomy [ 257
c D
Fig. 16. Different types of stomata. A. Anomocytic. B. Anisocytic. C. Paracytic. D. Diacytic.
slides, coverslips, microscope, water, safranin, 5. The subsidiary cells or accessory cells are
glycerine, needles, forceps; etc. epidermal cells associated with guard cells.
Method These are generally morphologically distinct
1. Tear the leaf suddenly and with force with lower from the other epidermal cells.
epidrmis upwards. 6. On the basis of number and arrangement of
2. A thin membranous lower epidermis gets subsidiary cells Metcalfe and Chalk (1950)
separated near the broken edges. Pull this into a proposed following four types of stomata in
strip with forceps or fingers. dicotyledons.
3. The strip is stained with 1% aqueous safranin, (a) Anomocytic. (Irregular-celled type; formerly
washed in water and then mounted in glycerine. Ranunculaceous type). Subsidiary cells are not
Observations present and several ordinary epidermal cells
1. The stomata are generally present on the lower irregularly surround stomata, e.g. Citrullus
leaf surface. (Eng. - Watermelon, Hindi - Tarbooz), Capsicum
2. A typical dicotyledonous stomatal apparatus (Eng. - Chillies, Hindi - Hari mirch), Tagetes
consists of "\lard cells and the surrounding (Eng.- Marigold, Hindi- Genda), 1iidax, etc.
accessory or subsidiary cells. (b) Anisocytic. (Unequal-celled type; formerly
3. The guard cells are bean-shaped or kidney- Cruciferous type). There are three subsidiary cells
shaped. The walls are unevenly thickened. The surrounding the stoma. Of these, one is distinctly
outer convex surface is thin and elastic while the smaller than ~!J.e other two; e.g., Brassica
inner concave ~urface is thick and non-elastic. (Eng.- Mustard, Hindi- Sarson), Sedum, etc.
4. Each guard cell has a prominent nucleus. (c) Paracytic (Parallel-celled type, formerly
Chloroplasts are discoid and are arranged Rubiaceous type). In this type one or more
centrifugally (near the wall). subsidiary cells flank the stoma, parallel to the long
Anatomy [ 259
o
axis of the guard cells, e.g., Vigna mungo (Eng-
Black gram, Hindi - urd), Vigna radiata (Eng-
Green gram, Hindi- Mung), etc.
(d) Diacytic. (Cross-celled type, formerly
Caryophyllaceous type). In this· type a pair of
subsidiary cells with their common walls is at right
angles to the long axis of the guard cells, surrounds
the stoma, e.g., Dianthus (Eng. - Carnation, Pink),
Ocimum (Eng.- Basil, Hindi - Thlsi); etc.
Exercise 2
A
Purpose: To study 1iichomes.
Materials
Plants of or stems and leaves of Helianthus
annuus, Parthenium, Calendula, Sonchus, Ocimum,
needles, safety blade, forceps, slides, coverslips,
safranin, water, microscope, etc.
Method ~/~r c
1. Scrap the surface of the stem or leaf with safety
blade. B
2. Collect the scrapped material with forceps.
3. Place it on the slide and stain with safranin.
4. Mount in glycerine after spreading the material
almost into individual cells. Observe different
0
types of trichomes and draw them. 0
Observations 0
1. A mixture of different types trichomes is
0 0
observed. Some of the types are described
below.
0
2. Helianthus annuus. It is a vesicular filiform hair; I;J~
made of a foot and body. The foot is simple. The 0
,. .',
body consists of 5-10 cells. It is uniseriate, 0
filiform, cylindrical or slightly tapering above. .~: ~
3. Parthenium alpinum. It is a capitate hair, made
of foot and body. The foot is simple. The body is
differentiated into stalk and the head. The stalk
is 1 to 4-celled . The head is unicellular and
swollen.
4. Calendula officinalis. It is a aseptate-flagellate
hair. It consists of foot and body. The foot may
be simple or compound. Body is differentiated
into stalk and head. It is uniseriate. The stalk is
1 to 10 cells long. The head is unicellular, very
long and flagellate.
5. Sonchus oleraceus. It is multiseriate capitate
glandular hair. It is made bf foot and body. The E F
foot may either be simple or compound. The Fig. 17. Different types of trichomes. A. Helianthus annuus,
body is multiseriate and consists of stalk and B.. Parthenium alpinum, C. Calendula officinalis,
head. Stalk is several times longer than head. D. Sonchus oleraceus, E. and F. Ocimum basilicum.
260 I Practical Botany,' Vol 2
The head is 4 to S tiered and broadens at the 1. Cut a transverse section of the material witil a
apex. sharp razor.
6. Ocimum basilicum. It shows many types of 2. Select a thin and uniformly cut section.
trichomes, two of which are described below. 3. Stain the section either in safranin-fast green
(a) Simple glandular hair. The hair is multiseriate combination or crystal violet-erythrosine
and consists of foot and bddy. The foot is simple. The combination.
body is multiseriate and is differentiated into stalk 4. Mount a properly stained section in glycerine.
and head. The stalk is made of one or more cells. The S. Observe the section under the microscope and
head is almost globular and consists of 4 cells placed study.
in isobilateral tetrad. 6. Once the ob1>ervations are complete, draw two
(b) Simple conical hair. The hair is multicellular diagrams ~
and uniseriate. It consists of foot and body. The foot (i) an outline diagram of the transverse section and
is either simple or compound. The body is uniseriate (ii) a part of the section drawn to show different
and consists 2 to 8 cells. The terminal cell ends into types of cells found in every part.
a sharp point. The trichome is heavily cutinised. 7. Label the diagrams neatly.
8. Write down the description, starting with
V. THE ORGANS (i) Epidermis
(ii) Cortex / Ground Tissue
Each plant organ has a typical internal structure.
(iii) Endodermis
This structure could be seen as soon as primary
(iv) Perieycle
. struct'Jre of an organ is completely formed. The
(v) Vascular tissues
internal organisation can be seen in transverse
9. Identify the material
section and the organ could be easily identified.
(i) Root/ stem/ leaf
Practical work (ii) Dicotyledonous/ Monocotyledonous
10. Give description of abnormalities or special
The details of the practical work and its characters if any.
methodology has been described in chapter 1. A few
essential instructions are repeated for the
convenience of the students.
1. Hypodermis Mayor may not be present, if present mostly Generally present, sclerenchymatous.
collenchymatous.
2. Corte::,: A few layers of parenchyma extend up 10 the
endodermis.
Anatomy r 261
3. Endodermis Generally absent; mostly represented by The cells following hypodermis are not
endodermoid cells; If present, in the form of differentiated. They are generally
a ring. parenchymatous and extend from
hypodermis up to the centre of the axis. It is
known as ground tlUsse.
4. Pericycle Present between the vascular tissue and
cortex; either parenchymatous or
sclerenchymatous, one to few layered.
s. Medullary ray A strip of parenchyma between the vascular
bundles.
6. Pith A central and well marked out cylinder Well marked pith can not be distinguished.
present; parenchymatous or
sclerenchymatous.
7. Vascular bundles (a) Conjoint, collaterallbicollateral (a) Conjoint, collateral, endarch and closed.
endarch, open.
(b) Arranged in a ring. (b) Scattered throughout ground tissue.
(c) Almost all of them are umform In size. (c) Larger toward the centre and SmitHer
outside.
(d) Phloem parenchyma present. (d) Phloem parenchyma absent.
(e) Bundle sheath absent. (e) Well developed bundle sheath present.
1. Vascular bundles There are about 2-6 protoxylem groups (i.e. The number of protoxylem groups generally
condition is diarch to hexarch); rarely more exceeds 2-6, therefore, the condition is
groups. polyarch; rarely only a few.
2. Pericycle It generally gives rise to lateral roots, Only lateral roots are produced.
vascular cambium and cork cambium.
3. Cambium It appears later to form a comlete ring It is altogether absent.
between the xylem and phloem groups.
4. Pith Small or absent. Large and well developed.
Luffa
T. s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outlines of the section show ridges and furrows.
Epidermis. It consists of single layer of cells. A few multicellular hairs are present. A thin cuticle covers
epidermis.
Cortex. 1. It is few to many layered, consisting of (a) collenchyma and (b) chlorenchyma.
2. Collenchyma lies below the epidermis in the ridges. It is several layers deep. In the furrows, it is two to
three layered or sometimes absent.
3. Chlorenchyma lies below the collenchyma in both ridges and furrows. This is two or three layered deep
and the cells contain numerous chloroplasts.
Endodermis. (Starch sheath). This single layer separates cortex from the vascular tissues. The cells lac~
casparian strips but show starch. Thus it is called as starch sheath.
PericycIe. 1. It follows endodermis and is a few layers deep.
2. The cells are thick walled and sclerenchymatous due to lignification.
The ground tissue. 1. It extends from the pericycle to the centre of the section.
2. The cells are parenchymatous and large intercellular spaces are present.
Vascular bundles. 1. There are about ten vascular bundles arranged in two rows.
2. Each vascular bundle is conjoint, bicollateral, endarch and open.
3. Each ring consists of five vascular bundles. The outer ring is situated opposite the ridges and the
vascular bundles are smaller in size. The inner ring is located opposite the furrows. The vascular
bundles of this ring are larger in size.
(In a bicollateral vascular bundle xylem is centrally located. On both of its sides are cambial strips
(inner and outer cambia) and on outer side of the cambia on either sides, phloem groups are present.
These are called inner phloem and outer phloem
4. The xylem consists of wide and pitted vessels, tracheids, fibres and xylem parenchyma. The protoxylem
faces inner cambium.
5. The inner and outer cambial layers are situated between phloem and xylem on either sides.
6. The phloem occupies both the ends of vascular bundle. It is composed of sieve tubes, companion cells
and phloem pllrenchyma.
Pith. The central part of the section is occupied by parenchyma.
LII] Identification
1. Stem. 1. Vascular bundles are conjoint and bicollateral.
2. Protoxylem is endarch.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Cortex is well differentiated.
2. Endodermis and pericycle distinguishable.
3. Vascular bundles in a ring and open.
4. Pith well developed.
Anatomy Luffa [ 263
collenchyma }
cortex
parenchyma
~~~~:--~ pericycle
cambium
phloem
multicellular hair----':-
cuticle------j./
epidermis _ _ _-::;~
)( { collenchyma
~ chlorenchyma----=-;'""O:~
endodermis
pericycle
B
T. s. stem (A sector showing cellular details)
Xanthium
T.s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The transverse section is almost circular in outline.
Epidermis. 1. It consists of a single layer of tangentially elongated cells.
2. A few multicellular hairs are present.
1. Stomata may also occur in the epidermis.
4. A thin cuticle is present over the epidermal cells.
Cortex. 1. It is a few to many layered deep and consists of (a) collenchyma and (b) parenchyma.
2. Collenchyma forms the hypodermis lying just below the epidermis. It is about 3-5 layered deep.
3. Parenchyma lies below the collenchyma and extends upto the endodermis. Numerous intercellular
spaces are also present.
Endodermis. (Starch sheath). This single layer separates the cortex from the vascular tissues. The cells lack
casparian strips but show starch. Hence it is called starch sheath.
Pericycle. 1. It follows endodermis. It is in the form of groups of sclerenchyma.
2. Sclerenchymatous patches are situated over the phloem groups of vascular bundles. These
sclerenchymatous patches are called hard bast.
Vascular bundles. 1. Vascular tissue system is represented by vascular bundles.
2. Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
3. Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
4. Xylem consists of vessels, tracheids, xylem parenchyma and fibres.
5. Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma.
6. A few layers of cambium are present between xylem and phloem elements.
Pith. The central part of the section is occupied by parenchymatous pith.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. 1. Vascular bundles conjoint, collateral and endarch.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Cortex is well differentiated.
2. Endodermis is not conspicuous.
3. Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring and are open.
4. Pith is well developed.
Anatomy : Xanthium [ 265
~~...,---epidermis
collenchyma } )(
~
-"""""---parenchyma 8
.'<!l"~':---endodermis
~~~=--~pericycle
vascular bundle
pith
epidermis--_ _ _ _.o<1
ph loem -----,:'-:-'S.t.,"\-k'.-
cambium--~~w3:l
metaxylem ---1)tot.~J;
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
Transverse section is almost circular in outline.
Epidermis. 1. This outermost layer of single row of cells is covered by a thin cuticle.
2. Epiermal hairs are absent.
Hypodermis. 1. It lies below the epidermis.
2. Hypodermis is two to three layers thick and is made of sclerenchymatous cells.
Ground tissue. 1. It extends from hypodermis to the centre of the axis.
2. The cells are parenchymatous and numerous large intercellular spaces are present.
3. Cortex, endodermis and pericycle are not diffferentiated.
Vascular tissue system. 1. Vascular tissue system is represented by vascular bundles.
2. Numerous vascular bundles are scattered in the ground tissue.
3. The vascular bundles nearer the periphery are smaller than in the centre of the section.
4. Each bundle is conjoint, collateral, endarch and closed.
5. A vascular bundle is almost completely surrounded by parenchymatous or sclerenchymatous bundle
sheath. It is prominent toward the upper and the lower margins of the bundle.
6. The xylem is almost Y -shaped and consists of very large and pitted metaxylem elements.
7. The protoxylem is situated near the centre of the axis.
8. Surrounding and just below the protoxylem elements is a large water cavity, formed by breaking down
of the protoxylem elements (lysigenous cavity).
9. Phloem is composed of sieve tubes and companion cells only, phloem parenchyma being absent.
A small band of obliterated phloem occurs near the periphery of the bundle. This represents
protophloem.
10. Metaphloem lies just below protophloem and extends upto Y- shaped xylem, consisting of very
prominent sieve tubes and companion cells.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. 1. Vascular bundles are conjoint collateral and endarch.
2. Monocotyledonous stem. 1. Endodermis and pericycle are absent.
2. Cortex is undifferentiated. Ground tissue is present.
3. Vascular bundle is closed (cambium absent), numerous and scattered.
4. Bundle sheath is prominent.
Anatomy Zea mays [ 267
_..:::::.....<:li~~~~-ground tissue
A
T. s. stem (outlines)
epiderm,s
.,ypodermls----;JJ"9"
IC~~
metaxylem --=;-==~~..i,...1.....r:2:2~Q'"
protoxylem lacunae--r~~:;:;;~d.J:~~~?'--1?Q~
(wilter cavity)
B
T. s. stem (A sector showing cellular details)
Canna
T.s.Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations.
The section is almost circular in transverse plane.
Epidermis. 1. This is an outermost single layer of cells. The layer is covered by a cuticle.
2. Epidermal hairs are absent.
Ground tissue. 1. All the tissue following epidermis is called ground tissue. It extends from epidermis to the
centre of the section.
2. It is differentiated into (a) parenchyma, (b) chlorenchyma, (c) sclerenchyma and again (d)
parenchyma in the center.
3. lWo to three layers of parenchyma lie just below the epidermis. Numerous intercellular spaces occur
in this region.
4. Parenchymatous region is followed by one or two layers of chlorenchymatous cells.
5. A few V-shaped sclerenchymatous patches occur at regular intervals below and in contact with
chlorenchymatous zone.
6. The rest of the ground tissue is parenchymatous with large intercellular spaces.
Vascular tissue system. 1. Vascular tissue system is represented by numerous vascular bundles scattered
throughout the ground tissue.
2. Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral, endarch and closed.
3. Each bundle is surrounded by a sclerenchymatous bundle sheath. It is very prominently developed at
the outer periphery and appears like a cap.
4. Bundles towards the periphery are smaller than those towards the centre.
5. In a bundle, there are only a few xylem elements. These are situated toward the inner side of the
bundle. Each vascular bundle is generally represented by single or two large vessels and a small
tracheid.
6. The phloem occupies the outer part of the vascular bundle - a region just below the sclerenchyma of
the bundle sheath. It consists of sieve tubes and companion cells.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. 1. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and endarch.
2. Monocotyledonous stem. 1. Endodermis and pericycle arc absent.
2. Ground tissue is present.
3. Vascular bundles are closed (cambium absent), many and scattered throughout ground tissue.
4, Bundle sheath is prominent.
Anatomy : Canna [ 269
epidermis ----:6.1f$@~!~~g
sclerenchyma --~~---'!ti:J.
chlorenchyma ----'~'I/f'}l
bundle sheath _---J"'""'~-:'"
chlorenchyma
:,.----sclerenchyma
~77"':!;::---phloem
~--- protoxylom
B
T.s stem (A sector showing cellular details)
Triticum (Wheat)
T.s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of the transverse section is almost circular. There is a large cavity in the centre.
Epidermis. 1. It is an outermost single layer of rectangular cells.
2. The cells of the epidermis are thickly cuticularised.
3. A few stomata are present which lead into a sub-stomatal cavity below.
Ground tissue. 1. All the tissues inside the epidermis form ground tissue. It covers most of the section.
2. A few celled deep sclerenchymatous zone occurs just below the epidermis. It is interrupted at regular
intervals by patches of chlorenchyma.
3. The patches of chlorencpyma are bounded by sclerenchyma on their sides and lower faces.
4. The stomata open only in this region of chlorenchyma.
5. The rest of the tissue is thin walled parenchyma with many intercellular spaces.
Vascular tissue system. 1. Vascular tissue system is represented by numerous vascular bundles. These are
arranged in two series.
2. The bundles of the peripheral series are smaller than the bundles of the inner series.
3. The bundles of the peripheral series are mostly embedded in the sclerenchymatous patch situated
below the epidermis.
4. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, endarch and closed.
5. Each vascular bundle is almost completely enclosed by a band of sclerenchyma. Bundle sheath is
prominent at the upper and the lower extremities of the vascular bundle.
6 The xylem elements are arranged in almost Y-shaped organisation which occupies the lower region
of the vascular bundle.
7. Metaxylem elements are large and the smaller protoxylem elements are situated near the inner face
of the vascular bundle.
8. The phloem occurs in the peripheral region of the bundle. It consists of sieve tubes and companion
cells.
9. There is a hollow cylinder in the centre of the axis.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. 1. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and endarch.
2. Stomata are present in the epidermis.
2. Monocotyledonous stem. 1. Endodermis and pericycle are absent.
2. Vascular bundles are numerous and closed (cambium absent).
3. Bundle sheath is prominent.
4. Ground tissue is present.
Anatomy : Triticum [ 271
o'~;
~o ,~~,
.00 .
,°0
·o.}
-epidermis
' ' __ _
, 0\
-?,O',~,Ql-hypodermls
~g
_----"-.:..L---ground tissue
-----.L-~-:-'"L--pith cavity
A
T, s, stem (outlmes)
epidermis-------'
chlorenchyma---~:r;:
sclerenchyma----:
vascular bundles
phloem---7--:;;-,~-:;-!L~~Efr{j
metaxylem ---':.....=:-~....~"
protoxylem _ _ _ _..l..--~--;.=.~~,
ground tlssue--~=""''--
Boerhaavia
1:~. Stem
Cut a transver3e section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
Outline appears almost circular in transverse section.
Epidermis. 1. It is an outermost single layer of cells.
2. The outer face has thick cuticle.
Cortex. 1. It is many layers deep. The region is differentiated into outer collenchyma and inner parenchyma.
2. Collenchyma follows epidermis. It is three to five cells deep. The walls the neighbouring cells are
thickened.
3. Parenchyma follows the zone of collenchyma. It forms rest of the cortex. It contains numerous
chloroplasts. Intercellular spaces are present.
Endodermis and pericycle. These layers are indistinct.
Vascular tissue system. 1. There' are many vascular bundles which are arranged in rings. A zone of secondary
tissues is also very dstinct.
2. The outermost ring has many bundles. Due to secondary growth, phloem occurs in the form of
crushed and obliterated patches. Abundant prosenchyma (conjunctive tissue) is present. Secondary
phloem forms a complete ring. Cambium that follows separates phloem and xylem. The primary
xylem groups are situated close to the pith. Protoxylem is endarch and the vascular bundles are
conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
3. The innermost ring consists of two vascular bundles. Each bundle is conjoint, collateral, endarch and
open. The bundles lie close to the pith, and are, therefore, known as medullary bundles. These
bundles produce a small amount of secondary phloem and secondary xylem in radial rows.
4. The middle ring consists of six or seven (upto fourteen) bundles. These bundles are smaller than
those of the inner ring. Each bundle is conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
Pith. In the centre a small parenchymatous pith is persent.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. Vascular bundles conjoint, collateral and open.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Cortex well differentiated.
2. Presence of secondary growth.
3. Vascular bundles in a ring.
[III] Points of interest
1. Medullary bundles. The vascular bundles are arranged in three rings. Out of these, two inner rings
occur in the pith and are, therefore, known as medullary bundles. The medullary bundles possess fascicular
(intrafascicular) cambium and produce a little amount of secondary tissues.
2. Abnormal secondary growth. In Boerhaavia, vascular bundles of the outermost ring have fascicular
cambium. Later, interfascicular cambium also develops, thus forming a complete ring. The cambial ring
produces secondary xylem and secondary phloem. However, this cambial ring soon stops functioning. A new
ring (accessory cambium) appears later in the region of the pericycle. This ring of cambium, also, as in earlier
cases functions only for some time. Such many (upto twenty two) accessory cambia are produced successively,
much farther away into the cortex every time. This results in the formation of successive alternate zones of
secondary xylem and secondary phloem. These rings or zones (of secondary tissues) are sometimes
eccentrically developed. Cambia produce a very large amount of prosenchyma into which xylem remains
scattered and at times becomes indistinguishable from it.
(E-15)
Anatomy.' Boerhaavia [ 273
...-::;;riiiiijiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiil;;;:::--- epidermis
......,~-- collenchyma
corteloi
SI-"*-!f!L-s,ec(lndarv xylem
~g {COilenChyma~~~i~~~~~~i~~~~~~~~~~
parenchyma --.......Jo..O......
starch sheath
secondary phloem
cambiulTJ
secondary xylem
conjunctive tissue ---"","",..»:;~
r Phloem-==~~~~i~~
3
[~tcambium-
1:T
cr~ xylem
pith _---,,!=:::::::.I,,~
B r.s. stem (A sector showing cellular details)
Fig. 22. Boerhaavw. T. s. stem.
Bougainvillea
T. s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[IJ Observations
Outline of the transverse section is circular.
Epidermis. 1. It is an outermost, thickly cuticularised layer.
2. After secondary growth, periderm develops just below the epidermis. It consists of outer dead tissues
of cork, a layer or two of cork cambium and a few layers of secondary cortex.
Cortex. 1. It is many layered deep and differentiated into outer and inner regions.
2. The outer region is made of collenchyma. The cells are small, spherical to large oval and show angular
thickening.
3. Chlorenchyma forms the inner cortex. The parenchymatous cells are oval to spherical. These contain
numerous chloroplasts. Many large intercellular spaces are also present.
Endodermis. It is not conspicuous and the casparian strips are absent. A layer similar to starch sheath may be
present.
Pericycle. It lies inner to cortex and forms discontinuous layer of sclerenchyma (stone cells).
Vascular tissue system. 1. It consists of primary tissues secondary tissues, and the medullary bundles.
2. Primary phloem lies just below the pericycle in the form of patches of crumpled and obliterated tissues.
3. Secondary phloem forms a complete ring.
4. Cambium·is .single layered or a few layered deep. It separates outer phloem from inner xylem.
5. Secondary xylem consists of tracheids, ,ressels, fibres and prosenchyma.
6. Numerous groups of secondary phloem lie embedded in the region of secondary xylem. These groups
are called as 'phloem islands' or included phloem or interxylary phloem.
7. Primary xylem groups appear near the-pith.
8. Primary vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
Pith. 1. It is not clearly marked out.
2. Numerous vascular bundles are scattered in the pith.
3. Each of these medullary vascular bundles is conjoint, collateral, endarch and open. Bundles show
either scanty secondary growth or secondary growth is almost absent.
[OJ Identification
1. Stem. 1. Cortex is well differentiated.
2. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and endarch.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
2. Secondary growth is present.
3. Pericycle is distinguishable.
(III} Points of interest
1. Medullary bundles. Many vascular bundles are scattered in the pith. These are called medullary
bundles. Some of the bundles remain embedded in the non-lignified conjunctive tissue, undistinguishable
from the parenchymatous cells of the pith.
2. Secondary growth. In the woody species of the family Nyctaginaceae, like Bougainvillea, anomalous
secondary growth is due to the formation of successive rings of collateral vascular bundles which get
embedded in the prosenchyma. The prosenchyma is so thick that clear differentiation between secondary
xylem and thick lignified tissue is difficult. Therefore, the pholem of the vascular bundles appears embedded
in the xylem and gives the appearance of 'phloem island' or included phloem or interxylary phloem.
Anatomy : Bongainvillea [ 275
~",,",,---cuticle
~>.>.,--chlorenchvma
~""""--pericvcle
':l:-l,-l!~-primarv phloem
-L...L.l.L..-isecondarv phloem
~~~~t.~*-Icambium
.~~-'L--'--U--secondarv xvlem
";;"-,,!-~WJ._ prosenchvma
(conjunctive tissue)
?:::"~.LL-:'-.iL-interxylarv phloem
....'<::~--medullarv bundle
A T s. stem (outlines)
cuticle
epidermis--
g{ collenchvma
i chlorenchvma--""",,"lt.,.:2>'-..c>.~{":·;l;
interxylary phlol}m
secondary xvlem
Achyranthes
T.s.ofStem
Cut a transverse .section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in
glycerine.
[I] Observations
The transverse section is almost circular in outline and shows ridges and furrows.
1. Epidermis. 1. This is the outermost layer of thickly cuticularised cells.
2. Multicellular and uni-or multiseriate hairs are present.
2. Cortex. 1. It is differentiated into collenchyma, chlorenchyma and parenchyma.
2. Collenchyma occurs in patches just below the ridges.
3. Chlorenchyma forms a few layers below the epidermis in the grooves or between the two
collenchymatous patches.
4. Three to four cells deep parenchyma forms innermost region of the cortex.
3. Endodennis. Distinct casparian strips are absent. The layer is almost indistinguishable after the secondary
growth. '
4. Pericycle. 1. It lies immediately outside the vascular tissues.
2. It consists of 3 to 4 cells deep groups of sclerenchyma.
5. Vascular tissue system. 1. It consists of secondary tissues and a small pith.
2. The, primary phloem forms groups of crushed tissues.
3. It 'is followed by a ring of secondary phloem. The cells include sieve tubes, companion cells and
phloem parenchyma.
4. A ring of cambium lies below the phloem and separates the underlying zone of secondary xylem.
5. Secondary xylem consists of many vascular bundles embedded in prosenchyma.
6. In this region, there is no differentiation between secondary xylem elements and the prosenchyma.
A few large vessels can, however, be seen prominently.
7. Phloem groups of the embedded vascular bundles appear as embedded patches in the thick walled
prosenchyma. These are called as included phloem or phloem islands or interxylary phloem.
8. Primary xylem groups lie near the pith. Protoxylem elements are endarch. The vascular bundles, thus,
would be conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
6. Pith. 1. A well developed parenchymatous pith is present in the centre.
2. 1\vo medullary vascular bundles are present in the centre with their xylem facing each other.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. Vascular bundles conjoint, collateral and endarch.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Well differentiated cortex.
2. Vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
3. Presence of secondary growth.
[III] Points of interest
1. Medullary blmdles. The number and arrangement of medullary bundles is not constant throughout.
However, generally two medullary bundles occur in the centre of the pith throughout the length of the plant.
These are said to be leaf traces in nature.
2. Secondary growth. An extra stelar cambium appears in the form of small arcsin the region of pericycle.
These strips of cambia produce secondary vascular bundles which remain scattered in the beginning. The
conjuntive tissue (prosenchyma) becomes lignified. The vascular bundles get embedded in the prosenchyma
and differentiation between xylem and prosenchyma becomes difficult. However, thin walled phloem of the
secondary vascular bundles appears as distinct patches in the lignified secondary tissues. It is variously called
as 'phloem islands', interxylary phloem and included phloem.
Anatomy : Achyranthes [ 277
--!J1f}jfjJ]l~:::::::::===::::::::;!?i~~~--cuticle
~---epidermis
~chlOrenchyma
collenchyma
~v---!---£"o:::.L--cambium
;"--~:O::L--jnterxylary phloem
~~:""::-=.....Jj~--secondary xylem
'-"''-,L----medullary bundle
::::::::ii!lllll~--- pith
cuticIEI-----____~~~~Fr~
chlorenchyma
cort ex
{
primary xYI'eml-_-'---':~
medullary bUlnOlle--±:<t-?=t-f-7~~JB\~t
Chenopodium
T.s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of the transverse section is almost circular.
Epidermis. 1. This outermost layer consists of a single row of barrel- shaped cells.
2. The cells are thickly cuticularised.
Cortex. 1. It forms a small part of the section. It is differentiated into outer collenchymatous and inner
parenchymatous regions.
2. Collenchyma with angular thickenings follows epidermis and is about 3 to 4 layers deep.
3. Parenchyma forms the inner region of the cortex and is five to ten layers deep.
Endodermis. This layer separates the cortex from underlying vascular tissues. Casparian strips are not present
and, therefore, the layer is called starch sheath or endodermoid layer. After secondary growth it
becomes indistinguishable.
Pericycle. A distinct pericycle is absent.
Vascular tissue system. 1. It consists of primary and secondary vascular tissues in the following order.
2. Primary phloem occurs in the form of patches of crushed and obliterated tissues.
3. It is followed by a complete ring of secondary phloem.
4. Unistratose cambium separates phloem from the secondary xylem tissues located inner to it.
5. There is a wide zone of conjunctive tissue. It ls difficult to distinguish secondary xylem and the
conjunctive tissue from one another.
6. Vascular bundles embedded in the conjunctive tissue are secondary in origin. Each vascular bundle
is conjoint, collateral and endarch. These occur almost in a ring being distributed regularly
(sometimes irregularly). The phloem of these secondary bundles appears in patches similar to
included or interxylary phloem. The phloem of the adjacent bundles coalesce and a continuous zone
of included phloem is seen embedded in the thick walled prosenchymatous tissue.
Pith. 1. It is well developed and prosenchymatous.
2. Medullary bundles occur in this region. These are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open and show
little amount of secondarY growth.
[II] Indentification
1. Stem. Cortex is well differentiated.
2. Primary vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Vascular bundles in a ring.
2. Presence of secondary growth.
3. Well developed pith.
[III] Points of interest
1. Secondary growth. The structure. of the axis shows abnormal secondary growth. In Chenopodium,
during secondary growth, extrastelar cambium is f(;rmed in the region of pericycle. This cambium produces
a small amount of thin walled parenchyma in the beginning, thus pushing the primary vascular bundles
towards the pith. These bundles as such appear to be medullary bundles. However, these are not lear trace
bundles normally found but are primary vascular bundles. These bundles undergo a little amount of secondary
growth due to the presence of fascicular cambium. .
At a later stage of development, an arc of cambium is developed from the tissues of the pericycle. It
produces lignified prosenchymatous conjunctive tissue. At lIie same time the cambium forms vascular
bundles. These get embedded in the prosenchymatous conjunctive tissue. The phloem is developed
centripetally and gets buried in this conjunctive tissue, fo'mling included or interxylary phloem or phloem
islands. The secondary cambium (extra stelar) continues to function indefinitely and forms complex se80ndary
tissues. .
Anatomy.' Chenopodium [ 279
';:::::::::::::=====~::::::::~---cuticle
~,.---epidermis
collenchyma }
cortex
->.,...>i":-- parenchyma
,<--->,~--starch sheath
~-l:-':':_ _ primary phloem
~;::::=1 ...1..~""""*--1I8Condarv phloem
-+-+--+-!-!---cembium
~~?:f-+--+-H--- prosenchyma
~~'-;'-J.....Jll-_ interxylary phloem
7'"--f-~--$'~condary xylem
..... ,,-""7"~"'--- medullary bundle
L._::;:r"~;::7,,-_-pith
epidermis-","",,::'E)"<..J
~{COlienChyma
~ parenchyrna---
starch sheath
, pro..nchyme
ucondarv xy!em--;S;;;;
ll{c:'::::=,=:~~~~~~
i xylem
pitb-----+--
Salvadora
T. s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in
glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of the transverse section appears almost circular.
1. Periderm. 1. It consists of cork, cork cambium and secondary cortex.
2. The cork forms a few layers of suberised cells. The cells are arranged in brick-like fashion. The cell
walls are wavy.
3. Cork cambium is a single layer of tangentially elongated cells.
4. Secondary cortex is only a few layers deep. The cells are thin walled with abundant chloroplasts.
5. The periderm is surrounded by a thickly cuticularised epidermis, broken at places.
2. Cortex. 1. The primary cortex is represented by a small region that lies below the secondary cortex. Both
primary and secondary cortex are indistinguishable from one another.
2. The cells of this region are parenchymatous.
3. Endodermis. A distinct endodermis is absent or it is indistinguishable from the rest of the tissues.
4. Pericycle. 1. It is a prominent but discontinuous layer.
2. It consists of thick walled group of sclerenchymatous cells.
5. Vascular tissue system. 1. It consists of both primary and secondary vascular tissues.
2. The outermost is the primary phloem. It appears as crushed and crumpled patches.
3. Secondary phloem situated outside the cambium is in the form of a complete ring.
4. Cambium separates phloem from xylem. It is unistratose. The cells are tangentially elongated.
5. Secondary xylem forms a complete cylinder. This region lies below the cambium. It is traversed by
medullary rays and groups of included phloem.
6. Secondary xylem consists of tracheids and regularly dispersed large vessels.
7. Uniseriate and multiseriate medullary rays of vascular origin run radially from the primary phloem
to the innermost primary xylem elements.
8. Groups of secondary phloem are many and are scattered almost like continuous but wavy zones.
These are phloem islands or included phloem or interxylary phloem.
9. Primary xylem groups occur near the pith. Protoxylem elements are endarch and vascular bundles are
conjoint, collateral and open.
6. Pith. A well dermed parenchymatous pith occupies the centre of the axis.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. Vascular bundles conjoint, collate!'al, endarch and open.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Well differentiated cortex.
2. Vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
3. Occurrence of secondary growth.
[III] Points of interest
1. Secondary growth. This genus is an example of Combretum or Entada type of interxylary phloem. In this
case, small segments of cambium produce phloem towards its innerside instead of secondary xylem. This
abnormal cambial activity continues for ~ometime and then stops. Later, the normal activity is restored by the
production of secondary xylem towards the innerside. As a result, the phloem formed toward the innerside
for a short period gets embedded in the xylem elements. These groups of embedded phloem are called as
'phloem islands' or included phloem or interxylary phloem. The development is said to be centripetal.
Anatomy : Salvadora [ 281
if;
-~~~- interxylary phloem
Lf-.L-f-f----ssecondary .. vlem
primary xylem
pith
A T s. stem (outlines)
lenticel--_ _ _ _-::-:~~:L
epidermiS---:;:f~~~~3::-:t:.:?~~~:::5;~
cork-===~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
cork cambium- ~c::;.:_r:<_'--:~:
secondary cortex--~Yj
pericycle--~~~'1/~.........~_f
secondary phloem-
camblum-
secondary xylem-
primary xvlem--~m\Qll~~~$;
Pit h ---,='---LT'V-----'><="
Leptadenia
T. s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of the transverse section is almost circular.
1. Epidermis. 1. It forms the outermost layer consisting of barrel-shaped cells.
2. A thick cuticle covers the epidermis.
2. Cortex. 1. The cortex is made of outer hypodermis and the inner region of cortex itself.
2. Hypodermis is chlorenchymatous. It is four to five cells deep. The cells are thin walled and possess
numerous chloroplasts.
3. The inner region of the cortex consists of thick walled sclerenchymatous cells. The thickenings show
many pits.
3. Endodermis. A distinct endodermis with casparian strips is absent.
4. PericycIe. 1. It is represented by scattered groups of thick walled stone cells.
2. A wide zone of parenchymatous cells follows pericycle. It unmodified region of pericycle.
5. Vascular tissue system. 1. The vascular tissues occur in the following sequence-primary phloem, secondary
phloem, cambium, secondary xylem, included phloem, primary xylem and internal or interxylary
phloem.
2. Primary phloem is inconspicuous and forms small groups.
3. Secondary phloem forms a large and complete ring.
4. Secondary phloem and secondary xylem are separated by a unistratose layer of cambium.
5. Xylem consists of both primary and secondary tissues. These are made of tracheids, vessels, xylem
parenchyma and conjunctive tissue. A wide zone of secondary xylem shows many large sized vessels,
dispersed between regularly and radially arranged lignified conjunctive tissue.
6. Multiseriate or uniseriate medullary rays run radially amongst the vascular tisssues.
7. Numerous groups of secondary phloem which are surrounded by secondary xylem from all the sides
are also present. These are the groups of interxylary or included phloem.
8. Primary xylem lies near the pith and is endarch.
9. A few groups of phloem are present just inner to the primary xylem towards the pith. These patches
of phioem are known as internal phloem or intraxylary phloem.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. Primary vascular bundles conjoint, bicollateral and endarch.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Well differentiated cortex. 2. Vascular bundles in a ring.
3. Presence of secondary growth.
[III] Points of interest
1. Secondary growth. The included phloem found in the stem is a result of abnormal secondary growth.
During secondary growth, a few segments of cambium produce secondary phloem towards its inner side in
place of secondary xylem. Later, these segments resume their normal activity and produce secondary xylem
as usual. Thus, the secondary xylem surrounds the phloem to form included or interxylary phloem. The
cambium repeats this abnormal activity at many places, many number of times. The pattern of development
of included phloem is known as Combretum or Entada type.
2. Intraxylary phloem. Sometimes, a small patch of phloem is found near the centre of axis. This is due
to activity of internal cambium of the bicollateral vascular bundles. It is located close to the groups of primary
xylem towards the pith. These groups represent the internal or inner phloem of the primary bicollateral
vascular bundles.
3. Xerophytic characters. Presence of thick cuticle, chlorenchyma in the cortex and sclerenchymatous
pericycle are xeromorphic characterji shown by the stem.
Anatomy: Leptadenia [ 283
~--I~...-l,l,--pr·im.arv phloem
_l,-....L,;~~-secondary phloem
.~~~,,-:-rI'7m::IJ-!:L-s.!cond~lrv xylem
~W;.J~~.l).'k::....-7"""::""'~~fL-tL--I)rimary xylem
CU ti l'l .. --"i'1
stone
primary phloem-=~=ir,~~~7;-:PQ:?5~t3::j
seconda~ phloe'm·--~~~r
cambium-....".J~'""""'Y't-g
interxyla~ DnIIO.lm-.JJ::~:r
medullary rav'--~
secondary XVlelTl_--'iL
primary XVlleIT1---~~.tf-
Nyctanthes
T. s. of Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline is almost circular with four angles protruded as bulges.
1. Epidermis. 1. This is the single outermost layer of cells.
2. It is thickly cuticularised and multicellular hairs are present.
2. Cortex. 1. It is few layered thick and is differentiated into outer region of collenchyma and inner
parenchyma.
2. Collenchyma is several layers deep in the ridges and a few cells deep in other regions.
3. Parenchyma forms rest of the cortex. The cells are thin and many intercellular spaces are present.
4. Cortex has four vascular bundles, one in each of the four bulges at four angles. Each one is conjoint,
collateral, exarch and open. The protoxylem of the bundles is directed towards the epidermis, hence
the bundles are called inverted. The xylem of the bundles is situated closer to the epidermis and the
phloem away from it. Both these elements are separated by a cambium. The cambium is active and
produces a little amount of secondary tissues. These are known as cortical vascular 'bundles.
3. Endodermis. A distinct endodermis with caspaian strips is absent.
4. Pericycle. It is present just below the cortical region and separates cortical region from the vascular tissues.
It forms almost a complete ring of parenchymatous cells.
5. Vascular tissue system. 1. The structure shows secondary growth.
2. The tissues occur inJhe following sequence-primary phloem, secondary phloem, cambium, secondary
xylem and primary xylem.
3. The primary phloem occurs in small patches just below the pericycle.
4. Secondary phloem is in the form of a complete ring. It consists of phloem parenchyma, sieve tubes and
companion cells.
5. The cambium is single layered and is present between the secondary phloem and secondary xylem.
6. Secondary xylem occupies most of the region towards the centre of the axis. It consists of tracheids,
vessels and xylem parenchyma. A few vessels are very distinct. Annual rings are not very distinct.
7. Primary xylem lies close to the pith. The protoxyleni is endarch. Primary vascular bundles are conjoint,
collateral, endarch and open.
6. Pith. A large parenchymatous pith is present in the centre.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. Vascular bundles conjoint, collateral and endarch.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1, Cortex well differentiated.
2. Pericycle distinguishable.
3. Vascular bundles in a ring.
4. Secondary growth present.
5. Pith well developed.
[III] Point of interest
Cortical vascular bundles. The stem shows four vascular bundles in the cortex, one each in four
corners of the angular stem. These bundles called as cortical bundles due to their location in the cortex, are
in fact leaf trace bundles. Bundles arise at much lower a node. These pass through the cortex of the upper
internode before supplying the leaf at the next upper node. During the course of their upward passage, the
bundles become inversely oriented. Thus, the phloem of the bundles is directed away from the epidermis
while the endarch protoxylem is closer to the epidermis.
Anatomy: Nyctanthes [ 285
:::::::::!~::::::::::::::::::::~====~:::::::::::::::~~/'/--":::-~-cuticle
epidermis
~ cortical bundle
~cortex
!--+!---starch sheath
f>!--.J...IO=--primary phloem
cq~---,:,:---secondary phloem
'"""''!-'-----'"':--cambium
ocq~--!-!--secondary xylem
~~--++-- primary xylem
cuticle
epidermis--~;;;"hJ....J-.~~l
~{ collenchyma--
)( parenchyma
primary phloem-~~~,?f'\;:;;;~~""\=
seconda~ P'~h~'o~e~m:=~~~~~~~~~~JC~~~~~~.~,
cambium-
secondary xylena
primary xylem---,;;:7'~...-L.~
pith---:::;~-
Amaranthus
T. s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of the section is almOSl circular.
Epidermis. 1. It is an outermost layer of barrel to rectangular cells.
2. The cells are thickly cuticularised.
3. A few stomata occur in the epidermis.
4. A few unicellular or multicellular hairs may be present.
Cortex. 1. It is many layered and differnetiated into (a) collenchyma and (b) parenchyma.
2. A few layered collenchymatous hypodermis follows epidermis. It is 3-5 layered deep.
3. Parenchyma follows collenchymatous hypodermis. It is a few cells deep. The cells are spherical to
oval. The cells may contain a few to many chloroplasts.
Endodermis. 1. A distinct endodermis with Casparian strips is absent.
2. A prominent starch sheath is present in its place.
Pericycle. It is represented by a few sclerenchymatous cells in the old stems.
Vascular tissue system. 1. A large zone of vascular tissues lies just below the starch sheath.
2. Starch sheath is followed by a large amount of conjunctive tissue in which secondary vascular bundles
are embedded.
3. Secondary phloem is situated just below the starch sheath. It is found in small groups.
4. 1Wo-layered ring of cambium separates secondary phloem from secondary xylem.
5. Secondary xylem of secondary vascular bundle lies below ths: cambium.
6. This secondary xylem is embedded in conjunctive tissue that appears as a complete ring below the
cambium. Conjunctive tissue is made of thick walled parenchyma.
7. Numerous vascular bundles are scattered in the centrally located parenchymatous pith. These are
primary vascular bundles and are called medullary bundles.
Pith. 1. The central part of the section has a large parenchymatous pith.
2. Medullary bundles in the pith are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
3. Cambial activity takes place in these medullary bundles. Hence, a little amount of secondary phloem
and secondary xylem are also present.
[II] Indentification
1. Stem. 1. Cortex is well differentiated.
2. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and endarch.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Starch sheath is distinguishable.
2. Vascular bundles are arranged in a ring.
3. Secondary growth is present.
[III] Points of interest
In a stem numerous vascular bundles occur (a) in a ring embedded in conjunctive tissue and (b) scattered
in the centrally located pith.
Secondary growth. In the beginning, there are numerous scattered primary vascular bundles. These
bundles are collateral and open. The cambium of the bundles is active and individual bundles show little
amount of secondary growth. This activity stops after some time. These bundles come to lie in the pith and are
now called as medullary bundles.
Secondary growth begins later with the development of a new cambium outside the stele. This cambium
cuts off conjoint and collateral vascular bundles on the outer side. These are secondary bundles which remain
embedded in the large amount of conjunctive tissue formed by the cambium.
Such many rings of vascular bundles are formed which remain embedded in the conjunctive tissue and
their phloem consequently gives an appearnace of included phloem or phloem islands at number of places.
Anatomy.' Amaranthus [ 287
~~~--starcn sheath
-·se,corldarv phloem
l"lllJI..-J",=,,--cOlnJuncluve tissue
medullary
.......... nrim...v
bundle
stomata
A T.s. stem (outlines)
cuticle----::x:c:c~'1-~if1~---"'~::fZ9:'''''t''~:i
)({co"enChyma~==~~~§§~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~2
~ (hypodermis)
(.l parenchyma
starchsheath:=:::~~ji~~i!~/i~~liiiii1iiii!iiii~~i!~i!f
secondary phloem
cambium
secondary xylem
conjunctive tissues
~j{ phloem
.~ ~ cambium
Q.'3
'i xylem----:;~~~:../J~:>-<;
E
pith_~_c:::::.S!---:~+---,;<:;.
Mirabilis
T. s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine
[I] Observations
The transverse section is almost quadrangular in outline.
Epidermis. 1. This is the outermost single layer of rectangular cells.
2. The cells are thickly cuticularised.
3. A few stomata and multicellular hairs are present in the epidermis.
Cortex. 1. It is many layered and differentiated into (a) COllenchyma and (b) parenchyma.
2. Collenchymatous hypodermis follows. It is 4-5 layers deep. The cells are thickened at the corners.
3. Parenchymatous region follows hypodermis and forms a major part of cortex. This region extends
upto endodermis. It is many layers deep. The cells contain numerous chloroplasts.
Endodermis. 1. It separates cortex from the underlying vascular tissue.
2. This single layer of cells l~cks casparian strips and is hence called starch sheath.
Pericycle. 1. It lies immediately below endodermis and is a few layered thick.
2. The cells are parenchymatous.
Vascular tissue system. 1. It forms a wide zone below the pericycle.
2. Pericycle is followed by conjunctive tissue in which secondary vascular bundles are embedded.
3. Immediately following the pericycle are small groups of secondary phloem.
4. Secondary phloem is separated from secondary xylem by 2-3 layered ring of cambium.
5. Secondary xylem of secondary vascular bundle lies below the cambium. The amount of secondary
xylem is much larger than secondary phloem.
6. This secondary xylem is embedded in a zone of conjunctive tissue. The conjunctive tissue is a thick
walled parenchyma and almost indistinguishable from secondary xylem.
7. Numerous vascular bundles are scattered in the centrally located parenchymatous pith.
These are primary vascular bundles, now called medullary bundles.
Pith. 1. The central part of the section is occupied by a large parenchymatous pith.
2. Medullary bundles in the pith are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open. Those near the periphery are
smaller in size and more crowded, whereas those in the central region are larger and less crowded.
3. A little amount of secondary growth takes place in the medullary bundles.
[II] Identification.
1. Stem. 1. Cortex is well differentiated. 2. Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and endarch.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Starch sheath is distinguishable. 2. Vascular bundles in a ring.
3. Secondary growth present.
[III] Points of interest
Young Mirabilis stem has many bundles which undergo secondary growth.
Secondary growth. Primary vascular bundles in a young stem are conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
The cambium of the bundles is active and each vascular bundle undergoes a little amount of secondary growth.
The activity of this cambium stops after some time. These vascular bundles come to lie in the pith and called
medullary bundles.
Secondary growth starts with the formation of secondary cambium originating in the parenchyma closer to
pericycle. This cambium cuts off secondary xylem on its inner side. It remains embedded in thick walled
conjunctive tissues. A very small amount of secondary phloem elements are formed by the cambium on its
outer side.
Due to successive cambial ring formation, rings of vascular tissues embedded in the conjunctive tissue are
formed.
(B-15)
Anatomy : Mirabilis [ 289
~~~~==~ii1m~~?:--:--epidermis
hypodermis }~
-.31:!!~~- parenchyma tJ
~-~--starch sheath
§......~---hair
cuticle
epidermis
j hypodermis
(collenchyma)
{
parenchyma--'--"-
starch sheath
"econdary phloem-
~~~~~~~~~~i~i~~~~
secondary xylem
~1 {PhlOem
.'"
~~ .
cambium
0.-
i xylem ---;::::::::;~--r\;;~J4~v,~
E
pith _ _.."....:J,----IL-_
B
T.s. stem (A sector showing cellular details)
Bignonia
T. s. Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in
glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of transverse section appears almost quadrangular.
1. Epidermis. 1. It is an outermost single layer of cells.
2. The cells are thickly cuticularised.
2. Cortex. 1. A few layered cortex follows epidermis.
2. It is parenchymatous and many intercellular spaces are present.
3. Endodermis. 1. A distinct endodermis with casparian strips is absent, instead a parenchymatous layer is
present.
2. This layer is called a starch sheath.
4. Pericycle. 1. It occurs just bel~w the starch sheath in the form of a few patches of sclerenchyma.
2. These patches are of different sizes and form almost discontinuous ring.
5. Vascular tissue system. 1. Vascular tissue lies below the pericycle.
2. Secondary xylem is grooved at four places (sometimes more) due to phloem wedges.
3. Primary phloem occurs as small and crushed patches. These are situated clos~ to the pericycle.
4. Secondary phloem forms a complete ring. At four diagonal regions, it intrudes into the secondary
xylem to form an almost V-shaped structure. A few phloem cells are thick walled. These are called
bast or phloem fibres.
5. Vnistratose cambium separates phloem and xylem. It is depressed in the region of weoges.
6. Secondary xylem is notched at four places due to phloem wedges. Secondary xylem is made of
tracheids, fibres, vessels, fibre-tracheids and parenchyma.
7. Primary xylem groups occur near the pith. Each group is endarch, protoxylem being closer to the axis.
8. The vascular bundles are thus conjoint, collateral, endarch and open.
6. Pith. A well-defined, parenchymatous pith occupies the centre.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. Vascular bundles conjoint, collatera~ endarch and open.
2. Dicotyledonous stem. 1. Well differentiated cortex.
2. V<.'scular bundles arranged in a ring.
3. Secondary growth present.
[III] Points of interest.
Secondary growth. In Bignonia, ridged and furrowed (4- wedged or more) xylem cylinder is formed. This
is due to abnormal cambial activity. In the beginning, cambium is normal in position and activity. At a later
stage, at four places (or more) cambium produces greater amount of phloem on its outer side than the amount
of secondary xylem on its inner side. This results in the formation of four (or more) deep wedges of secondary
phloem which project into the secondary xylem.
. The abnormal activity is restricted to four diagonally placed patches of cambium in the beginning. Later,
this occurs at other places also and results into much ridged and furrowed xylem in mature and old stem.
Anatomy " Bignonia [ 291
sclerenchyma
starch sheath
xylem
primary xylem
phloem wedge
cuticle --::;;;;;:s:oWP"f"''''I'''''''''''''''I''IIIp:l:"""",
epidermis _ _ _-A::y
parenchymal---:~5P==<:-i~i?~:;X~~~
starch sheathl---=J.~~~~~~g ~er-::?-2J:~~R;::r-~
sclerenchyma
primary phloem
fibres:::::::::~~~~§~III~I;al~I~~9~~
bast wedge
phloem
secondary xylem --~~~l..l::Dt::
pith ---:±~~~~U
B
T.s. stem (A sector showing cellular details)
Fig. 31. Bignonia. T. s. stem.
Dracaena
T.s.Stem
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of the transverse section is almost circular.
Periderm. 1. It is composed of cork (phellem), cork cambium (phellogen) and secondary cortex (phelloderm).
2. The cells of the phellem are rectangular, thickly suberised and dead.
3. A few lenticles also occur in the phellem.
4. The cork cambium is one or two layers thick. The cells are thin walled and tangentially elongated.
Cortex. 1. It is undifferentiated and wholly parenchymatous.
2. The cells are filled with starch. Many intercellular spaces are present.
Meristematic tissue. 1. It follows parenchyma and forms several layered deep zone.
2. The cells are almost rectangular and generally radially arranged. The cells are similar to cambium.
Vascular tissue system. 1. Numerous vascular bundles lie scattered in the ground tissue.
2. The primary vascular bundles are present near the centre of the axis. These are large in size and
typically collateral and closed.
3. Secondary vascular bundles are present near the periphery. These are smaller in size and remain
embedded in the thin walled tissue (sometimes thick walled due to lignification). Each vascular
bundle is concentric (amphivasal) where phloem is surrounded by xylem.
4. Secondary phloem consists of short sieve tube elements.
5. Secondary xylem is composed of tracheids and xylem parenchyma.
Ground tissue. 1. This tissue extends from the inner side of the meristematic zone and fill up the major part
of the axis.
2. '{'he cells are parenchymatous. Numerous intercellular spaces are present.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. 1. Vascular bundles are conjoint and collateral.
2. Ground tissue is present.
2. Monocotyledonous stem. 1. Vascular bundles are scattered.
2. Cambium is absent (vascular bundles closed).
3. Endodermis and pericycle are absent.
4. Pith is not well defmed.
[III] Point of interest
Secondary growth. At a very late stage during the development, a wide zone of secondary meristem
(cambium) develops outside the vascular bundles in the parenchymatous region. This meristematic tissue cuts
off vascular bundles on its inner side. These are concentric (amphivasal) in contrast to the primary bundles
which are collateral. The amount of parenchymatous ground tissue also increases and, therefore, the diameter
of the stem.
The cambium (meristermatic zone) originates near the leaf primordia. The life of this zone or layer is
limited. It stops functioning after sometime and the adjaceent cells take over. Another important feature in
contrast to cambium of dicotyledons is that cambium in Dracaena cuts 'off both xylem and phloem on its inner
side while on its outer face very little amount of parenchyma is produced.
Anatomy: Dracaena' [ 293
primary vascular
bundle
--_ar'oul~a tissue
secondary
vascular bundle
A T. s. stem (outlines)
epidermis
phloem -~~:4-~~
vascular bundle
B
T. s. stem ,A sector showing cellular details)
Dracaena Family - Liliaceae
English name - Dragon plant Fig. 32. DracaefUl. T. s. stem.
294 ] Practical Botany,' Vol 2
Cicer
T. s. Root
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of the transverse section is almost circular.
Epiblema or piliferous layer. 1. This is the outermost single row of thin walled cells.
2. Unicellular root hairs are present.
Cortex. 1. It consists of undifferentiated parenchyma. It is s~verallayered deep.
2. Numerous intercellular spaces are present.
3. Epiblema is short lived in a few members and, thereafter, some of the outer layers of cortex become
cutinised. These layers of the cortex together are known as exodermis.
Endodermis. 1. It separates vascular tissue from the cortex.
2. The barrel-shaped cells are closely packed.
3. The ra~al and radial tangential walls show casparian strips
4. The cells of endodermis in close approximation with the protoxylem are thin walled. These are called
passage cells.
Pericycle. 1. It follows the endodermis.
2. The cells are thin walled and compactly arranged.
Vascular tissue system. 1. It consists of vascular bundles. The vascular bundles are radial and exarch.
2. The xylem and phloem form equal number of separate bundles with protoxylem towards the pericycle
(exarch).
3. The number of the xylem and phloem groups is four each (it may vary between two to four).
4. Phloem consists of sieve tube elements, companion cells and phloem parenchyma.
5. Xylem consists of tracheids, vessels and xylem parenchyma.
6. Protoxylem elements are smaller and show annular or spiral thickenings. Metaxylem elements are
larger'in size and show reticulate and pitted thickenings.
7. Mature cambium appears as a wavy layer below the phloem and above the protoxylem elements. As
a result of secondary growth, primary xylem elements are pushed towards the centre, where they
meet and obliterate the pith.
Pith. 1. It is small and occupies the centre of the axis.
2. The cells are parenchymatous.
3. After the secondary growth, pith gets completely reduced due to the addition of secondary tissues.
[II] Identification
1. Root. 1. Vascular bundles radial and exarch.
2. Cortex undifferentiated.
3. Unicellular root hairs.
2. Dicotyledonous root. 1. Xylem groups are four showing tetrarch condition.
2. Pith is very small.
3. Cambium appears as secondary meristem.
Anatomy: Cicer [ 295
f----hair
,,>____ epiblema
--'~"",--- cortex
~ ______---..ll'---r--- endodermis
~ peri cycle
------,u..--=:..-.-- pith
cortex ---,="","":-
endodermis---t::.""""-;-;"",~~~:::r:~~
metaxylem---+.,J-f-4~~~
·pith
Tinospora
T.s. Root
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations _
The outline of the transverse section is circular.
Periderm. 1. It consists of cork (phellem), cork cambium (phellogen) and secondary cortex (phelloderm).
2. The cork cambium originates from the pericycle and is meristematic.
3. Cork is made of rectangular, dead and suberised cells which vary in depth.
4. Secondary cortex consists of thin walled cells with numerous intercellular spaces. These cells contain
large number of chloroplasts.
Cortex. 1. It consists of thin walled parenchyma with numerous intercellular spaces.
2. The cells possess large number of chloroplasts.
3. After the formation of periderm, cortex and pericycle are peeled off.
Endodermis. 1. It is well demarcated single layer.
2. The tangential and radial tangential walls often show casparian thickenings.
3. Due to the development of periderm in the pericycle, endodermis is sloughed off and therefore, it is
not visible in the old structure.
Pericycle. 1. It follows endodermis and is in the form of a complete ring of barrel-shaped cells.
2. This is the place where cork cambium originates to form periderm.
Vascular tissue system. 1. It consists of primary phloem, secondary phloem, cambium, secondary xylem,
medullary rays and primary xylem.
2. Primary phloem is in the form of groups which alternate with primary xylem groups near the centre of
axis. The phloem groups appear crushed and obliterated.
3. Secondary phloem groups occur below the patches of primary phloem and are massive.
4. Phloem consists of sieve tubes, companion cells and phloem parenchyma.
5. Cambium is in the form of wavy ring. It is unistratose to multistratose.
6. Secondary xylem lies below the cambium. It is divided into many smaller and larger regions due to
wide medullary rays which pass through it. Vessels are very conspicuous due to their large diameter.
Xylem is made up of tracheids, vessels and thick walled xylem parencyhyma.
7. Primary xylem groups are located close to the centre of the axis. Protoxylem of these groups is
directed away from the centre (condition exarch).
Pith. 1. In the centre of the axis is a small pith.
2. The cells of the pith are thick walled and lignified.
[II] Identification
1. Root. 1. Vascular bundles are radial.
2. Protoxylem is exarch.
2. Dicotyledonous root. 1. Four groups of xylem (tetrarch condition) are present.
2. Pith is ill developed and small.
3. Secondary growth is present, hence cambium present.
[III] Points of Interest
1. Wide medullary rays. The cambial cells situated against the protoxylem elements produce multiseriate,
parenchymatous and broad vascular (medullary) rays.. These run between and through xylem and
phloem: dividIng the secondary vascular tissues into smaller groups.
2. Xerophytic characters. Presence of chlorenchyma in the cortex exhibits the aerial nature of the root.
Anatomy: Tinospora [ 297
secondary ph'oern-+H;;~~~~~~
secondary xylem
B
B. T.s. root (A sector showing cellular details)
Ficus
T.s. Roo~
Cut a transvere section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The section appears almost circular in transverse plane.
Periderm. 1. Periderm forms a wide zone consisting of phellem (cork), phellogen (cork cambium) and
phelloderm (secondary cortex).
2. Phellem or cork consists of many layers of thickly suberised cells. The cells show characteristic
brick-like arrangement. A few lenticels are also present.
3. Phellogen or cork cambium forms a continuous layer of tangentially elongated and thin walled cells.
4. Phelloderm or secondary cortex comprises a few layers of parenchymatous cells. Some of the cells
of this region contain numerous chloroplasts while a few others show thick walled fibres. Tannin filled
cells are also abundant.
Endodermis. A single layered endodermis is distinguishable in young roots. It beecomes indistinguishable
with the advance of secondary growth.
Pericycle. In old roots it forms discontinuous patches of thick walled and pitted stone cells.
Vascular tissue system. 1. It consists of primary phloem, secondary phloem, cambium, secondary xylem and
primary xylem.
2. Primary phloem is small in amount and appears crushed in roots with sufficient secondary growth.
3. Secondary phloem forms a large and continuous zone. It comprises sieve tubes, companion cells,
phloem parenchyma and phloem fibres.
4. Cambium is unistratose and separates the zone of phloem from the underlying zone of xylem.
5. Secondary xylem that follows the cambium consists of large vessels, tracheids and xylem parenchyma.
These tissues are dispersed amongst thin and thick walled prosenchyma that generally constitutes
conjunctive tissue.
6. Medullary rays run from primary phloem to primary xylem. Thnnin cells are abundant.
7. Primary xylem is situated close to the secondary xylem near the pith. It shows exarch condition.
Pith. A small parenchymatous pith is present in the centre. It becomes completely obliterated in older roots
being occupied by the secondary xylem.
[II] Identification
1. Root. 1. Vascular bundles are radial and exarch.
2. Cortex is undifferentiated.
3. Root hairs are unicellular.
2. Dicotyledonous root. 1. Xylem groups are fewer in number.
2. Pith is small.
3. Secondary growth is present.
[III] Points of interest
1. Presence of chloroplasts in the cortex indicating aerial nature of the root.
2. Abundant seecondary xylem and phloem indicate the mechanical function of the roots.
3. The above features indicate aerial nature of the root with both assimilatory (photosynthetic) and
mechanical functions.
Anatomy," Ficus [299
m::::::"~~- fibre
~~~----!-c'--cf-- cambium
~~L..~~'¥J.-L-- secondary xylem
- ........'--'---primary xylem
A T.s. root.(outlines)
lenticels-----::;;;;;;;;;;;;;~9~;;;;;;;~~~
cork ---...,--,"::-,A
COrkCambiUm--~~~~
secondary corte.x---=:
primary
secondary xylem
conjunctive IIS!!UEi--
Bela vulgaris
T.s. Root
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline of the transverse section is slightly bilobed.
Periderm. 1. The outermost region consists of a large zone of periderm.
2. Periderm is made up of cork (phellem), cork cambium (phellogen) and secondary cortex (phelloderm).
3. The cells of the cork are rectangular and the walls are heavily suberised. The zone of cork is about
8-10 layers deep.
4. Cork cambium forms a single layer. It is made of rectangular and tangentially elongated cells.
5. Secondary cortex is very inconspicuous and is made of a few parenchymatous layers.
Endodermis. It is indistinguishable in a root with secondary growth.
Pericycle. 1. A large zone of parenchymatous cells filled with red coloured anthocyanin represents pericycle.
The cells are rich in reserve food material.
2. The pericycle becomes proliferated due to repeated divisions and forms many pericyclic layers.
3. These parenchymatous layers alternate with the rings of vascular bundles.
Vascular tissue system. 1. The vascular tissue is represented by rings of vascular bundles.
2. Each ring of vascular bundles has many bundles arranged very closely.
3. Each vascular bundle is collateral.
4. Each ring of vascular bundles is separated from the other by bands of storage parenchyma.
5. Adjacent vascular bundles are also separated from one another by bands of radial parenchyma.
6. In the centre of the section is a fused mass of xylem. It shows diarch and exarch condition.
[II] Identification
1. Root. 1. Primary vascular bundles are radial and exarch.
2. Cortex is small and undifferentiated.
2. Dicotyledonous root. 1. There are two groups of xylem (diarch condition)
2. Pith as absent.
3. Cambium is present and hence secondary growth takes place.
[III] Points of interest.
Abnormal secondary growth. Secondary growth begins with the formation of primary cambium. It is
formed from the parenchyma cells between the xylem and phloem groups except opposite the two protoxylem
groups where it arises from pericycle. This cambium produces a ring of closely arranged collateral vascular
bundles. It ceases to function. The second cambial ring now develops from phloem parenchyma outside the
first cambial ring. It forms secondary collateral vascular bundles.These are separated by radially formed
secondary parenchyma. This cambial ring also ceases to function. The third ring of cambium is now produced
from the pricycle. At this stage, pericycle divides and becomes many layered from which cambial rings develop
successively. As a rsult, rings of vascular bundles alternating with storage parenchyma are formed.
Anatomy: Beta vulgaris [ 301
xylem
A T. s. root (outlines)
secondary
xylem
)--'(rl:Ht};~t:t.~~~:±-:~.J::.:C~ secondary
phloem
Zeamays
T. s. Root
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
Outline of the section is almost circular.
Epiblema or piliferous layer. 1. This is the outermost layer of barrel-shaped and thin walled cells.
2. Unicellular hairs arising as outgrowth of this layer are present.
Cortex. 1. It occupies a large part of the section. It is several layers deep.
2. The cells are thin walled and parenchymatous.
3. Numerous intercellular spaces are present.
4. In an old root, when epiblema gets disorganised, a few outer layers of the cortex undergo
suberisation and thus outer part of the cortex becomes thick :walled (exodermis). This is a protective
layer which protects delicate internal tissues from the external forces or agencies.
Endodermis. 1. This is the innermost layer of the cortex that separates underlying vascular tissue from the
cortex.
2. It forms a definite ring around the stele.
3. The cells are barrel-shaped, compactly arranged and casparian strips are present.
4. A few cells opposite the protoxylem elements are thin walled and are called passage cells.
Pericycle. 1. It follows endodermis.
2. The cells are thin walled and form a complete ring.
Vascular tissue system. 1. Vascular tissue system consists of radial and exarch vascular bundles.
2. Many groups of xylem and phloem are located on alternate radii.
3. Protoxylem is exarch being located close to the pericycle.
4. Xylem elements consist of tracheids and xylem parenchyma. Protoxylem shows annular or spiral
thickenings. Metaxylem shows reticulate pittings.
5. Phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells.
6. Conjunctive tissue (thick walled parenchyma) occurs in between and around the vascular tissues.
Pith. 1. It occcurs in th,e centre of the axis.
2. The cells are parenchymatous, sometimes the cells become thick walled and lignified.
[II] Identification
1. Root. 1. Vascular bundles are radial and exarch.
2. Cortex is massive and undifferentiated.
3. Hairs are unicellular.
2. Monocotyledonous root. 1. Polyarch condition of the xylem.
2. Pith is well differentiated.
3. Secondary growth is absent.
Anatomy: Zea mays [ 303
~~--.J..-J."'---r_ _ epiblema
_ _ _ _--"-';"""';"- cortex
T. s. root (outlines)
ePiblema--~~f2~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~Sf3t~~~~
endodermis
pencycle
phloem --~f!f~~ft
metaxylem
protoxylem - - - -
pith
B
Zea m~s Family - Gramineac T. s. root (A sector shOWing cellular details)
English names - Maize, Com.
Vernacular names- Makka, Bhutta. Fig. 37. Zea mays. T. s. root.
304 ] Practical Botany: Vol 2
Canna
T. s. Root
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The outline ofthe transverse seciton is almost circular.
Epiblema or Piliferous layer. 1. This is an outermost single layer of thin walled cells.
2. A few of the cells give out unicellular root hairs.
Cortex. 1. It is made up of undifferentiated parenchymatous cells. The cortex is several layers deep.
2. Numerous intercellular spaces are present.
3. Epiblema gets disorganised and the cells become dead after some time. Soon, a few outer layers of the
cortex get cutinised. These layers form exodermis.
Endodermis. 1. This is a single layer that separates cortex from the vascular tissues and forms a defInite ring
around them.
2. The cells are barrel-shaped. Their radial and often radial tangential walls are thickened (casparian
strips are present).
3. A few cells situated against the protoxylem elements are thin walled and do not show thickenings.
(These cells are known as passage cells).
Pericycle. 1. This layer follows endodermis. It forms a complete ring which is made of barrel- shaped cells.
2. The cells are compactly arranged and thin walled.
Vascular tissue system. 1. Vascular tissue system consists of radial and exarch v.ascular bundles.
2. There are numerous groups of xylem (condition polyarch).
3. Xylem and phloem groups are equal in number. These occur on separate radii.
4. Protoxylem is located near the pericyde (condition is called exarch).
5. Phloem consists of sieve tubes and companion cells.
6. The xylem is made up of tracheids, vessels and parenchyma. Protoxylem elements show annular OJ
spirahy thickened vessels while metaxylem elements have reticulate and pitted vessels.
7. Even after considerable maturity, the secondary growth does not take place. This indicates absence of
cambium. The parenchyma in between and around the vascular bundles is called conjunctive tissue.
Pith. 1. In the centre of the axis, well developed parenchyma forms the pith.
2. In some cases, it becomes thick walled and lignifIed.
[II] Identification
1. Root. 1. Vasular bundles are radial and exarch.
2. Cortex is undifferentiated.
3. Unicellular root hairs present.
2. Monocotyledonous root. 1. Xylem groups show polyarch condition.
2. Pith is well differep.tiated.
3. Secondary growth is absent.
(B-lS)
Anatomy: Canna [ 305
~'<S{";bl~'
- cortex
~--------l;--- endodermis
~'@"'"
!fjc:J ~_ _ _ _- - '_ _
\.,:l' phloem
@@ (9)@@\
---==--~- -------'--- pith
~ "o"",I'm
@ • me:axylem
cortex
(parenchyma ) - , - -
endodermis
pencycle
Orchid
T. s. Root
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
Outline of the transverse section is almost circular.
The limiting layer. This is the outermost layer of dead cells. This layer represents the outermost layer of
velamen.
Velamen. 1. The layers following the outermost are together called velamen. It represents multiple epidermis.
The cells are variously elongated, dead and thickened. The cell walls show thickenings. These are due
to spirally or reticulately arranged thick fibres.
2. Velamen is supposed to absorb moisture from the atmosphere. It also provides protection to the root.
Exodermis. 1. This is the outermost layer of the cortex. Most of the cells of this layer are thickened due to the
depo!!ition of suberin.
2. A few unthickened cells occur in this layer. These are called passage cells and serve as the channels
for water conduction.
Cortex.!. Most of the cortex lies internal to the exodermis.
2. It is made of parenchymatous cells with numerous intercellular spaces. Chloroplasts may also be
present in some of these cells.
3. A few air chambers are present in the cortex.
Endodermjs. 1. This is the innermost layer of the cortex. It is characterised by suberisation of radial and inner
walls.
2. A few unthickened passage cells are present just opposite the protoxylem elements.
Pcricyc\ e. A single layer of thin walled cells is situated inner to endodermis.
VU1>cular tissues. 1. There are numerous (polyarch) radial and exarch vascular bundles.
2. Sclerenchymatous conjunctive tissue surrounds phloem groups.
3. Xylem consists of vessels, tracheids and xylem parenchyma.
4. Groups of phloem consist mainly of sieve tube elements and companion cells.
5. Protoxylem is annularlyor spirally thickened. Metaxylem is reticulate and vessels are pitted.
PIth. In the centre is a parenchymatous pith with numerous intercellular spaces. The cells become sclerified
at a later stage.
[II] Identification
1. Root.!. Vascular bundles are radial and exarch.
2. Cortex is undifferentiated.
3. Root hairs are unicellular.
2. Monocotyledonous root. 1. Xylem groups show polyarch condition.
2. Pith is well differentiated.
j. There is a complete absence of secondary growth.
[IIIJ Points of interest
1. Presence of multiple epjdermis - Velamen, which is a special tissue helpful in absorption of moisture
from the atmosphere. It also forms protective covering of the root.
2. Presence of chloroplasts in the cortical cells indicates their possible role in food synthesis.
3. Presence of air chambers in the cortex.
4. These characters indicate that these must be hanging aerial roots of orchids.
Anatomy: Orchid [ 307
H---+--+-endodermis
~-J..."-~~<"~_---+--..1.- pericycle
lerenchyma
Mangifera
T. s.Leaf
Cut a transverse section of the material. (If required use pith). Stain in safranin and fast green combination
and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
Epidermis. 1. Lower and upper epidermis are single layered. 2. The cells are barrel-shaped and compactly
arranged. 3. Upper epidermis has a thick cuticle and lacks stomata. 4. Lower epidermis has thin cuticle
and stomata are present.
MesopbyU. 1. It is differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. 2. Palisade occurs below upper
epidermis in two layers, with parenchyma near the larger vascular bundle. The cells are compactly
arranged, long and tubular and chloroplasts are present. 3. Spongy parenchyma forms rest of the tissue.
The cells are small, varied in shapes and sizes, loosely arranged and enclose small air spaces. 4. A few
air spaces lead to the stomatal openings which form sub-stomatal cavity. Numerous chloroplasts are
present near the walls.
Vascular tissue. 1. It consists of one large vascular bundle in the midril and numerous small vascular bundles
in the wings. 2. Each bundle is conjoint, collateral and closed and surrounded by a parenchymatous
bundle sheath. Larger vascular bundle has an extensive bundle sheath that ext;ends both toward lower
and upper epidermis. 3. Metaxylem is situated toward the lower epidermis and protoxylem toward the
upper epidermis. 4. Phloem of the vascular bundle is directed toward lower epidermis..
[II] Identification
Dorsiventral leaf. Mesophyll is differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
[III] Points of interest
Most of the leaves of dicotyledons are dorsiventral. They grow in horizontal direction with distinct upper
and lower surfaces. Palisade forms a few layers near the upper epidermis while spongy parenchyma occurs
near the lower epidermis.
xylem } vascular
~(f;:'b~:"";';~;-:~- phloem bundle
stomata
parenchyma
Zeamays
T. s.Leaf
Cut a transverse section of the leaf by keeping the piece of leaf in the pith. Stain in safra,nin and fast green
combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
Epidermis. 1. Leaf is bounded by lower and upper epidermal layers. Both layers are thickly cuticularised.
2. Stomata are present in both epidermal layers. 3. A few large, empty and colourless bulliform (or
motor) cells occur in upper epidermis.
Mesophyll. 1. It is not differentiated into'palisade and spongy parenchyma. It occurs between upper and lower
.epidermis. 2. The cells are isodiametric and contain numerous chloroplasts. These are compactly
arranged and leave only a few intercellular spaces.
Vascular tissue. 1. There are numerous vascular bundles of variable sizes arranged in a parallel series. Each
bundle is collateral and closed. There is a distinct parenchymatous bundle sheath. The cells of the sheath
possess plastids and starch grdins (this layer, thus serves as a temporary storage tissue and also
transports the products of photosynthesis to the phloem). 2. A patch of sclerenchyma each is present
above and below the larger vascular bundles and extends up to the upper and lower epidermal layers
respectively. 3. Larger bundles have distinct and more amount of xylem and phloem than the smaller
ones. 4. Bundles possess xylem on their. upper side (toward upper epidermis) and phloem on its lower
side (toward lower epidermis).
[II] Identification
Isobilateralleaf. 1. Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
2. Stomata are present on both lower cmd upper epidermal layers.
[III] Points of interest
Most of the leaves of monocotyledons are isobilateral. The stomata are present on both lower and upper
epidermal layers. Mesophyll, in these cases, is undifferenliated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
Bulliform cells are present in the upper epidermis. This is characteristic of plants (monocotyledonous)
growing under dry conditions. These motor cells help the leaf to roll due to the changes in their turgidity,
thereby reducing the stomatal transpiration, under xeric conditions. Other xerophytic characters include:
thick cuticle, sclerenchymatous patches and more stomata on lower surface.
border sclerencnyma
parenchyma
Bambusa (Bamboo)
Cut a transverse section of the leaf. Use pith if necessary. Stain in safranin and fast green combination and
mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
Epidermis. 1. Lower and upper epidermis are single-celled layers. The cells are arranged compactly.
2. Upper epidermis has thin cuticle, lacks stomata and a few enlarged cells - bulliform (or motor) cells
are present. 3. Lower epidermis has a strong cuticle and numerous stomata. Outer surface has heavy
deposition of silicon. A few stiff and sharply pointed hairs are present.
Mesophyll. 1. It is not differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma. The entire tissue between upper
and lower epidermis is palisade-like. 2. Intercellular spaces are absent but few air cavities are present.
Vascular tissue. 1. It consists of numerous vascular bundles, arranged in parallel series. 2. Each bundle is
collateral and closed, surrounded by a distinct bundle sheath. A patch of sclerenchyma is present above
and below the bundle and extends up to upper and lower epidermis respectively. Larger bundles have
distinct and more amount of xylem and phloem than the smaller one. 3. Phloem lies toward lower
epidermis. 4. Metaxylem is located toward lower epidermis and protoxylem toward the upper epidermis.
[II] Identification
Isobilateralleaf. Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
[III] Points of interest
Most of the monocotyledonou!i plants show isobilateral leaves. They show stomata on both of their
surfaces (amphistomatic). Mesophyll is undifferentiated.
However, in this case, characteristic bulliform cells (motor cells) are present in the upper epidermis. These
are enlarged and colourless cells. The cells bring inrolling of the leaf by the changes in the turgor pressure.
The inrolling is very effective in checking the stomatal transpiration. Other xerophytic characters are - thick
cuticle, sclerenchymatous patches and stomata on the lower surface
cuticle
xylem }VaSCUlar
bundle
~-==:;!-~--p hi oem
lower epidermis
Acacia moniliformis
T.s. Phyllode
Cut a transverse section of the material, stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The transverse section of the material shows the following anatomical characters.
The outline appears like a T.s. of leaf, with a distinct midrib -like portion and lateral wings.
Epidermis. 1. Both upper and lower epidermal layers are made of single row of cells. The cells are thickly
cuticularised.
2. These are rectangular to radially elongated.
3. Both the epidermises are interrupted by numerous sunken stomata which open in the substomatal
cavities.
Mesophyll. 1. The region between upper and lONer epidermal layers is occupied by mesophyll.
2. It is made of palisade and parenchyma.
(a) Palisade. 1. The palisade is located inner to both upper and lower epidermal layers.
2. The cells are radially elongated and tubular. These possess numerous chloroplasts. Intercellular
spaces are absent. This zone is about two cells deep.
(b) Parenchyma. 1. This tissue occupies the central region. The cells are thin walled and vary from oval
to spherical. Numerous intercellular spaces are present.
Vascular tissue. 1. It is represented by many vascular bundles, situated just below the palisade on either side.
2. Vascular bundles in the centre and at the tips of the wings are bigger in size than those present in the
wings.
3. Bigger vascular bundles are surrounded by a massive zone of sc1erenchyma. Smaller bundle remains
enveloped by a single layer of thin-walled cells. However, a few layers of sc1erenchyma form a cap
above smaller vascular bunQIes.
4. Each of the vascular bundles consists of xylem and phloem. Xylem is directed toward the centre and
phloem towards the epidermis.
5. Xylem consists of tracheary elements, vessels and parenchyma.
6. Phloem is made of sieve tube elements, companion cells and parenchyma.
sclerenchyma
parenchyma
mid rib A
Fig. 43. Acacia. T.s phyllode, A. OutlInes
312 J Practical Botany,' Vol 2
[II] Identification
Petiole. Vascular bundles are arranged in a complete ring which has formed two rows due to flattening.
[III] Points of interest
The structure shows a flattened petiole which has become leaf- like. This modified organ is known as
phyllode. It is generally borne vertically by the plant, so that both the surfaces receive equal amount of
illumination. It shows a few characters of the leaf e.g. presence of palisade tissue and a flattened leaf-like
feature.
This modification is found in xerophytic plants. The phyllode shows xerophytic characters such as a thick
cuticle, sunken stomates, radially elongated epidermal cells, presence of palisade, well-developed
sclerenchyma, etc.
sclerenchyma
sunken stomata
palisade
(ij Q)
)Jffi3.i"\.l:q,..-r- phloem } ~ =g
~~~~_ xylem gj OJ
>.0
parenchyma
lower
epidermis
xylem
B
Fig. 43. Acacia. T.s. Phyllode 8. A part cellular.
Anatomy: Ruscus aculeatus [313
Ruscus aculeatus
T.s. Phylloclade
Cut a transverse section of the material stain in safranin and fast green combination and mount in glycerine.
[I] Observations
The transverse section of the material shows central bulged region and lateral wings.
Epidermis. 1. The section is bound by thickly cuticularised upper and lower epidermal layers.
2. Numerous stomata occur throughout both the epidermal layers.
3. The outline ofthe lower epidermis is angular.
Chlorenchyma. 1. Just below the epidermis are a few layers of chlorenchyma that are 2-4 c<>:lls deep.
2. The cells are rounded or oval and contain numerous chloroplasts.
Parenchyma. 1. It occupies larger part of the section. Parenchyma is made of thin walled cells which are
variable in shape and size.
2. Numreous intercellular spaces are present. The cells are loosely arranged.
Vascular tissue. 1. There are many vascular bundles in almost parallel series. A few vascular bundles are
aggregated in the bulged central region.
2. Each vascular bundle is surrounded by a thick bundle sheath. It is concentric and amphivasal.
3. In the central bulge a few vascular bundles together are surrounded by sclerenchymatous layer. In the
centre of the bulge parenchymatous tissue is present.
[II] Identification
1. Stem. 1. Cortex is well differentiated.
2. Vascular bundles are concentric and amphivasal.
2. Monocotyledonons stem. Vascular bundles are scattered.
[III] Points of interest
In this case, stem has become flattened and green, like the leaves. Such modified stems are known as
phylloclades or cladophylls and are often mistaken for leaves. Phylloclades of Ruscus look exactly like those
of leaves with veins. However, their stem-like nature is revealed when flowers are brone on them at the 'nodal'
positions.
It shows the following leaf-like characters.
1. A flattened and leaf-like external appearance,
2. presence of upper and lower epidermal layers,
3. the central bulge similar to a midrib region,
4. presence of chlorenchyma and
5. presence of stomata.
The following are the characteristics of stem.
1. Concentric-amphivasal vascular bundles,
2. vascular bundle in the bulge without any uniform arrangement and
3. phloem not located toward the lower epidermis as in leaves.
It also exhibits the following xerophytic characters: thick cuticle, presence of photosynthetic tissue and
sclerenchyma. This modification checks the loss of water by cutting off the growth of leaves and develops
photosynthetic tissue, thereby taking up the function of leaves.
314 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
phloem
~
"'" ,~
upper epidermis
/
A
chlorenchyma cuticle
sclerenchvrna
B
Fig. 44. Ruscus. T.s. Phylloclade. A Outlines, B. A sector showing cellular details.
Illustrated Glossary of Anatomical Terms
TYPES OF CELLS [II] Collenchyma
It is a supporting tissue composed of more or less
[I] Parenchyma living cells with unevenly thickened walls (Fig. 5). It
A tissue made of living and thin walled cells (Fig. 1). is of following three types -
Parenchyma is of following four types. 1. Angular. Collenchyma tissue in which cell
1. Chlorenchyma. Parenchymatous tissue walls are thick at angles where several cells join
containing many chloroplasts. together.
2. Palisade parenchyma. Parenchymatous cells 2. Lamellar. Collenchyma tissue in which
which are radially elongated and contain many tangential walls of the cells are thickened.
chloroplasts situated closer to the cell wall (Fig. 2). 3. Lacunar. Collenchyma tissue in which
3. Spongy parenchyma. The cells of different intercellular spaces become thick due to deposition.
shapes and sizes occurring in the mesophyll of the
leaf. Cells contain chloroplasts and leave many [III] Sclerenchyma
intercellular spaces (Fig. 3). A supporting tissue made of lignified and thick
4. Aerenchyma: Parenchymatous tissue with walled cells. The cells are devoid of protoplast and
large intercellular spaces formed due to partitions hence dead. The main types are -
(Fig. 4).
_ collenchyma
-parenchyma
CELL INCLUSIONS
These are the non-protoplasmic components of fibres in T. S. sclereid
the cell; reserve or waste products.
c o
1. Crystal sand. A mass of very fme free crystals.
2. Crystalloid. Protein crystal that is less angular
than mineral crystal; swells in water.
3. Cystolith. Grape-like cluster formed by the
deposition of calcium carbonate on an ingrowth of
the cellulose cell wall as in leaves of Ficus elastica
(Fig .7A).
4. Inulin. Soluble carbohydrate deposited across
the cell walls; occasionally only in the cell cavity; star,
wheel or fan-shaped; e.g. tuberous roots of Dahlia
(Fig.7B).
5. Starch grains. Insoluble carbohydrate, occurs in Fig. 6. A to E. Types of sclerenchyma. A, Band C. Fibres,
the form of small grains; varied in shape; layered- D. Sclereid, E. Stone cells.
eccentric, concentric, simple or compound (Fig. 7C).
inulin grains
A 8 c
Fig. 7. A to C. Cell inclusions. A. Cystolith in an epidermal cell. n. Inulin in the cells of tuberous roots of Dahlia. C. Starch grains.
Illustrated Glossary of Technical Terms [317
~angular
~~v---~~~-----
~rod-shaped
----~--~--~--~~
C - - hexagonal
_~';':::':-'-.-/'--'l;;I?=-~~___ rectangular
1-!---spherical
crystals
raphides
l~~
~
sphaero -crystal s
enaodermiS
sunken stomata
A B
Fig. 10. A and B. Stomata. A Stomata and the cells associated A
with it. B. T.s. leaf to show sunken stomata.
multicellular B C unicellular
lumen
wall 2. Vessel. A tube-like series of vessel members,
thickenina the common walls of which are perforated.
(Fig.14A,B,C,D).
3. Fibre tracheids. These fibre-like tracheids
occur in the wood. They are thick walled with
pointed ends and lenticular slit-like apertures.
(Fig.15B).
4. Libriform Fibre. These thick walled fibres
occur in the wood; show simple pits; perhaps the
longest cells in the wood (Fig.15A).
5. Parenchyma cells. These are thin walled cells
which store starch, oil and many other ergastic
substances; the walls may be secondarily thickened
or lignified (Figs.15C D).
(a) Tylosis. These occur in the wood. 1)rlosis is an
outgrowth from xylem parenchyma cell through a
pit cavity in a vessel wall, partially or completely
blocking the lumen of the vessel (Fig.16).
il
~
wall
pits
A o
lumen "
,,' ,
annular scalariform reticulate simple pits bordered pits
(B-15)
Illustrated Glossary of Technical Terms [ 321
PHLOEM
Phloem is the major food conducting tissue of the
vascular plants. It is made of sieve elements,
parenchyma cells, fibres and sclereids.
A B c
xylem _ __
o E F
Fig. 20. A to F. Types of vascular bundles. A. Radial.
B. Amphicribal. C. Amphivasal. D. Collateral and closed.
E. Collateral and open. F. Bicollateral.
Illustrated Glossary of Technical Terms [ 323
~~~~-epidermis
c
Fig. 1. A to I. Different types of Hydrophytes. A. t.ichhomia, B. Sa/vinia, C. Ii'a!Ja, D. Jussiaea
Ecology [ 327
l~~~~~~~~~:==-ePiblema
4. Leaves. Leaves of hydrophytes show following
characters. \ outer cortex
1. The leaves of submerged plants are variously
dissected, so that water flows easily without
resistance; e.g. Ceratophyllum, Hydrilla, .L1-_ _ middle
vallisneria, etc. lacunate
cortex
2. The surfaces of floating leaves possess waxy
~--Iacunae
coating as in Nymphaea or leaf hairs as in
Salvinia.
3. In emergent plants, leaves are heterophyllous.
The leaves below the water are narrow, long,
~~~~ inner cortex
segmented and dissected; while the leaves
outside the water are broad, small and entire.
Such dimorphic leaves are found in Limnophila
heterophylla, Ranunculus scleratus, Sagittaria
sagittifolia, etc.
Stem of Hydrilla
Practical work
Cut a thin transverse section of the material; stain
in safranin and fast green combination, mount in K~~a.J.L::::...:"-'endodermis
glycerine and study. pericycle
Observations 6-'~b:J:1'Yi\:"';"';:CS~::::cz: phloem
The outline of the section is almost circular. It xylem cavity
shows following characters.
1. Epidermis. 1. This is the outermost single
layer of cells.
2. Cutcle is absent.
2. Cortex. 1. It occupies most part of the section.
2. It is made of many, large air chambers.
3. Air chambers are separated from one another by
Fig. 3. Hydrilla. T.s. of stem.
partitions called diaphragms.
4. A few layers just below the epidermis (outer Observations
cortex) and a few layers close the endoderm is The transverse section is almost circular in
(inner cortex) are compact and parenchymatous. outline. It shows following characters.
3. Endodermis and pericycle. 1. Distinct 1. Epidermis. 1. It is the outermost layer made of
endodermis and pericyde are present. parenchymatous cells.
2. These enclose the underlying vascular tissue. 2. Cuticle is absent.
4. Vascular tissues. 1. It is extremely reduced.
2. Most of the tissue is phloem.
3. Xylem is represented by a single large element
situated in the centre.
Hydrophytic Characters
1. Epidermis is made of thin walled cells.
2. Cuticle is absent.
\_:--,.....a.::;:>-.:;-;'""""" ph loem
3. Absence of mechanical tissue.
4. Aerenchyma and air chambers present. x.,.>+.:JD:::L_~_ xylem
5. Extremely reduced xylem.
6. Comparatively well developed phloem.
Petiole of Eiclzlzornia
Practical work
Cut a transverse section of petiole of Eichhomia,
stain with safranin and fast green, mount in glycerine
and study. Fig. 4. Eichhornia. T.s. of petIole.
330 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
2. Hypodermis. 1. It is present just below the (ii) small sized vascular bundles lying in the outer
epidermis. There are a few layers of parenchyma. region of ground tissue. It has only one phloem
2. The cells are compactly arranged. group situated on its outer side.
3. Ground tissue. 1. The remaining part of the
section is made of parenchymatous ground tissue. Hydrophytic characters
2. Many large air chambers are distributed The following hydrophytic characters are shown
throughout this region. by the section-
3. Air chambers are separated from one another by 1. The cells of the epidermis are thin walled.
diaphragms. 2. Cuticle absent.
4. Vascular tissue. 1. Vascular bundles are 3. Absence of mechanical tissue.
distributed throughout the ground tissue. 4. Ground tissue parenchymatous.
2. Vascular bundles lie embedded in parenchyma 5. Presence of aerenchyma.
situated between air chambers. 6. Vascular tissues poorly developed.
3. Vascular tissues are poorly developed.
4. Xylem is represented by a single, large element. Petiole of Nymphaea
5. Phloem is scattered all around the xylem.
6. Vascular bundles are of two types - Practical work
(i) large sized vascular bundles lying close to Cut a transverse section of petiole of Nymphaea,
centre. It has two phloem groups,one on each side of stain in safranin-fast green combination, mount in
xylem element; and glycerine and study.
chamber
vascular
.H"(,"#~~'- bundle
~~'--parenchyma
xylem
~:::r~~~e::-Phloem
3. The lower part of the wings is occupied with large Leaf of Trapa
air chambers. Numerous trichosclereids are
scattered in this region. Practical work
3. Vascular tissue. 1. Vascular bundles occur all Cut a transverse section of the leaf, stain in
along the wings and also in the midrib. safrain - fast green combin~tion, mount in glycerine
2. There are 3-4 vascular bundles in the midrib. and study.
These are similar to those present in the wings.
Observations
3. Vascular bundle is surrounded by a parenchymatous
Transverse section shows a distinct midrib in the
bundle sheath.
centre and the wings on either of its sides. The
4. Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral and
following are the major anatomical details.
closed.
1. Epidermis. 1. Both upper and lower epidermal
5. Xylem is poorly developed as compared to
cells are present.
phloem.
2. A thin cuticle is present on the upper epidermis
Hydrophytic characters only.
3. Stomata occur on the upper epidermis only.
1. Presence of waxy cuticle on upper epidermis. 4. The cells of the lower epidermis are thin walled.
2. Cuticle and stomata present on the upper Cuticle and stomata are absent.
epidermis and absent from lower epidermis - 5. A few multicellular hairs occur on the lower
indicates that the leaf floats on the surface. epidermis.
3. Large number of air chambers present. 2. Mesophyll. 1. Mesophyll is present between
4. Presence of trichosclereids for support. upper and lower epidermis.
5. Reduced vascular bundles. 2. It is differentiated into upper layers of palisade
6. Xylem of vascular bundles represented by only a and lower region occupied by spongy
few clements. parenchyma.
; - - - - spongy parenchyma
~~=--7~::::::=:::--- endodermis
xylem }VaSCUlar
bundle
~~CEL(:~~~"-L.~=¥=---- phloem
h'1-:~~~-""'::"--epidermis
3. The palisade cells are present just below the (1) Sclerophylly: leaves leathery.
upper epidermis. The cells are radially (2) Chylophylly: (leaf succulence) : leaves fleshy.
elongated, contain numerous chloroplasts and (3) Aphylly: leaves rudimentary and caducous.
are compactly arranged. (4) Sclerocauly: axes slender, dry and hard.
4. Sub-stomatal cavities occur in this region. (5) Chylocauly: (stem succulence) axes short, thick
5. A few layers (about 2-3) of parenchyma lie just and filled with mucilaginous sap.
below the palisade.
6. The rest of the tissue near the lower epidermis is [II] External features of xerophytes
made of spongy parenchyma. It is loosely The following are some of the common
arranged to form numerous air chambers. morphological characters shown by xerophytes.
3. Vascular tissue. 1. There is a single vascular 1. Root. A few major marphological characters
bundle in the midrib. of root are listed below.
2. It is surrounded by a parenchymatous bundle 1. The root system is very well developed and
sheath. profusely branched.
3. Vascular tissue is reduced. 2. These have a long tap root system that grows
4. Xylem is reduced to only a few lacunae. deep into the soil and reaches the water table.
5. Phloem is comparatively well developed. 3. In some desert plants, roots grow near the soil
Hydrophytic characters surface to absorb soil water whenever available.
4. The roots of many xerophytes are perennating.
1. Presence of thin cuticle on the upper epidermis; 2. Shoot. The following are morphological
its absence from lower epidermis. characteristics of the shoot.
2. Presence of stomata only on the upper epidermis 1. The stem is generally hard and woody that remains
and their absence from lower epidermis. covered with wax, silica, hairs, etc.
3. Presence of air chambers. 2. A few xerophytes possess fleshy and stunted stem.
4. Absence of mecnanical tissue. The cells may contain, large quantities of
5. Vascular tissuc reduced and ill developed. mucilage, thus allowing the stem to store water.
The presence of cuticle and stOmata in the uppcr 3. In extreme cases stem becomes modified into
epidermis indicates that these leaves float on water leaf-like structure to reduce the transpiring
surface. surfaces. In Ruscus, the stem becomes leaf-like
and is known as phylloclade (also in Opuntia,
The Xerophytes Muehlenbeckia, etc). The internodes of
Asparagus get modified into leaf-like cladodes,
[I] Classification of Xerophytes
while the leaves are small and scaly.
The following is one of the useful classifications 4. In some xerophytes, the shoot becomes either
of x(;rophytes. fleshy, reduced cushion-like or stunted.
1. MicrophyUous. The leaves are small, scaly, 3. Leaves. A few typical morphological
reduced, modified or absent, e.g., Acacia characters are given below.
(Australian), Asparagus, Capparis aphylla, 1. In many xerophytes, leaves fall down as soon as
Casuarina, Euphorbia, Pinus, etc. they are formed (caducous leaves) e.g., in
2. Sclerophyllous. The leaves of these plants are species of Euphorbia. Capparis aphylla shows
thick, coarse and leathery due to excessive lignified complete absence of leaves.
and sclerified tissues, e.g., Ficus, Nerium, Spar/ina, 2. In Opuntia and many cacti leaves get reduced to
Banksia, Dasilirion, etc. spine- like structures.
3. Trichophyllous. These xerophytes have leaves 3. Rosette arrangement of the leaves is seen in
covered with a thick felt of hairs, e.g., Calotropis. Bromelia which cuts down the light and reduces
4. Malacophyllous. The leaves of these plants are transpiration.
fleshy and thick e.g., Agave, Aloe, Bryophyllum, 4. The desert grasses show rolling of the leaves so
Begonia, Salicornia, etc. that stomates located on the upper epidermis
Schimper (1903) classified xerophytes on the basis stop transpiring e.g., Ammophila, Festuca,
of external morphology of the leaf - Stipa, etc.
334 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
5. A thick felt or dense covering of hairs is generally 11. Increased amount of vessels allows easier
present over the epidermis and near the stomatal conduction of water.
openings. Hairs are generally air-containing and 12. In some desert grasses, leaves roll down during
form an insulating layer against the rise in excessive dry conditions. This is due to the
temperature. modified, enlarged and colourless epidermal
6. The epidermal cells are generally radially elonga- cells - bulliform or motor cells occurring in the
ted to receive only required amount of light. upper epidermis. These cells are sensitive to
7. . In case the leaves are small, reduced or absent, turgor changes and collapse during dry and
the cortex of the stem possesses palisade or warm conditions. This results in the upward
chlorenchyma. Palisade cells are very much rolling of the leaf to close down the stomata
clongated. located on the upper epidermis.
8. Intercellular spaccs which contain air, are small
in size and their number is reduced to minimum. [IV] Anatomy of some common xerophytes
The transpiring surface is thus reduced. Descriptions of anatomy of different organs of
9. The amount of mechanical tissue i.e., collenchyma some commonly found xerophytes is given below
and sclerenchyma is higher. It provides
mechanical support to the plants which become Stem of Cynodon
hard.
10. Presence of water storing tissue e.g., double or Practical work
multiple epidermis, aqueous tissue, mucilage Cynodon is a common lawn grass. A sharp razor
cells, etc. Water storing cells are either dead or a new safety blade is necessary for cutting the
tracheids, living parenchyma tissue, section. Stain a thin section in safranin and fast green
chlorenchyma, intercellular spaces of solitary combination, mount in glycerine and study.
living cells, etc. These are not uniformly
distributed but confined to a few organs whose
chief function is the storage of water e.g.,
succulent leavcs and stems. Water cells reserve
water as soon as it is available to them and epidermis
allow othcr cells to utilise it when nccded. chlorenchyma
chlorenchyma sclerenchyma-~~
___~---':':- sclerenchyma
vascular bundle
--;~-+--H--ground tissue
.!!
'0
C
sclerenchyma
::l
.0 metaxylem ---"H~~
co
:;
:;l
'"
>
t phloem-~~
(B-15)
Ecology [ 337
/
~~~;.
................. ...... ~collenchyma } ~)(
/
./ ~
., parenchyma
~f-""----:':Lf--secondary xylem
cuticle
epidermis
secondary xylem
B
Fig. 10. A. and B. Calotropis. T.s. of stem. A. Outlines, B. A part cellular. (B-15)
338 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
\----'0-\,---- endodermi3
'-....L---,L'---primary xylem
pith
cuticle----:~~::=;:=r:~A:=rfi1~fiFfTn7TA~Trr
epidermis
chlorenchyma
primary phloem
secondary phloem - -~~l11i~111iIIIB~IIIII~i~~
secondary xylem
""""~----,5=~Il-- cortical
bundle
epidermis
hypodermis
( sclerenchyma)
sunken stomata
palisade -~'r..,'
(') {SClerenChyma
g phloem - - - 0 ; [ ·....0....,.,
~. cambium
;;: xylem
parenchyma
~
g
~
r sclerenchyma
phloem
~ I cambium
(i" l
B
Fig. 12. A. and 8. Casuarina. T.s. of stem. A. Outlines, 8. A part cellular.
342 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
U-LI---l..L-- cystolith
palisade
phloem
~U+1J;--7~~(~( xylem
~.L....o.+-¥-+,~",-;~~7-- bundle sheath
..l."....L..<O""""'~- spon9Y
parenchyma
lower
~-'~+-~~~~'~~~4r4r~~~~~~r-~~--leDidermis
' - - - - stomata
FIg. 13. Ficus. T.s. of leaf.
Ecology [ 343
epidermis
parenchyma
~ • • • ~XYlem
~ lower epidermis
~:<..--_ cuticle
Fig. 14. A. and B. Nerium. Ts. of leaf. A. part of the wings: celluiar. B. Part of the midrib: celiula ..
344] Practical Botany,' Vol 2
Leaf of a Grass
Practical work
Cut a thin transverse section of the leaf. This
would require a sharp razor. Stain in safranin - fast
green combination, mount in glycerine and study.
Observations
The section shows following characteristics.
1. Epidermis. 1. Both, upper and lower
epidermal layers are present.
2. Each cell of the upper epidermis produces two
outgrowths.
3. Stomata are present which are generally sunken.
4. A few colourless and large bulliform cells are
also present in the upper epidermis. These cells
collapse when conditions are dry and, therefore,
the upper surface of the leaves roll and cut off
the transpiration from stomata in the upper
epidermis.
:5. The lower epidermis is made of single layer of
cells. In the leaves of common grass, stomata are ~~~-- vascular bundle
1m
II. STUDY OF THE COMMUNITY
90
Exercise 1
80
Purpose : To determine the minimum size of the
quadrat by Species- ar:ea curve. 70
Materials 60
Meter scale, string or cord, nails, paper, pencil,
50
etc.
40
Procedure
1. Prepare a L-shaped structure in the field of 1 30
meter X 1 metre by using 3 nails and tying string
20
with them.
2. Now measure 10 cm on one side of the arm of L
and then the other.
3. Using another piece of string and nails prepare
10 X 10 sq cm area.
10
o
n 10 20 30 40 SO 60 70 80 90 1m
4. Count the number of species occurring in this area. Fig. 16. Procedure to fmd out minimum required
size of the quadrat.
5. Increase this area to 20 X 20 sq.cm and similarly
record additional species occurring in this area. 40
6. Repeat the same procedure till 1 X 1 sq meter
area is covered.
7. Note down the observations as follows.
= u'"
<II ~ <II <II ~
!:
II)
<II
S
~
<II
.~
=• ..<:: "0
III
:$
»
"= "
=
'"
'"
=
- = ........
'" <II
= Q.
... i'! =~ = ~ <II
= = ~ ~
-
<II <II <II "0
'iii
';
·c S
-=g, = =
"0
~ ..!l ~ :s i e -;.t;
~
0"'
...
<II
0"'
...'= = =
...= ...= .... " ...= = "
~
Z oS
:$ <II
rJJ
<I
Z 0"' = = '= ~ 0"' ~ ~ Q ~
1 I 2 I 3 I 4 I 5
1. Alysicarpus monilifer 5 5 - - - 10 2 5 40 B 2 5
2. Convolvulus pluricaulis 10 - - - - 10 1 5 20 A 2 10
3. Cynodon dactylon 15 10 12 13 15 65 5 5 100 E 13 13
4. Cyperus rotilndus - 6 - - - 6 1 5 20 A 1.2 6
5. Desmodium triflorum - 12 - - - 12 1 5 20 A 2.4 12
6. Dichanthium annulatum 12 - 12 10 11 45 4 5 80 D 9 11.25
7. Eclipta alba 5 6 - - 4 15 3 5 60 ' C 3 5
8. Euphorbia hirta - - 6 - 410 2 5 40 B 2 5
9. Evolvulus nummularius - - 3 - - 3 1 5 20 A 0.3 6
10 Gomphrena globosa 2 4 3 1 2 12 5 5 100 E 2.4 2.4
11. Indigofera limfolia - - - 6 - 6 1 5 20 A 1.2 6
12. Launea nudicaulis - - - - 3 3 1 5 20 A 0.6 3
13. Phyllanthus niruri - - - 2 2 1 5 20 A 0.4 2
14. Rhynchosia minima - - - 4 3 7 2 5 40 B 1.4 3.5
15. Sida cordifolia - - 6 4 2 12 3 5 60 C 2.4 4
16 Ikrnollia cinerea - - 11 - - 11 1 5 20 A 2.2 11
1-20 % A
Fig. 19. Frequency diagram of the place studied.
21-40 % B
41-60 % C
61- 80 % D 4. Take a graph sheet and show % of the total number
E1-100 % E
of species on y-axis and the frequency classes on
Write down the frequency class in appropriate x-axis. This is known as frequency diagram.
column against each species.
Conclusions
3. The distribution of sixteen species in five
1. Compare the frequency diagram of the place
frequency classes is A = 8, B = 3, C = 2,
studied with that of Raunkiaer's normal
D = 1 and E = 2. Find out the percentage of
frequency diagram
these species falling into different frequency
2. When values of frequency classes B,C and Dare
classes as follows out of the total number of
comparatively higher than their values in normal
species recorded.
frequency diagram, the vegetation is said to be
No. of species falling in frequency class 100 heterogenous, as is the case in the present study.
Total number of species recorded x (higher values of class E indicate homogeneity
of vegetation).
for frequency class A = 8/16 x 100 = 50 3. Also compare the figures with frequency figures
frequency class B = 3/16 x 100 = 18.75 proposed by Raunkiaer as Law of Frequency
frequency class C = 2/16 x 100 = 12.5 given below
frequency class D = 1/16 x 100 = 6.25 >
frequency class E = 2/16 x 100 = 12.5 A>B>C<D<E
n
I
c [
I
'Biomass and standing crop, both are synonyms. Biomass can be expresscd 111 terms of number and mca~ured as fresh weight (liVIng
weight), dry wClght, ash-free dry weight. enerb'Y or any c0I1ventionai U11.t which .~ found u~cful for the purpose of compan~on.
Thus, the simplest way IS to determ111e fresh weight of the samples and calculate It for a square meter area.
350 I Practical Botany: Vol 2
3. Relative frequency =
1 Number of occurrences of the species
--------'---=---~~.=-- x 100
2 Number of occurrences of all the specIes
3
4 Record the values obtanied in the following table
5
Eli , I
Exercise 7
Purpose: To study the species composition of an
Arrange the spccies in decreasing values of IVI.
area for analysing biological spectrum and
comparison with Raunkiaer's normal biological
Procedure
spectrum.
1. Lay thc quadrats, idcntify the species, count
their number in each quadrat and record the Materials
obscrvations in a tabular form as done earlier Record book, pen, pencil, etc.
(table 1).
2. Use line transect or belt transect as done earlier Procedure
(exercise no.2) and retord the observations as 1. Visit the area under study.
per table 1. 2. Study the different life forms and their general
appearance, spread, etc.
Calculations 3. Place each one of the plant under different life
Importance value index (IVI) is a measure of forms as per the classification proposed by
dominance and ecological success of a species. It Raunkiaer (1934); as given below
takes into consideration relative dominance,
relative density and relative frequency. These are Observations
calculated as follows- 1. Record the observations in the following table.
10 20 30 40
10 20 30 40 50
phanerophytes 1474
~-------r------------------------------~
chamaephytils \103
heml-cryptophytes J214
geophytes
r-------'1-7-4-------------
therophytes , \133
L..-_ _ _ _ _----I
(B-15)
354 I Practical Botany: Vol 2
6. Now place this container in an oven at 105°C for Water holding capacity
about 24 hours, till constant weight is attained. amount of water in the soil (8)
X 100
Record the weight (4). weight of oven dry soil(7)
7. Take a few ftlter papers (similar to one used in 19.48 100
container). Dip 'one in water and find out the = 50.64 X
average amount of water absorbed by the ftlter = 38.46 %
paper.
Results.
Exercise 5
. Results are computed in the following way. Purpose: To determine. moisture percentage of
[I] Observations
soil.
Record the observations as follows.
1. Weight of the box 40.75 g Materials
2. Weight of dry filter paper 0.112g Test tubes, box containers, soil sample, balance,
3. Weight of wet soil + box + wet filter paper oven, water, etc.
111.50 g
Procedure
4. Weight of,dry soil + box + dry filter paper'
The following procedure is used.
91.50 g
1. Collect the soil at desired depth and keep in
5. Weight of wet filter paper 0.634g
closed test tubes or box.
[II] Calculations . 2. Take an empty box or suitable container and
Calculate water holding capacity as follows \ weigh it (1).
3. Now fill the box with soil and weigh it (2).
6. Weight of wet soil = (weight of wet soil' + box 4. Place this container in an oven at 105°C for about
+ wet filter paper) - 24 hours till constant weight is attained. Note the
(weight of box + weight weight after drying (3).
of wet filter paper).
= (3)-(1+5) Results
= 111.50 g - (40.75 g Results can be obtained in the following way -
+ 0.634 g)
= 70.12g [I] Observations
Record the observations as follows -
7. Weight of oven = (weight of dry soil + box
25.0g
1. Weight of the box
dry soil + dry filter paper) - 2. Weight of the box + soil 125.0 g
(weight of box + weight 3. Weight of the box + oven dry soil 105.0 g
of dry filter paper).
= (4) - (1 +2)
[II] Calculations
= 91.50 g - (40.75 g
Calculate the following values -
+ 0.112 g)
4. Weight of the soil = (weight of box + soil) -
= 50.64g weight of box
8. Water in soil = weight of wet soil - = (2)-(1) = 125g -25g
weight of oven dry soil = 100g
= (6)-(7) 5. Weight of dry soil = (weight of box + oven dry
= 70.12 g - 50.64 g soil - weight of box
= (3)-(1) = 105g -25g
= 19.48 g
= 80g
Ecology [ 355
6. Amount of moisture
Exercise 7
in the soil = weight of the soil -0
weight of dry soil Purpose: To find out the porosity (per cent pore
= (4)-(5) = 100g - 80g space) of a given soil sample.
= 20g
Moisture % Materials
Soil samples, petri dishes, beaker, measuring
amount of moisture in the soil 100
weight of dry soil X
cylinders, beakers, balance, etc.
A Aoo 0-2 Uppermost layer, with freshly fallen organic matter such as dead leaves,
branches, flowers, fruits, etc.
A2 25-45 Lighter in colour with mineral particles of large size and little amount of
organic matter.
8 81 45-60 Zone of maximum leaching, humified organic matter present, particles
coarse and colour tlark.
82 60-62 Rich in clay - sesq uioxides or silicate, clays mineral particles bonded by iron.
maximum minimum
'C
20
30
40
-1 50
-2 60
brought down in contact with mercury by means of Fig. 24. Dry and wet bulb thermometer (hygrometer).
magnet. This is known as the setting of thermometers.
Table 1l.,Showing Relative Humidity (in %) in the
Exercise 13 atmosphere .
- ... _----- ...
Purpose: Determination of relative humidity. Temperature Difference in temperature-m two
reading of thermometers (in °C)
Materials dry bulb
Wet and dry bulb thermometers (hygrometer). thermometer 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Procedure 40 93 87 82 76 71 66 61 52 52 47
These are two identical thermometers, mounted 35 93 87 81 75 69 64 58 53 49 44
together. The bulb of one thermometer is exposed to 30 92 86 79 73 67 61 55 50 44 39
25 92 84 77 70 63 57 50 44 38
the air while that of another is covered with a piece 20 91 83 74 66 59 51 44 37
of muslin cloth kept constantly moist by a wick 15 90 80 71 61 52 44 35
dipping into a small container filled with water. 10 88 76 65 54 44 34
The dry bulb thermometer indicates the actual 8 87 75 63 51 40
6 86 73 60 47 35
air temperature. The temperature of wet bulb 4 85 70 56 42
thermometer is low because of evaporation of 2 84 68 52 37
water. When the air is saturated, there is no 0 82 65 48
evaporation and both the thermometers show the 2 80 61 42
... '
... .......• '.... .1....... ._---- .1
same temperature. When the air is dry, there would
be rapid evaporation and the temperature in the wet Suppose that the temperature readmgs of dry and wet
thermometers are 35°C and 30°C respectively. The difference
bulb thermometer would be lowered. The difference between the two is 5°C, Now find out the value of relative
in the temperature indicated by these two humidity given in column showing 5°C difference, placed against
thermometers is used to determine relative humidity 3SOe temperature of dry bulb thermometer. This comes out to
of the air. The following table is used. be 69 percent.
Ecology [ 359
Exercise 14 Results
Light yellow to dark blue colour develops.
Purpose: Soil testing for phosphorus.
Conclusions
Materials
On the basis of intensity of colour following
Polythene bottles, beakers, glass vials, measuring
inferences can be drawn.
cylinders, conical flasks, spot plates, etc. Glacial
1. Very pale yellow - very low phosphorus.
acetic acid, ammonia, ammonium molybdate,
2. Green or bluish green - medium phosphorus.
concentrated hydrochloric acid, stannous chloride,
3. Light blue - medium phosphorus.
stannous oxalate, distilled water, etc.
4. Medium blue - adequate phosphorus.
Pr-e£edure 5. Dark blue - abundant phosphorus.
[I] Preparation of soil extract Exercise 15'
1. Prepare 2.5% acetic acid extractant by diluting
25 ml glacial acetic acid to 11 with distilled Purpose: Soil testing for J.»otassium.
water. Materials
2. Prepare ammonium acetate extractant by adding Polythene bottles, beakers, glass vials, conical
57.5 ml glacial acetic acid and 74.0 m1 ammonia flasks, measuring cylinders, conical flasks, _spot
solution (sp. gr. 0.880) to 30 ml of distilled water in plates, etc. .
11 volumetric flask Mix well. Dilute to the mark. Ammonia (sp. gr. 0.880), glacial acetic acid,
3. Place 19 of air-dry sieved mineral :;oil in a 50 ml sodium cobalt nitrite, sodium nitrite, anhydrous
conical flask. Add 25 ml ammonium acetate isopropyl alcohol, distilled water,
extractant prepared earlier and shake for 30
minutes. Procedure
4. Filter into polythene bottles, rejecting the first 5 [I] Preparation of soil extract
ml of filtrate. 1. Prepare ammonium acetate extractant by adding
5. Adjust pH to 3.3 with-rlrops of acetic acid or 60 ml glacial acetic acid and 74.0 ml ammonia
ammonia. solution (sp. gr. 0.880) to 20-30 m1 of distilled
[II] Preparation of reagents water in 11 volumetric flask. Mix well. Dilute to
6. Dissolve 8 g of ammonium molybdate in 200 ml the mark.
distilled water. 2. Place 1 g of air-dry dieved mineral soil in a 50 rnl
7. Prepare a mixture of 126 ml concentrated HCI conical flask.
and 74 ml distilled water. 3. Add 25 ml of ammonium acetate extractant and
8. Add this mixture to ammonium molybdate shake for 30 minutes.
solution. Just before use, dilute 1 part of this 4. Filter into polythene bottles, rejecting the first 5
reagent with 4 parts distilled water. ml of filtrate
5. Adjust pH to 7.00 with drops of acetic acid or
[III] The method ammonia.
9. Mark 10 mllevel in a glass vial. Fill the vial with
reagent. [II] Preparation of reagents
10. Add 1 level teaspoon of soil extract. 6. Dissolve 5 g of sodium cobalt nitrite
11. Shake the vial vigorously. (Na3CO(N02)6 and 30 g of sodium nitrite
12. Filter the solution. (NaN02) in 80 ml distilled water.
13. To 5 ml of filtrate add 0.1 ml of reagent. 7. Add 50 ml glacial acetic acid and make up the
14. Mix by rotation to make sure that sufficient volume to 100 ml. Allow to stand for several
amount of reagent is added. days.
15. Add stannous chloride or stannous oxalate 8. Just before use, add 5 ml of the reagent to a
powder till colour becomes intense. solution of 15 g NaN02 in 100 ml distilled
water. Adjust pH to 5.0 with acetic acid.
360 -' Practical Botany,' Vol 2
Step 1. 2 1 1
13+1 4 3 4
Median number = -2- = 7 6 4 8
Step 2. 8 6 14
10 5 19
l
Now arrange the figures in ascending order. 5, 6, 12 1 20
6,9,9,11,11,13,13,13,14.
20
Step 3.
Here 7th figure is 11, Therefore, median is 11.
Step 2.
Example 2
Calculation of median when the number of items
is even.
Calculate median number (N; 1
)
Step 3. Step 4.
Median number 10.5 is included in the Substitute the values.
cumulative frequency 14. It is placed against variate 11 = 41.00
value 8. m = 125.50
i.e. 10th item = 8 c = 90.00
11th item = 8 f = 47.00
Therefore, median is 8. i = 16.00
Example 4 N/2 = 125.5
Calculation of median ftom frequency Step S.
distribution from continuous series. Calculate median by using both the formulae.
Find out the median from the data given below. Formula 1
41 + (125-90
47 X
16) = 41 + (35
47 X 16)
Class intervals Frequencies Cumulative
frequencies := 41 + (0.7446 X 16)
= 41 + 11.914
9-25 42 42
= 52.914
25-41 48 90
41-57 47 137
Formula 2
57-73
73-89
40
41
177
218.
41+ (125~-90 X 16)
89-105 21 239'
105-121
121-137
5
2
244
246 = 41 + (3~75 X 16),
137-153 2 248
153-169 2 250 = 41+(0.755 X 16)
41 + 12.085, = 53.085
=
250
Formula no. 1 gives more accurate results.
Step 1.
[II] The Mode
Calculate the median number.
N;l = l5~+1 = 125.5
The mode is the most commonly occurring value
or the value of that variable which has the m-aximum
frequency.
Step 2.
e.g. if the set of numbers is 2,2, 5,7,9,9, 9, 10, 11,
Since this median number is lesser than
12, then the mode is 9.
cumulative frequency 137, therefore, median
Example 1
number lies between the range of 41- 57.
Computation from discrete series.
Step 3.
Mode can be easily found out by locating the value
Calculate the median by following formula.
or item whose frequency is maximum. However, mode
N
(1) Median = II + T
--c
X i
is determined by grouping when there are several items
whose frequencies are maximum and equal or nearly
equal, differing by a very small figure.
or (2) Median = 11 + m;c xi Find out the mode of the following discrete
series.
where 11 lower limit ofthe class in which median Variate 5,7,9,11,13,15,17,19,21, 23,25
is located. values
m . -2-;
IS N+1 me d'Ian numb er Frequencies - 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 11, 10, 9, 8, 6, 2.
Step 1.
c is cumulative frequency of the class just Arrange the values in the table as shown.
lower than the median class. Step 2.
f is the frequency of the median class. Group two frequencies in one, starting from item
is the width of the median class. no. 1, till all the items are consumed. Add them.
364 1 Practical Botany." Vol 2
Column
items or groups with maximum frequency
6
Mode = 55 + 6+4 X 1, = w--
55+6
X 1
no.
II 13 15 17 19 Mode = 55 + 0.6 Xl, = 55.6
Formula 2.
1 X x fz.
2 X x Mo de = 11 +f-' X I
3 x x 1+ 2
4 x x x where It lower limit of modal class
=
5 x x x II frequency of the next lower class
=
6 x x x
f2
= frequency of the next higher class
Total 1 4 6 3 1 i = width of the modal class
Now calculate the values and substitute
Biostatistics (Biometry) [ 365
30
] 28
] 43 ] 42
if it is discrete.
Upper quartile (Q3)' "75th percentile is called
10 -11
11 -12
15
12 ] 22
J 27
:] 15
] 19
31 ]
25
3/4 N or 3/4 (N + 1) respectively for continuous and
discrete variables.
Interquratile range (Q3-Qd. The difference
between the upper and the lower quartile is -called
Table of analysis
interquartile range (i.e. Q3-Q1).
Groups with maximum frequency
Example
Column no. Estimate the upper quartile (Q3) and lower
8-9 9-10 10-11 U-12 quartile Q3 and Q1. and interquartile range for the
frequency table given on the next page.
1 x x
2 x x Step 1.
3 x x Denote height (in em.) on the x axlS and
4 x x x
cumulative frequency on y axis.
5 x x x
Step 2.
Total 2 5 4 1 Plot the points (15,2), (20,7), (25,14), (30,25),
- (35,70), (40,94), (45,98) and (50,100).
366 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
90 Formula 1. S = y~ (x-x)2
n
80 ~ l~x2
v n- - (x)2
>- 70
<.>
c:
-T-------------- ! Formula 2. S =
Where S or is the standard deviation
!C" 60 ~ = sign of summation
~
x = arithmetic mean
1_ _ _ __
-; 50
>
'';:; x = various values
co
:; 40 n = number of values (items)
E
Example 1
'"<.> 30
Find the standard diviation of the set of values
20
I
I 50, 60. 70, 88, 32.
I
: lOR tallest plant Formula 1
10 I
Step 1.
I
01 03 Calculate the artihmetic mean (x ) of the set of
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 values.
height in em.
x/n =x; x=_50+60+70+88+32=300; n =5,
Height of plants Frequency Cumulative
300/5 = 60, x = 60
(incm. ) frequency Step 2.
Calculate the difference of the items from this
11 - IS' 2 2 average (sign may be ignored).
16 - 20 5 7
21 - 25 7 14
x-x, 10,0,10,28,28.
26 - 30 11 25 Step 3. .
31 - 35 45 70 Calculate the squares of these differences.
36 - 40 24 94 (x_x)2 lOx 10 = 100, OxO = 0, lOx 10 = 100,
41 - 45 4 98
46 - 50 2 100
28x28 =784, 28x28 =784
Step 4.
Step 3. Calculate the sum of squares of differences to get
Find the lower quartile : N/4, i.e. 100/4 = 25. the quantity known as the sample sum of squares.
Intersect the ogive at 25. This gives the value of 30. (x-x )2, 100 + 0 + 100 + 784 + 784 = 1768
Therefore, 30 is the lower quartile mark of 01 = 30 StepS.
Step 4. Divide the sample of sum squares by the number
Similarly find the upper quartile : 3N/4 of items (n = 5). This the quantity known as 'sample
= 3/4 X 100 = 75. Intersect the ogive at 75. This gives variance'.
the value of 35.5 Therefore, 35.5 is the upper
quartile mark or 03 = 35.5.
Step 5.
V(x-x)2
n
Interquartile range would be 03 - 01 (35.5 - 30)
i.e.5.5 Step 6.
Take square root of variance to obtain the
Exercise 3 ' standard deviation.
Purpose: Calculation of Standard Deviation. S = v'353 = 18.80
Formula 2.
Method Step 1.
It is the most important measure of dispersion Calculate the squares of different values and add
that gives the measure of the amount of deviation of them.
Biostatistics. (Biometry) [ 367
Step 3.
19768/5 = 3953.6 = V
0.1924
7324
Calculate arithmetic mean of the values. Deviation 01
-
x = x/n
--"-- =' - 1 95
S. E. r .005118 - .
= 50 +60+70 +88+32/5 i.e. less than 1.96 and hence good fit.
= 300/5=60 Thus, the results obtained are close to the
Step 4. expected ratio and the hypothesis is acceptable.
Square of 60 would be 3600. Subtract this value
from that obtained in Step 2 Exercise 5
V3953.6 - 3600 Purpose: The 't test' for significance.
= v'333.6 Method
Step 5. This is a method used to find out whether the
Take square root of 353.6 differences between the two different samples are
.. S =18.80 significant or mere fluctuations or errors.
mean difference
t = -------....:...---'----
Exercise 4 standard error of differences
Purpose: Calculation of Standard Error. 'ff sum of difference
mean d1 erence' = .
number of tnals (n)
Method standard error of difference
This method can be used when ratio between two
classes is to be tested - . (sum of differences)
(sum of square of difference) -
Where P = one of the obtained percentages The table below shows some hypothetical data on
(denoted by decimals), amino acid content of soyabean grown in ten
q = another of the obtained percentages (1- P) different localities.
n = total number (P+q)
Amino acid content data of Soyabean (in %)
Deviation = the difference between expected Amount of amino acid in %
and obtained values.
Locality Variety A VarietyB Difference Square of
. Deviation. or trials difference
If the ratIo S. E. r IS less than 1.96, the
obtained results are said to be a good fit. 1. 3 8 5 25
2. 6 4 2 4
Example
3. 9 6 3 9
In F2 generation Mendel obtained as follows- 4. 15 11 4 16
5. 10 13 3 9
Round seeds Wrinkled seeds Total 6. 12 17 5 25
7. 7 9 2 4
5,474 1,850 7,324 8. 13 12 1 1
%=0.74 % =0.26
i ~ 9.
10.
8 6 2 4
16~
12 8 4
Expected ratio: 3:1 I.e. 0.75: 0.25
Sum 31 113
368 1 .Practical Botany: Vol 2
Step 1.
For 9 d.f. t = 2.26 for P of 0.05 and 3.25 for P of 0.01.
Calculate the mean difference. Hence P is much < 0.01. This means that chances
M ean d1·fference = sum of difference
. are much less than 0.01 (or 1% or 1.99). This
number of trIals (n) difference is a sample chance or error. As such the
31 amino acid content difference observed is highly
= 10 = 3.1
significant. It is denoted by two asterisks (* *). In t
Step 2. tests P < 0.05 only is considered significant.
Calculate the standard error of differences.
. (sum of diferences)
Exercise 6
(sum of square of difference) -
n Purpose: Calculation ofx2 (chi-square).
(n-1)xn
Sum of square of difference = 113 Method
(sum of differences? = (31)2 = 961 This is one of the most versatile methods in the
n=lO, statistical theory. It permits the test - whether
(sum of differences)2/n = 961/10 96.1 observed frequencies in a distribution differ
Y Y
113-96.1
(n-1).n =
16.9
(10-1).10
Significantly from the frequencies which can be
expected according to some hypothesis.
x2 is calculated by the following formula-
freedom (d.f. is one less than the number of Since Xo-Xe =d i.e. deviation
trials or comparisons) x2=-
d2
(2)
Xe
Probability of larger value of t (P) Example 1
Degree of freedom
(d.J.) 0.05 0.01 In F2 generation, Mendel obtained 787 tall
plants and 277 dwarf, out of the total of 1,064. As
1. 12.71 63.66 might be expected for 3:1 ratio, plants should have
2. 4.30 9.92 been 798 tall and 266 dwarf.
3. 3.18 5.84
4. 2.78 4.60
5. 2.57 4.03 Tall Dwarf
6. 2.45 3.71
7. 2.36 3.50 1. Observed no (Xo) 787 277
8. 2.31 3.36 2. Expected no. (Xe) 798 266
I
9. 2.26 3.25
10. 2.23 3.11 (Xo-Xe)2 11 11
11. 2.20 3.11 (Xo-Xe)2 121 121
12. 2.18 3.06 (Xo-Xe) 121 + 121
798 266
13.
14.
2.16
2.14
3.01
2.98
Xe
I
15. 2.13 2.95 2 121 121
16. 2.12 2.92 X = 798 + 266 = 0.15+0.45 = 0.60
17. 2.11 2.90
18. 2.10 2.88
19. 2.09 2.86 • Pronounced as 'keye' square, x is a Greek letter.
20. 2.09 2.84 •• Values of P be determined using accurate tables given in the
books on bIOmetry.
(B-15)
Biostatistics (Biometry) [ 369
Now value of x2* is to be tested * * Find out the P (probability of a larger value of xl)
with 1 degree of freedom.
Degree of freedom Probability of larger value of (It shows that P = 5% or 5 chances in 100. the
(d.f.) Chi-square (p)
ratio is good to fit).
0.99 0.50 0.05
Example 3
1 0.00016 0.455 3.841 Mendel observed the following during his
2 0.0201 1.386 5.991
3 0.115 2.366 7.815
dihybrid cross, involving shape of the seed and
4 0.297 3.337 9.488 colour of the pods.
5 0.254 4.351 11.070
(B-lS)
Il@
Cytology & Genetics
I. PLANT CELL 4. Cytoplasm contains chloroplasts, mitochondria,
golgi bodies, endoplasmic reticulum and
1. To study generalised plant cell ribosomes.
5. The characteristic green colour of the cell is due
Take out a leaf of Hydrilla or peel off epidermis of
to the presence of many chloroplasts distributed
leaf of any ongiospermic plant. Stain with safranin
throughout the cytoplasm.
and mount in glycerine.
6. Nucleus is situated in the cytoplasm. It shows
nuclear membrane, nucleolus and chromatin
network present in nucleoplasm.
Identification
Since the cell shows cell wall and chloroplasts, it
is a plant cell.
2. To study the mitochondria
Study the microphotograph of mitochondria.
Comments
1. The mitochondria being small, ultrastructure
can be observed only with the help of electron
microscope.
2. Mitochondria appear almost rod-shaped.
nuclear 3. It is made up of outer and inner membranes and
membrane matrix.
' .. ",
4. The outer membrane is smooth.
5. The inner membrane is folded inwards. The folds
are called cristae.
6. The region between two membranes is known as
perimitochondrial space.
7. Cristae possess many globose-stalked bodies
chloroplast called FI particles or elementary particles.
These are concerned with synthesis of ATP or
phosphorylation.
Goigi body 8. The inner region is filled with matrix. Reactions
of the Kreb's Cycle of respiration occur in this
region.
9. Matrix also shows the presence of small ring
shaped DNA and 70 S ribosomes.
middle lamella cell wall
Fig. 1. Generalised plant cell.
Cytology & Genetics [ 371
matrix
Identification
The characteristic double membrane and cristae Comments
being present, the structure is mitochondrion. 1. The endoplasmic reticulum was discovered by
Porter (1945).
3. To study endoplasmic reticulum
2. It forms the major part of the membrane system
Study the microphotograph of endoplasmic of the cell.
reticulum. 3. ER is made of cisternae, vesicles and tubules.
ribosomes
rough endoplasmic
J>-.~.A-'-::'___--~ reticulum
outer membrane
cisternae _~"'-"'"
<;Isternal_~~~~~~~~~~
lumen
forming face
Fig. 4. Microphotograph of Golgi body showing structure. Fig. 5. Microphotograph of chloroplast showing structure.
Cytology & Genetics [ 373
4. The membranes enclose grana and stroma. outer nuclear nuclear nucleoplasm
5. Granum is a stack or group of lamellae arranged membrane
A B c
Fig. 7. Salivary gland chromosomes of Chironumous larva.A. Salivary gland chromosome
with bands, B. unpuffed state, C. puffed state.
2. Cut off its head with a needle in right hand while 1. Aceto-orcein (2 minutes),
pressing the body with a needle in the left. When 2. 1:3 acetic-alcohol (2 minutes),
the pressure is released, the salivary glands will 3. Absolute alcohol, 2 changes (2 minutes each),
float out and then can be put on another slide. and mount in Euparol or DPX (if cloudy, place
3. Fix the glands in Carnoy's fluid. on a hot plate for short time).
(Well-fed larvae ready for pupation have largest Observations
chromosomes. Each salivary gland of Chironomous 1. These chromosomes are very large in size than
contains 28 - 44 cells). the normal somatic chromosomes.
[III] Staining 2. These polytene chromosomes altain this size by
1. Smear a slide with Mayer's albumen and place duplication of chromonema. The duplication
the salivary glands. may be repeated 9-10 times and the duplicated
2. Place a drop or two of Aceto-orcein on the chromosomes do not separate.
material. 3. The process involved is called endomitosis during
3. Allow the stain to remain as such for 3-5 minutes. which abnormal somatic synapsis occurs.
4. Drain off the stain and replace it with fresh drops 4. Polytene chromosomes are permanent prophase
of stain. chromosomes.
5. These show alternating dark and light transverse
[IV] Preparation of slide bands.
1. Pass the slide quickly over the spirit flame, 5-6 6. Dark bands are mainly composed of euchromatin
times. and the light bands of heterochromatin.
2. The solution of Aceto-orcein should not boil. 7. The centromeres of all the chromosomes ar.:
Judge the heat by passing the slide over palm of attached to a common point, called chromocentre.
the hand. 8. Chromosomal swellings known as chromosome
3. Cover glass is sealed with melted wax. puffs or bulbs are also present.
Another method consists of smearing the cover 9. The chromonema of polytene chromosomes give
slip with egg albumen which is then inverted on the out a series of lateral loops. These large sized
slide with material placed in Aceto-orcein. The chromosomal loops or puffs are called Balbiani
cover slip is then sealed with melted wax. rings.
If the permanent preparation is to be made pass 10. Such chromosomes were first reported by
the slide or cover slip through- Balbiani in 1881.
376 J Practical Botany,' Vol 2
zone of cell
division
}
_--_----~-nuclear
membrane
nucleolus
y.:._---!-+--chromatm
network
_--oo::::---------:~nuclear
membrane
.~""":----7'!-nucleolus
F-.~--!:!=--chromosomes
Fig. 10. Mitosis. Cell showing early prop.hase. Fig. 12. Mitosis. Cell showing metaphase.
........ ::....
•.-:..'..... : "....---:. " A nuclear
membrane
and
nucleolus
regions, chromomeres, etc.
[V] Anaphase
(~~lt:~
The following characteristics are seen-
1. This stage is completed in a very small period of
time.
2. The centromere of each chromosome gets split
into two.
3. The chromosome also gets divided into two
". ........ .... fibres
...:.... ~.:::.- . :'....... . chromatids. Each chromatid now bears one
centromere each.
4. The chromosome becomes shorter and thicker.
5. The separated chromatids are now pulled towards
the opposite poles due to contraction of spindle
Fig. 11. Mitosis. Cell ,howtng late propha,e. fibres.
378 J Practical Botany.' Vol 2
V.UJ()Jtz±::~:::
'\'J' /: ,/ II ::"m",
Fig. 13. Mitosis. Cell showing anaphase. Fig. 15. Mitosis. Cell showing cytokinesis.
6. During movement, each chromosome shows 4. Thus two fully formed nuclei, one at each pole
characteristic shape which is dependent on the are present in the parent cell.
position of centromere. S. Spindle fibres are absent.
[VI] Telophase [VII] Cytokinesis
The following characteristics are seen~ The following characteristics are seen-
1. The chromosomes are present at both the poles 1. In this stage, cytoplasm divides into two. It results
of a parent cell. in the formation of two daughter cells.
2. The chromosomes increase in length and become 2. Division of the cytoplasm is due to formation of a
thread-like. All the chromosomes together form cell plate in the equatorial ret,>1on.
chromatin network and their individuality is now 3. Cell plate formation begins in the centre ofthe cell
lost. and gradually progresses towards the periphery.
3. The groups of chromatin network at each are 4. This results in the formation of two daughter cells.
surrounded by nuclear membrane Nucleolus is Organelles are also present.
also present. S. The number of chromosomes in each daughter
cell is equal to the number present in parent cell.
~=============:::~-cell wall
/(i ! !. \ ;GJ-:::::f~'~
organisms which reproduce sexually. During this
division, genetic material is duplicated once and
nucleus divides twice. As a result four daughter cells
.: : f ~ f nucleal are formed. These have half the chromosomes as
membrane compared to the parent cells. Meiosis also involves
crossing over, i.e. exchange of equal parts of non-
sister chromatids of the homologous chromosomes.
~.,J_ _ _li_chromatin Therefore, the four daughter cells are genetically
",,-::~r;::...1- nerwork different from the parent cells.
Meiosis consists of
(1) Meiosis I and (2) Meiosis II.
Cytology & Genetics [ 379
Meiosis I involves some very characteristic and [I] Leptotene (Leptonema) of Prophase I
important stages such as- The following characteristics are seen-
(1) Synapsis or pairing of homologous 1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are intact.
chromosomes, 2. Chromosomes are long thread-like structures.
(2) Recombinations due to crossing over and All the chromosomes are intertwined to form
(3) Segregation of homologous chromosomes. chromatin network.
The stages included in Meiosis I are Prophase I, 3. Chromosomes appear beaded due to chromomeres
Metaphase I, Anaphase I and Telophase I. At the which are distinct at this stage.
end of meiosis I, two daughter cells are formed. 4. All the chromosomes finally move towards one
Each cell has half the number of chromosomes part of the nucleus. This stage is known as
compared to parent cell. synizesis or boquet formation.
Meiosis II is similar to mitosis. It results in the 5. Centrioles are not present. This indicates that it
formation of four daughter cells, each having the is a dividing plant cell.
same chromosome number as was present at the end
of Meiosis I. Meiosis II is also sub-divided into [II] Zygotene (Zygonena) of Prophase I
Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II and The following characteristics are seen-
Telophase II. 1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are still very
clear.
Exercise 1 2. The major character of this stage is synapsis -
pairing of homologous chromosomes.
Purpose: To study meiosis by smear preparation.
3. Synaptonemal complex is formed as a result of
Materials and Technique synapsis. This complex is made of two lateral
Prepare a smear of young anthers of Asphodelus elements and a central region which is bisected
or Tradescantia as described earlier. by a narrow central component.
4. Synapsis can occur at more than one points along
Observations
the length of the chromosome.
Following stages can be seen in different slides of
5. At each place a pair showing two chromatids is
melOSlS-
present.
cell wall
cell membrane
---o::::-----~!-- nuclear
membrane
nucleolus
\."'~--±:!:_ pair of
homologous
chromosomes
showing
synapsis
chromosome
Fig. 16. Meiosis. Cell showing Leptotene of Prophase I. Fig. 17. Meiosis. Cell shOWing Zygotene of Prophase I.
380 J Practical Botany." Vol 2
/1J):~':r
4. This results in two haploid sets of chromosomes, cell membrane
one at each pole of the cell.
5. Each chromosome shows characteristic shape
during movement.
! \. : ':-:
i :':' : :: -":-~:---~- ~~~~~~~u~f
:: : \ [ ~ : ~~~~~somes
[VIII] Telophase I contraction
The stage shows following characte,istics- of spIndle
fibres
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus have reappeared
and are clearly seen.
2. There are two nuclei one each at the poles of the
cell.
3. Each daughter cell has half the number of
chromosomes compared to the parent cell.
Chromosomes are thin and long. They are
intermingled with one another to form a network. Fig. 22. Meiosis. Cell showmg Anaphase I.
/'f"\~:~~::b~
~
........ membrane and
1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus both are absent,
having disappeared.
2. Spindle fibres are formed. These are organised
.......•.......... nucleolus.
disappearing
into a spindle.
3. Spindle fibres are joined with centromeres of the
chromosomes.
,'l:~'j-:: )---~!-~~~~~!:~~~
~~.......
;:..........•. ~~:::ane
.- and
4. All the chromosomes are aranged on the.
equatorial plate.
5. Each chromosome is made of two chromatids
held together by a centromere.
nucleolus
[XI] Anaphase II
This stage is characterised by the following-
Fig. 24. Meiosis. Cell showing Prophase II. 1. Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are absent.
2. Centromere that holds two chromatids splits. Each
chromatid now has an individual centromere.
3. Spindle fibres contract and each chromosome is
now pulled to the opposite poles.
4. Chromatids (now called chromosomes) show
characteristic shape during their movement.
[XII] Thlophase II
The following are characteristic features of this
stage-
1. Chromosomes are in the form of groups at each
end of the parent cell.
2. Nuclear membrane reappears and surrounds the
group of chromosomes. This results in the
formation of daughter nuclei at the opposite
poles of the cells.
3. Spindle fibres disappear completely.
Fig. 25. Meiosis. Cell showing Metaphase II.
1
formation
"II
II
~
II muclear
II
~r.li
II membrane
~I
II
~
II nucleolus
II
II chromatin
)1 network
"
Fig. 26. Meiosis. Cell showing Anaphase II. Fig. 27. Meiosis. Cell showing Telophase II.
Cytology & Genetics [ 383
genotypes
(RR) 1
seeded plant X seeded plant
(rr)
generation) Yellow X
(RRYY)~ (rryy)
Green
Round seeded
Round F1 (First filial Yellow
seeded generation) (RrYy)
~
(Rt)
384 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Phenotypes Round Round Wnnkled Wrmkled The progeny of test cross shows following in the
Yellow Green Yellow Green above example
Genotypes RRYYI RRyyI rrYY 1 yyrr 1
RYy 2 Rryy 2 rrYy 2
1. Monohybrid cross: Heterozygous Red (Rr):
RrYY 2 1 homozygous White (rr)
RrYy 4 2. Dihybrid cross: 1 heterozygous Round Yellow
9 :i 3 1 (RrYy): 1 heterozygous Round Green (Rryy):
Phenotypic ratio 9:3:3:1 1 heterozygous Wrinkled Yellow (rrYy):
Genotypic ratio 1: 2 :2 :4 : 1 : 2 : 1 : 2 : 1 1 homozygous Wrinkled Green (rryy).
Of the four phenotypic classes, Round Yellow
and Wrinkled Green are parental combinations
[V] Exceptions to Mendelism
while the other two i.e. Round Green and Wrinkled The following are some of the exceptions to
Yellow are newly formed and are called Mendel's work.
recombinations. This is a result of independent 1. Incomplete dominance as III Mirabilis jalapa
assortment of characters. (4 O'clock plant).
2. Interaction of genes.
[IV] Test Cross
3. Multiple alleles.
Test cross is defined as a cross between FI hybrid 4. Linkage.
with its recessive parent. Two test crosses are given
below. Exercise 1
IMONOHYBIUD CROSS I Purpose : Determination of probability by
PI Red flower X White flower
tossing coins.
(RR) ~ (rr)
Materials
Red
(Rr)
Fifty, one rupee coins or fifty paise coins.
Procedure
Red (from
(Rr)
Fl)YX
MONOHYBIUD TEST CROSS
(B-1S)
Cytology & Genetics [ 385
male gametes R RR Rr
Exercise 2 (Round) (Round)
Calculate the ratio assuming that both boxes Phenotype 9 Round 3 Round 3 Wrinkled 1 Wrinkled
represent the two plants and the balls, the gametes &Yellow & Green & Yellow & Green
carrying different alleles or factors. Genotype RRYY 1 RR})' 1 rrYY 1
RRYy 2 Rryy 2 rrYy 2
Explanation RrYY 2
Each box contains equal numbers of four types of RrYy 4
balls representing gametes. If the two plants crossed 9· 3 3
Phenotypic ratio 9 :3 :3 : 1
were phenotypically round seeded and seeds yellow
Genotypic ratio 1 : 2: 2: 4 : 1: 2: 1 : 2: 1
coloured (round seed is dominant over wrinkled
seed and yellow colour of the seed is dOl11inant over
[VII] Some of the Exampies
green colour), with genotype RrYy, then the four
types of gametes would be RY, Ry, rY and ry. Let
them be represented as follows- Example 1
RY is represented by red ball,
Yellow (Y) is dominant over the green (y) colour
Ry is represented by blue ball,
of the pea seeds. In the following crossei find out the
rY is represented by yellow ball and
genotype of parents.
ry is represenfed by green ball.
Find out the phenotypes by using these indicators Parents Progeny
and wheth,.er the ratio approaches 9 : 3 : 3 : 1. There Yellow Green
would be anyone of the following combinations
because there are equal number of balls in each of (a) Yellowx Green 72 80
(b) Yellowx Yellow 125 42
the boxes and there is an equal chance at each (c)YellowX Green 74 0
random selection for such a combination. (d) Green X Green 0 50
(1) Red from boxA with red from boxB. I
(2) Red from boxA with blue from boxB. Explanation
(3) Red from boxA with yellow form boxB.
(a) The ratio is close to 1: 1, therefore, this is a test
(4) Red from boxA with green from box B.
cross
(5) Blue from boxA with red from boxB.
Yy X yy
(6) Blue from boxA with blue from boxB.
(From F1) (From P)
(7) Blue from boxA with yellow from boxB.
(b) The ratio is close to 3: 1, therefore, this is
(8) Blue from boxA with green from boxB.
interbreeding between two F1 plants, genotypes
(9) Yellow from boxA with red from boxB.
would be Yy X Yy.
(10) Yellow from boxA with blue from boxB.
(c) There is no segregation and only dominant
(11) Yellow from boxA with yellow from boxB.
phenotype is expressed, genotype would be
(12) Yellow from boxA with green from boxB.
YY X yy.
(13) Green from boxA with red from boxB.
(d) There is no segregation and only reccessive
(14) Green from boxA with blue from boxB.
therefore, genotypes would he yyxyy.
(15) Green from boxA with yellow from boxB.
(16) Green from boxA with green from boxB.
Example 2
Round & Wrinkled &
Yellow x Green .... P A tall (TT) pea plant with smooth seeds (SS) was
~
(RR YY) (rr})') crossed with plants with dwarf (rr) and wrinkled
(ss) seeds. Find out the following-
Round & (a) Genotype and phenotype in Fl.
yellow ....
(RrYy)
(b) Genotypes and phenotypes in a cross between F1
plant and tall (IT) and smooth seeded (SS) plant.
Cytology & Genetics [ 387
(c) Genotypes and phenotypes in a cross between (d) Genotype and phenotype of F2 (i. e. cross
Fl plant and dwarf (tt) and wrinkled seeded (ss) between Tt Ssx Tt Ss)
plant.
(d) Genotype and phenotype in F2. Genotypes Phenotypes
'ITSS 1
Explanation TISS 2
(a) Fl of TT SS X tt ss 'ITSs 2 9 : Tall and smooth
TtSs 4 seeded plants
~-------------------.--------------------,
Genotype Phenotype
TTss 1 3 : Tall and wrinkled
Tt ss 2 seeded plants
Tt Ss Tall and smoth
seeded plant tt Ss 1 3: Dwarf and Smooth
It Ss 2 seeded plants
ts Tt Ss Tt Ss Tt Ss Tt Ss male female
gametes ~ gametes
ts TtSs Tt Ss TtSs TtSs
ts Tt Ss Tt Ss Tt Ss Tt Ss ~ TS Ts tS Is
Explanation
Homozygous red Genotypes Phenotypes
Homozygous white P
(RR) x (rr) CCPP 1
~ CCPp 2
2
9·: Purple
Heterozygous pink Fl CcPP flowered
(Rr) CcPp 4
F2 generation is obtained by selfing CCpp 1
Rrx Rr Ccpp 2
ccPP 1 7: White
Genotypes Phenotypes ccPp 2 flowered
{:cpp 1
RR 1 1 : Red flower
Rr 2 2 : Pink flowers
rr 1
This is an example of duplicate recessive
I : White flower
epistasis.
This is an example of incomplete dominance. ExampleS
In poultry there are three comb types- rose (R),
Example 4 pea (P) and walnut (RP). Recessive genes produce
fourth type - the single (rr or pp). Rose (RR pp) and
In sweet pea Lathyrus odoratus, purple flowers pea (rr PP) were crossed. FI offspring was walnut
are dominant over white flowers. A cross between (Rr Pp). Find out genotypes and phenotypes of a
two white flowered plants (cc pp X cc PP), purple cross between two walnut (Rr Pp) combed chicken.
flow((r was obtained in Fl. Find out the genotypes
Explanation
and phenotypes of F2
Rr Pp x Rr Pp would produce following
Expl~nation genotypes and phenotypes
White x White
(cc PP) P Genotypes Phenotypes
(CCpp)
Purple
1 Fl
RRPP
RrPP
1
2 9: Walnut
(Cc Pp) RRPp 2
F2 generation is obtained by selfing Cc Pp. RrPp 4
Since purple colour is developed only when both RRpp 1
C and P are present following genotypes and Rrpp 2 3: Rose
phenotypes would be obtained.
rrPP 1
rrPp 2 3: Pea
rrpp 1 1: Smgle
ribosomes
nucleus
mitochondria
chromoplast
starch gram
chloroplast
endoplasmic
reticulum
cell wall---\\Wli~,'
J->-~-pit
Exercise 1 Conclusion
Cabbage juice is a colloidal solution. Colloidal
Purpose: Demonstration of1Yndall phenomenon.
particles in the solution are under constant
Materials movement, hence the light gets scattered. This is
Beaker, pencil torch, water, 1% glucose solution known as Tyndall phenomenon. However, scattering
(or any true solution), cabbage juice, etc. is not observed in beaker B a true solution, (a
particle-free homogenate), Tyndall phenomenon is a
Procedure
method to distinguish a true solution from a colloidal
1. Pour cabbage solution in beaker A and 1%
solution.
glucose solution in beaker B (or any true
solution). Exercise 2
2. Pass a beam of light by pencil torch through both
the beakers placed in the dark. Purpose: Preparation of a suspension.
3. Observe the beam of light at right angles. Materials
Results Barium chloride solution, dilute sulphuric add, .
1. When passed through beaker A, the light gets test tube, test tube holder, test tube stand, etc.
scattered in the direction of the observer.
Procedure
2. This phenomenon is not observed when light is
1. Pour a little of barium chloride solution in a test
passed through beaker B.
tube.
Plant Physiology .. Protoplasm and Membranes [ 391
2. Add little amount of sulphuric acid to the test tube. irreversible colloid). In this case, there is a complete
3. Shake well. Keep the tube undisturbed. lack of strong affinity between a dispersed phase and
the liquid in which it is dispersed.
Results
(Similarly colloidal suspension of arsenic
A precipitate of barium sulphate settles down.
sulphide can be prepared by bubbling H2S gas into a
Conclusion solution of arsenic oxide).
Precipitate is a suspension where particles do not
separate and remain dispersed as such throughout Exercise 5
the liquid. The suspensions form unstable system Purpose: To Prepare an emulsoid.
and the particles gradually settle down in the
container. Materials
Starch (agar-agar or gelatin etc.), hot water, test
Exercise 3 tube, a glass rod, spirit lamp, etc.
Purpose: Preparation of an emulsion. Procedure
1. Take a test tube. Pour little amount of water.
Materials
Heat over spirit lamp and bring water to boil.
Olive oil or mustard oil (or any non- volatile oil),
2. Add starch (agar-agar or gelatin, etc.) to the test
water, test tube, etc.
tube. Kcep stirring with a glass rod till the solid
Procedure gets evenly dispersed.
1. Pour a few drops of oil in a test tube filled with
Results and conclusions
water.
The colloidal solution or emulsoid is formed in
2. Shake well and keep undisturbed for some time.
this way. It is lyophilic with a strong affinity between
Results and conclusions a dispersed phase, and the liquid in which it is
The droplets of oil remain dispersed even after dispersed. If the dispersion medium used is water,
vigorously shaking the test tube. The oil and water t.he colloidal solution is known as hydrophilic.
appear as separate layers, after sometime.
In an emulsion dispersed phase (oil) remains Exercise 6
disperscd in the dispersion phase (water). The Purpose: Demonstration of Brownian movement.
droplets of oil coalesce to form larger droplets until
two distinct layers are formed. Materials
Two immiscible liquids form an emulsion. The Slide, cover-slip, microscope, latex from
particles of dispersed phase are generally larger than Calotropis (or India ink or plant or fruit juice, etc.)
the colloidal particle size. Procedure
1. Place a drop of latex (or India ink or cabbage
Exercise 4 juice) on a slide and cover with a glass
Purpose: To prepare a suspensoid. cover-slip.
2. Exa,mine the slide under the high power of the
Materials
microscope. (If possible, use a strong beam of
Water, ferric chloride, test tube, spirit lamp, etc.
light, allowing only diffused light to reach the
Procedure object).
1. Heat water in test tube over spirit lamp.
Results and conclusions
2. Add ferric chloride till a concentrated solution is
.The particles in the material appear as bright
prepared. illuminated points moving randomly and irregularly.
Results and conclusion In a colloidal solution, uneven bombardment of
Ferric hydroxide molecules are formed as a result the minute colloidal particles is caused by the
of chcmical reaction. These form the dispersed molecules of the dispersion medium (solvent). This
phase of the colloidal solution known as suspcnsoid results in movement of the colloidal particles in the
(= lyophobic solution = hydrophobic solution = direction of least resistance (which continues to
392 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
I
Cell Sap External Medium ~ The Result
1. Concentration more I.e. 1. Concentration less I.e. i (I) external solution hypotonic,
(a) cell sap concentrated or solution dilute or (n) water moves mto the cell,
(b) less solvent mols. more solvent mols. (III) cell volume increases,
Cell sap Hypertonic Solution Hypotonic. (IV) process IS endosmosis.
2. Concentration less i.e. 2. Concentration more I.e. (I) external solution hypertOnic,
(a) cell sap dilute or solution concentrated or (n) water moves out of the cell,
(b) more solvent mols less solvent mols. (III) cell volume decreases,
Cell sap Hypotonic 3. Solution Hypertonic (IV) process IS exosmo~is.
I
Exercise 1 syrup
(sugar solution)
Purpose : To demonstrate the phenomenon of
stand.
osmosis by using goat bladder/parchment paper.
Materials
Sugar solution, water, thistle funnel, parchment
paper or membrane from goat's bladder, thread,
beaker, stands, razor or safety blade, etc.
Procedure
1. Tic a piece of parchment paper or membrane
from goat's bladder to the broad mouth of the
thistle funnel.
2. Fill the thistle funnel with concentrated sugar
solution. Mark the level of sugar solution in the
funnel.
3. Dip the funnel into the beaker containing water.
Fig. 1. Demonstration of osmosis by usmg goat bladder.
Allow the experiment to stand for some time.
lower concentration through a semi-permeable
Results
membrane (cell membrane) is known as osmosis.
The level of sugar solution in the thistle funnel
After allowing the experiment to remain as such
nses.
watch the rise in the level after some time. It does not
Conclusions change at all, indicating that the concentration of
The rise is due to entry of water into the thistle water molecules in the beaker and inside the thistle
funnel (the region of low concentration of water funnel has become equal.
molecules) from the beaker (the region of high
concentration of its molecules) through the cell Exercise 2
membrane. The movement of water molecules from Purpose: To domonstrate the osmosis by using
its region of higher concentration to its region of potato osmometer.
394 J Practical Botany,' Vol 2
indicates the beginning of plasmolysis, and is known these dry colloids is practically zero. Hence, when
as incipient plasmolysis. the material is immersed in water a sharp diffusion
C and D. With the increase in the concentration pressure gradient is established. Thus, the water
of sugar solution outside, the space between the cell moves rapidly into the imbibant till the diffusion
wall and the contents increases. Finally, due to pressure of the imbibant and water becomes equal.
continued exosomosis the cell contents shrink and
collect on one side.Such a' cell is called plasmolysed. Exercise 8
In a plasmolysed cell, the space between the cell
Purpose : To demonstrate that pressure is
wall and the contents is filled with the hypertonic
developed during imbibition.
solution placed outside the cell. The incipient
plasmolysis can be stopped if such a cell is placed Materials
either in pure water or hypotonic solution. The cell A bottle with airtight cork, an airtight disc fitting
then attains its normal structure (turgidity) due to into the bottle to which a pointer is attached outside
endosmosis. The process is known as deplasmolysis. the cork of bottle, a scale ~ttached to the stand,
But if the plasmolysis continues, the cells show water and a few gram seeds, etc.
desiccation and plant becomes permanently wilted.
Procedure
(This experiment can also be done by using petals
1. Pour water into bottle and put a few seeds upto
of Thunbergia and Luffa, leaves of Zebrina and
the water surface.
Hydrilla, staminal hairs of Tradescantia, and
2. Adjust the disc just over the seeds and the pointer
vegetative and large filaments of Spirogyra).
-over zero mark on the scale.
Exercise 7 3. Allow the experiment to remain as such overnight.
If-_~M~water~ diSC
seeds
Fig. 6 DemonstratIOn of imbibition. A. Seeds at the
beginning of experiment and B. Seeds swollen due
to imbibition. Fig. 7. Apparatus to demonstrate imbibiton pressure.
398 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
is, therefore logically a turgor pressure. This is formed through the path described earlier. The
pressure, however, will not develop in an unconfined water in the cells adjacent the sub- stomatal cavity is
imbibant (i.e., till the seeds are enclosed and lost (transpired) through the stomates of the leaf.
prevented from swelling.) The sap of these cells now becomes more
concentrated than the neighbouring cell. Hence,
III. Ascent of Sap there is a movement of water (along diffusion
gradient) to the cell which has lost water. This makes
Preamble up the water deficit of the cell. The neighbouring cell
Water is mostly absorbed from the soil by the having lost its water would similarly require water
roots. It is lost (transpired) by the aerial organs of from another neighbouring cell (with more
the plant especially the leaves. The distances concentration of water molecules). This chain
between absorbing and transpiring organs vary from continues through the same path but in the direction
a few inches to about 400 feet. This requires an of stomates to root hair. This force of gradual
effective water transport mechanism. The process by movement of water from one cell to another is
which water is transported from the roots to the tops known as transpiration pull.
of the plant is called Ascent of Sap. The water column throughout the network of
The water is absorbed from the soil by root hairs. tracheary elements remains unbroken because of the
It moves through the cortex, endodcrmis and cohesive force among water molecules. The water
pericycle before reaching the xylem elements of the molecules remain attracted to the wall of the
root. The xylem elemcnts of the root are in contact tracheary elements because of their adhesive force
with the xylem ducts of the stem. Thus, the water is for the wall. Therefore, the water column shall not
transported to the xylem of the stem. Ultimately the break until cohesive and adhesive forces are
xylem of stem being in contact with xylem of the leaf, overcome.
water reaches the leaves. consequently, water from
the leaf veins moves into mesophyll cells and is lost Exercise 1
through the stomates to the environment. The above Purpose : To demonstrate that water moves
cells and tissues form the path of water movement. through the xylem.
Many theories are given to explain the
movements of water and forces responsible for it. Materials
1. Root pressure. The exudation of water from Eosin solution, a small potted plant (e.g.
the cut end of the stem is due to root pressure. It is Impatiens ), stand, test tube, cotton plug, razor slide,
defined as "a pressure developing in the tracheary cover- slip, glycerine, microscope, etc.
elements of xylem as a result of metabolic activities Procedure
of the roots". The pressure developed is very less 1. Fill the test tube with eosin solution. Insert the
and insufficient to transport the water to great roots of small plant into the tube. Plug the
heights. mouth of the tube with cotton. Keep the tube
2. Vital theories. According to these theories the fixed to a stand.
living cells are necessary for the translocation of 2. After a few hours watch the colour of the base of
water. These inclUde Godlewskis Relay Pump the petioles and the flower petals.
theory, Sir J. C. Bose's Pulsation Theory, etc. Since, 3. Cut a T. s. of the stem and observe under the
it is now known' that xylem elements -the dead cells microscope.
transport water, vital theories are of little interest.
3. Physical theories. According to these theories Results
some physical force is responsible for ascent of sap. The bases of the petiole have turned pink. The
Many explanations are given, ot which flower petals have also becomepink in colour. The T
"Transpiration pull and cohcsion of water"- s. of the stem shows red stained elements of xylem.
is the most accepted theory. Conclusions
Transpiration pull and cohesion of water. The bases of the petioles and the flower petals
According to this theory, a continuous water column become pink indicating that the eosin has reached
Plant Physiology: Ascent of Sap [ 399
water
r -"Jc-~- eosin
soln.
Fig. 2 Ringing experiment to demonstrate that ascent of sap
takes place through xylem.
Fig. 1. Demonstration that water
moves through .xylem. 3. The ringing (removal of tissues) should always be
done while the twigs are under water. Immerse the
these organs. The movement of water, therefore, twigs in separate beakers containing water. Allow
takes place from the roots to the leaves and flowers them to stand for a few hours.
through the stem. This experiment demonstrates Results
that (a) water is absorbed by the roots and (b) is In condition 1 the plant remains unchanged and
transported upwards up to leaves. the leaves are turgid even after ringing. In condition
The xylem takes up the stain of eosin. It shows 2 the leaves wilt and loose their normal condition if
that the eosin solution (and similarly water) moves xylem is blocked.
through the xylem elements. The path of water,
therefore, is through the xylem of the root, stem and Conclusions
leaves. 1. The leaves remain turgid because of continued
transport of water. The removal of phloem and
Exercise 2 cortex (bark) has not disturbed the water
movement. This indicates that cortex and phloem
Purpose : To demonstrate that ascent of sap do not play any rol~ in this process. The undisturbed
takes place through the xylem by ringing method. xylem must have transported water upwards.
Materials 2. The wilting occurs when water does not reach the
A twig or part of the plant, beaker, water, razor leaves to keep them turgid. The xylem being
and wax, etc. removed, the path of water transport is
disturbed. It shows that even though the cortex
Procedure and phloem are present, ascent of sap does not
1. Take a plant and remove a ring of a bark (all the take place if xylem is blocked. The xylem,
tissues from epidermis upto phloem) about one therefore, is the tissue which conducts the water.
inch in length without causing injury to the
cambium below. Exercise 3
2. Take another twig and remove xylem elements
without injuring the cortex and the phloem. Purpose: To demonstrate the root pressure.
(This can be done by using wax or vaseline. The Materials
xylem or phloem and cortex can be blocked by A well-watered potted plant, a razor, rubber
applying wax or grease to these elements.) tubing, manometer, mercury, water, stand, etc.
400 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Exercise 4
Purpose: To demonstrate water lifting power of
transpiration.
Materials
Stand, beaker, a glass tube or capillary tube with
a wide mouth, cork, oil cloth, plant or twig, water,
Fig. 4. Apparatus used for the demonstration of root mercury, beaker, etc.
pressure.
Procedure
Procedure 1. Fill beaker (or petri dish) with mercury. Invert a
1. The plant is watered heavily. The shoot of the capillary over the mercury and fill it with water.
potted plant is cut off a few inches above soil 2. Insert the twig through hole into the cork in a way
level just below the first leaf. that the cut end of the plant is dipped in the
(8-15)
Plant Physiology: Ascent of Sap [ 401
beaker
Materials
V-tube, mercury, water, a cork with a single hole,
a leaf of garden nasturtium, etc.
Fig. 5. Demonstratation of water lifting power of Procedure
transpiration.
1. Fill the water in the V tube through one end.
2. Fit a leaf through one-holed cork in a smaller arm
water. Make the cork and hole airtight by applying of the tube. Make it airtight.
vaseline or tie oilcloth securely around it. 3. Pour a littlt.:: amount of mercury in the other limb.
3. Note the initial level of mercury in the (The mercury is placed in order to force the water
capillary. into the petiole.)
4. Allow the experiment to stand in open and sunny 4. Allow the experiment to stand for some time.
place. Note the level of mercury at the end of the
experiment. Results
The drops of water appear at the margins of the
Results leaf near vein endings.
The level of mercury rises.
Conclusions
Conclusions The process of water exudation from the margins
The plant transpires and absorbs water to make of the leaf at vein endings is known as guttation. It
up the deficit thus created. This results in pull or occurs under conditions favourable for rapid water
suction, called as transpiration pull. absorption, but unfavourable for rapid loss
The transpiration pull exerts a tension on the (transpiration). This is commonly evident in the
water present in the conducting tracheary elements. morning, because water is absorbed throughput the
This tension is passed down to the roots. Thus, night while transpiration is practically negligible. At
the whole column of water is lifted. The mercury this time root pressure is high and causes guttation.
column is similarly pulled upward exhibiting The water of guttation also contains a few solutes
transpiration pull. e.g., carbohydrates, mineral salts, organic acids and
(B-15)
402 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
nitrogenous substances. These remain as crystals on elastic outer wall of the guard cells. It pulls inelastic
the leaf when water evaporates. inner wall alongwith it to leave a stomatal pore open.
The water oozes out mostly through the The entry of water into guard cells is due to higher
specialised structures called hydathodes or water osmotic concentration. On the other hand, if the
stomata which are mostly found in plants of humid osmotic concentration of the guard cell becomes
tropics. This is common in plants like garden low, the diffusion pressure deficit gradient now
Nasturtium, grasses, mustard, etc. allows movement of water from guard cells to
adjacent mesophyll cells. The guard cells then
Iv. 'franspiration become flaccid and the stomatal pore closes.
The stomates remain open in the day and closed
Preamble -in. the night. This means that osmotic concentration
Of the total water absorbed by the plants, about of the guard cells increases during light period
99% is lost to the environment in the form of water causing endosmosis. The following explanation is
vapours. The loss of water, in the form of water given for opening and closing of the stomata: A high
vapours from th~ aerial parts of plant is kno\yIl as pH favours opening of stomata, because it is
transpiration. associated with decrease in the and increase
Three types of transpiration are known- in the amount of reducing sugars (which are
(a) stomatal, (b) cuticular and (c) lenticular. The osmotically active). This results in increase in the
amount of water lost by cuticular and lenticular osmotic concentration of the guard cells and
transpirations is insignificant. Major amount of subsequently movement of water takes place. The
water is lost through stomata. light increases the pH of the guard cell (pH 7).
Stomatal transpiration occurs through stomata Low pH favours closing of stomata (pH 5). This
on the leaves. Stoma is surrounded by two kidney or happens during darkness. At this stage, the 'reducing
bean-shaped guard cells. The wall of the guard cell sugars are converted to starch (osmotically inactive)
towards the stomatal pore is thick and inelastic while and lowers the osmotic concentration of the guard
the wall away from the pore is thin and elastic. cells. Hence, subsequently water diffuses out from
Stomata may be present on both the leaf surfaces, them to mesophyll cells. Guard cells become flaccid
but are more common on lower leaf surface. The and the stomatal pore closes.
stomatal pore opens into a substomatal cavity lined phosphorylase
pH7
by cells which are interconnected with intercellular Starch ~ sugar
spaces. Thus, the internal atmosphere of the leaf is in phosphorylase
, direct contact 'with the external environment. pHS
The stomatal pore opens when the guard cells are The stomatal movement IS responsible for
turgid. At this stage, the turgor pressure pushes the Besides light, it depends upon
011cloth
veseline ~---~T'
I
glass plate
Fig. 3. Cobalt Chloride method to compare the rate
Fig. 2. Demonstration of transpiration. of transpiration from leaf surfaces.
404 J Practical Botany,' Vol 2
Results
Plants: (Different plants can be used.)
Condition: Exccessive Iight/shade/wind/etc.
1. Weight of
apparatus 926.8 g 924.7g loss of 2.1 g
2. Level of the
A B c D graduated
tube O.4cc 2.6cc fall of 2.2 cc
water reservoir
water
capillary tube
water
scale
air bubble
water twig
------- beaker
capillary _ _
cup
leaf
to aspirator
m
=----=~ ...:=::-
----
- -
---
- - - - ----
--- -beaker
-
---- - ----
----
- - - ---
-- ---
-=-=---=--=--=--:....-- - water
-------
- -
~---
- -- ---
-- ---
--
o 0
-----0'"0- - - - - -
Fig. 12. Darwin's porameter.
2. Pass a petiole (cut under water) through the and band bacteriovirdin. Of these, chlorophyll a and
second hole in a way, so that the cut end is under b occur most widely. Chlorophyll a consists of a
water. tetrapyrrolic (porphyrin) ring with magnesium atom
3. The bent glass tube is connected to an aspirator in its center and a long chain phytol attached to one
which is allowed to run. of the pyrrol rings. The minor difference in the
structure of chlorophyll a and b, results in
Results
absorption of different wavelengths of light e.g.
A continuous stream of bubbles is formed from
chlorophyll a and b show maximum absorption in the
the cut end of the petiole.
blue-violet region at the peaks of 429 m,u and 453
Conclusion m,u respectively; with minor peaks at 410 m,u and 430
The experiment shows that the intercellular m,u. Another secondary absorption maximum for
spaces of the leaf are directly in contact with the chlorophyll a and b is in the red region of 660 m,u and
atmosphere through the stomata. As soon as the 642 m,u respectively. Thus, blue and red wavelengths
aspirator is set to work, it sucks the air from the are most effective in photosynthesis which are
bottle. This creates vacuum. To overcome it, the absorbed heavily by the chloroplast. Other pigments
outside air enters through the stomata into the air taking part in the photosynthesis are carotenoids
spaces (intercellular spaces) of the leaf and finally and phycobilins. These pigm.ents, absorb light
into the water through the continuous channel of the energy but cannot convert it into diemical ~l1ergy,
intercellular spaces. The air appears in the form of hence are called accessory pigments.
bubbles. The bubbles can only be seen if air is sucked
tIll] The Mechanism
through the leaf. The .leaf must, therefore, possess a
Photosynthesis consists of two steps-
continuous column which can hold water. Since the
(1) light reaction and
petiole is cut, the intercellular spaces are open and
(2) dark reaction.
directly in contact with water.
1. Light reaction is complex and involves two
photochemical acts - (i) photochemlcal reaction
V. Photosynthesis brought about by pigment ",ystem I (PS I) where
ATP is' farmeo dnd (ii) another photochemical
Preamble reaction brought about by pigment system II (PS II)
[I] The Process where photolysis of water takes place and as a result
The green plants are autotrophic i.e. they ATP and NADPHz are formed while oxygen is
synthesis their own food material. Food material is released as a by-product.
mostly synthesised in the form of carbohydrates Thus at the end of light reaction ATP and
especially the starch. Synthesis of starch takes place NADPHz are formed which are used in the dark
in chlorophyll containing leaves. It also requires light reaction.
and COz from atmosphere and water from the soil. 2. Dark reaction does not require light energy but
The complex reactions involved in the process finally requires the products formed in the light reaction.
reduce COz to starch. These reactions together are The process begins when COz is accepted by
called photosynthesis. During this process gaseous Ribulose-bi-phosphate. At the end of the process
oxygen is released as a by-product. Photosynthesis is starch accumulates as the reserve food. The entire
summarised as f o l l o w s . ' process is called Calvin Cycle or C3 cycle.
Light
[IV] The Factors
6COz + 12HzO* - - - C6H1206 + HzO + 60z*
Chlorophyll The process of photosynthesis is affected by
many factors, viz. light (ins tensity, quality and
[II] The Pigments duration), carbon dioxide, temperature, oxgyen and
The important chemical compounds which water. Blackman' (1905) postulated the law of
absorb light energy are the pigments. These are limiting factor. It states that when a process is
present in the chloroplasts or chromoplasts of the conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate
plant cell. Photosynthetically active pigments are factors, the rate of the process is limited by the pace
chlorophylls-a,b,c,d and e, bacteriochlorophyll a
412 J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Exercise 3 Conclusion
1. The maximum photosynthesis occured in red
Purpose: To demonstrate the effect of different region. Thus there is more amount of starch
wavlengths of light during photosynthesis. which is the end product of photosynthesis.
Materials 2. The next effective are the blue wavelenghts. This
A large box where leaf can be inserted (similar to also shows lesser amount of starch
Ganong's light screen), glass top covered by red, manufactured during the same time.
green and blue colours, a twig, ethyl alcohol 90%, Photosynthesis in this wavelength of light is at a
spirit lamp, beaker, iodine, etc. lower rate than that in the red region.
3. Staining indicates that no photosynthesis has
Procedure taken place in green wavelength and hence it is
1. The leaf is df~starched by keeping the plant in not effective in this process.
dark for about 24 hours.
2. This leaf is inserted below the glass top of the Exercise 4
apparatus.
3. The apparatus is kept in sunlight. Purpose: To demonstrate the presence of starch
4. The leaf is detached in the evening (or after a in chloroplast.
few hours). Materials
5. The chlorophyll is removed by boiling it in alcohol. Leaves of moss or filaments of Spirogyra, chloral
6. The leaf is now tested for starch by staining with hydrate, iodine, slides, coverslips, microscope, etc.
iodine.
7. Compare the intensity of staining of different Procedure
parts of the leaf under red, blue and green light. 1. Pluck the moss leaves or place a few filaments of
Spirogyra on a slide.
Results 2. Place a few drops of chloral hydrate and a drop
1. The part of leaf receiving red light is darkly of iodine.
stained. 3. Allow the plant material to remain so in the
2. The part under the blue light is slightly lighter reagents. Observe under the microscope.
than in red.
3. The part under green light shows almost negative Result and Conclusion
. The starch is accumulated in the chloroplasts
staining.
after photosynthesis is completed. These starch
grains take blue stain of the iodine.
Exercise 5
Purpose: To demonstrate that light is necessary
for photosynthesis.
Materials
Ganong's screen, a twig, ventilated box, iodine,
etc.
Procedure
1. Destarch leaf of a potted plant by diping it in
dark for about 24 hours.
2. Place it between Ganong's screen.
3. Cut a pattern (A in this case) in black paper, so
that light passes only through this design. Place
Fig. 3. Apparatus used for determining the effect of it over the leaf and below the screen.
different wavelengths of light during 4. The twig is allowed to stand in sunlight. Take out
photosynthesis. the leaf and test for starch.
416 ] Practical Botany: Vol 2
Inert material
Conclusion
The negative test shows that starch is not formed
positive starch
in the plant kept in C02 free atmosphere. test
The other plant kept in atmosphere of C02
shows positive iodine test. This indicates that
photosynthesis takes place in presence of C02.
The comparison shows that besides water, light,
chlorophyll and temperature, C02 is also necessary
for the photosynthesis.
Exercise 7
Purpose : To demonstrate that carbon dioxide
water, light and chlorophyll are essential for Fig .6. To demonstrate that C02, water, light and chlorophyll
photosynthesis by 'Moll's half leaf experiment. are essential for photosynthesis by "Moll's half leaf'
experiment.
Materials
A potted plant, wide-mouthed bottle, split cork, 3. The portion of the leaf outside the cork and the
caustic potash, water, stand, iodine, etc. bottle receives C02 and light from the
Procedure atmosphere, water from the pot and possesses
1. A potted plant is kept in the clark for about two chlorophyll. Thus ali the essential factors are
days to destarch its leaves. available to this part of leaf. Consequently,
2. One of the leaves of this plant is half inserted in starch is formed giving positive iodine test.
a bottle through a split cork. The bottle is partly [If a variegated leaf e.g., Croton leaf (where
filled with a strong solution of caustic potash. chlorophyll is present only at a few regions which are
3. The bottle is then kept in the light for the whole green and lacking at others where it is white) is
day. The leaf is then tested for starch. used, starch is formed only in the regions where
chlorophyll is present. This shows that, besides all
Result other requirements, pigment chlorophyll is also
1. The portion of the leaf inside the bottle shows essential].
negative test. Comparing the results from all the three portions
2. The portion of the leaf between the lWO halves of of a leaf used in Moll's experiment, reveal that
the split cork also shows negative results. chlorophyll, C02, water and light are essential for
3. The portion of the leaf outside the cork and bottle photosynthesis.
gives the positive test.
Conclusion
Exercise 8
Photosynthesis requires C02, light, water and Purpose: Dye reduction by isolated chloroplasts
chlorophyll without any of which the process cannot or to demonstrate Hill acti.vity.
continue.
Mates:ials
1. The portion of the leaf inside the bottle does not
Spin-ach leaves, sodium chloride, (also prepare
receive C02 which is absorbed by caustic
0.25 M NaCI), 0.1 M KH2Po.~, 2-6-dichlorophenol-
potash. This part of the leaf receives light, wa,.ter
indophenol (0.1%), 2 ice baths, water bath, mortar
and possesses chlorophyll but does not receive
and pe'stle, cheese cloth, test tubes, etc.
C02. Hence photosynthesis does not take pl~ce
and starch is not formed. Procedure
2. The portion ofthe leaf between the two halves of It consists of following two major steps.
the split cork does not receive C02 and light as 1. Isolation of chloroplasts.
well. Therefore, the photosynthesis does not (1) Prepare two baths of chipped ice and NaCI in
take place and consequently there is no starch large beakers. Use these baths to cool all
formation. reagents, glassware and chloroplast suspension.
(B-iS)
418 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
water reservol r
bent tube
lime
caustic potash
water
baryta water
beaker blackcloth
Fig. 4. To demonstrate that C02 is released during aerobic Fig. 5. Apparatus to show that C02 is released during
respiration. respiration.
During the process of respiration respiratory Procedure
substrate is broken down with the apparent release (1) A potted plant is covered by a bell jar. (If
of carbon dioxide. germinating seeds are to be used bell jar is
(This process can also be demonstrated by other replaced by a tube).
apparatus as shown in (a) fig. 4 and (b) fig. 5 . (2) The bell jar is connected by connecting tubes to
Materials (for apparatus shown in fig. 4) . the bottles on both the sides. The bottles contain
A conical flask, cork, bent glass tube, a small test lime water or baryta water.
tube, thread, water, KOH, germinating seeds, etc. (3) Bottle at one end is connected with a bulb
containing soda lime which is in contact with
Procedure aIr.
(1) Germinating seeds are placed in a flask. (4) The bottle at other end is connected with an
(2) A bent tube is introduced thorugh the cork. aspirator. The apparatus is made airtight.
(3) The free end of the tube is allowed to dip into a (5) The bell jar is covered with black cloth to prevent
beaker containing water. photosynthesis.
(4) A small test tube containing KOH crystals is (6) To begin the experiment aspirator is allowed to
hung inside the flask. run. (fig. 5).
(5) The apparatus is made airtight and respiration
Results
is allowed to continue (fig. 4).
The lime water in a bottle close to aspirator turns
Results milky while that placed in a bottle at another end
Water in beaker rises in glass,tube. does not.
Conclusions Conclusions
Seeds take oxygen and liberate an equal amount The air enters the glass bulb filled with KOH.
of carbon dioxide. Thus, there should not be any This removes carbon dioxide from the air. The air
change in the volume of air. However, KOH crystals now enters the bottle containing lime water where
in the test tube absorb carbon dioxide cre.ating a carbon dioxide if any is also absorbed. The air
vacuum in the flask. This results in the rise of water completely free from carbon dioxide now reaches
in the glass tube. the bell jar.
The plant inside the bell jar cannot undergo
Materials (for apparatus shown in fig. 5)
photosynthesis because light is not available.
A bell jar, two bottles, bent tubes, a bulb, soda
However, plant can respire since carbon dioxide free
lime, water, aspirator, connecting rubber tubes,
air still supplies oxygen needed for this process~ The
corks, grease, cloth, a potted plant, etc. (Fig. 5).
Plant Physiology . Respiration [ 423
respiration releases carbon dioxide which enters the dried seeds retort soaked seeds
bottle with lime water turning it milky.
This experiment shows that, if a plant is given air
free of carbon dioxide, even then it turns the lime
water milky. This demonstrates that carbon dioxide is
released during respiration of the plant in a bell jar.
Exercise 4
Purpose: To demonstrate that carbon dioxide is
produced during aerobic respiration by using
retorts.
Materials A
bent tube
capillary LU['''----!
potasb
en
E Fig. 8. To demonstrate that energy IS released m the form gf
<.>
heat during respiratIOn.
Fig. 11. To measure the rate of respiration by volumetric method using Pettinkoffer's tubes.
428 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
13. A drop of phenolphthalein is used as indicator solution (20%), soda lime, O.IN NaOH, 13aClz
which is added to the beaker containing BaC03. (saturated), ethyl alcohol (95%), phenolphthalein,
14. The end point is then noted. O.lN HCI, potatoes, (or germinating seeds or any
respiratory substrate under study), etc.
Results and conclusions
Procedure
----I
':-~o. IVolume of I 'Volume of Oxalic l.cid I
1. Set up the apparatus in the following sequence:
F~_i
1...
BaC03 Initial. Volume (A) a calibrated flow meter or wet-test gas meter,
reading !I reading used (13) a COz absorption tower (filled with soda lime),
TT~cr
Z Z5 cc
occ
11.0 cc
1------;:0.0 cc
ZO.O cc
I 3Z.0 cc
I
I
10 cc
<) cc
(C) a hottle contai.ling 20% Ba(OH)z solution,
(D) respiratory chamber,
3 Z5 cc Z1.0 cc 11 cc
(E) a flask with absorption tower (fIlled with soda
4 I Z5 cc 33.0 cc 4Z.0 cc 9 cc
5 I Z5 cc 43.0 cc I 54.0 cc I 1] cc lime),
I
=-1- Nl VI = Nz Vz
Average: 10 cc
(F) spray trap,
(G) suction flask with
(H) one way valve,
(I) inlet for flow rate adjustment <'nd
N 1 = Known normality of oxalic acid. (J) water aspirator.
NI is calculated as follows- 2. Absorption tower (B) is a 2 em wide tube. At its
Molecular weight of oxalic acid = 126 bottom is a perforated proeelain plate on which
Equivalent weight = 126 = 63 glass beads and soda lime are packed.
2 3. The size of the respiratory chamber (D) is chosen
:. N = 63 according to the need.
N 4. The rate of air flow should be adjusted in ·a way
= 6.3 g of oxalic acid dissolved in 1000cc
10 that its rate is sufficient to prevent any
water appreciable accumulation of COz in respiratory
chamber.
VI Known volume of oxalic acid used = 10 cc
= 5. To proceed, place the respiratory substrate in a
Nz Normality of barium hydroxide soln.
= respiratory chamber (D).
(To be determined). 6. Now pour 50 ml ofO.1NNaOHinabsorption flask
Vz = Volume of BaC03 = 25 cc (marked C).
Substituting the values in NI VI = Nz Vz 7. Make the connections .pirtight and run aspirator.
6.3xlO = Nz x25 Take care to see that level of the liquid in
N z = 6.3 25 = 2.52
X 10 absorption flask (E) docs not rise more than
.. halfway to the top during the experiment.
The amount of COz produced by 100 g of S. Allow the experiment to run for about an hour.
respiratory substrate in one h(;mr is 2.52 mg/litre. 9. Remove the upright tube (marked F) and pour off
(The rate of respiration of different respiratory the liquid. Rinse the glass tube with distilled
substrates can be determined in this way.) water. If any liquid enters spray trap, rinse this
container as well (collect the liquid in a clean
Exercise 10 and fresh beaker).
Purpose : To measure the rate of respiration by 10. Add 5 ml of saturated solution of BaCh to the
quantitative method (volumetric) -gas now method. beaker. This precipitates Naz C03 as BaC03.
11. After some time add to the flask 25 ml of ethyl
Materials alcohol and few drops of phenolphthalein.
Flow meter (or wet-test gas meter), absorption 12. Titrate with standardised O.lN HCI. Similarly
towers, bottles (suitable sizes), respiratory titrate a blank (50 ml of 0.1 N NaOH, 2CXlmi of
chambers, conical flasks, suction flasks, spray trap, distilled water, 5 ml of EaCh, 25 ml ethyl alcohol,
inlet valve, aspirator, glass beads, perforated a few drops of phenophthalein) against O.lN HCI.
porcelain tile, burette, pipette, beakers, Ba(OH)z
Plant Physiology: Respiration [ 429
spray
trap
o absorption E G
flask
Fig.12. Assembly of apparatus for measurIng the rate of respiration by gas flow method.
Results
1. Weight of C02 liberated during respiration is
Results
computed as folIows-
1. The mercury shall rise very little or there shall be
C02 in milligrams = V xN X 22.0
no rise at all in the neck of the flask A, where
V = Difference between blank and experimental
green leaves are placed.
tit rations (in millilitres)
2. There shall be an appreciable rise in the level of
N = normality of HCI used.
mercury in the neck of flask B where flowers are
2. Calculate the milligrams of C02 evolved per
placed.
hour per gram of the substrate as follows-
NIVI = N2V2 where Conclusion
NI = normality of HCI; Green leaves respire and also photosynthesize. In
VI = Known volume of HCI used; respiration, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide
N2 = ? and V2 = volume of BaC03 is released. However, in photosynthesis carbon
.. N2 = amount of C02 in mg/litre/hour/ dioxide is used and oxygen is released.
gram of respiratory substrate. During the experiment both the processes
continue. In diffused light, the rate of photosynthesis
Exercise 11
would be slower and hence oxygen released shall
Purpose : To compare the processes of also be less. This oxygen shall be completely used up
photosynthesis and respiration. in respiration and carbon dioxide is released. This
carbon dioxide can not be fully absorbed by
Materials
photosynthesis because it is slow due to diffused
Two long necked flasks, two petri dishes, stands,
light. Hence, some quantity of carbon dioxide
mercury, caustic potash, green leaves, flowers, etc.
accumulates. Thus, mercury rushes in the tube as
Procedure soon as caustic potash is introduced which absorbs
1. Introduce moistened green leaves in flask A. carbon dioxide present in the flask.
2. A few moistened flowers are placed in flask B. 2. In flask B there is almost no photosynthesis due
3. Invert the flash so that their necks dip in mercury to absence of chlorophyll in the flower parts. Only
in petri dishes. respiration takes place resulting in the production of
4. The experiment s kept in diffused light. . carbon dioxide alone. The mercury rises higher in
5. In the evening introduce a crystal of caustic potash the flask B after the insertion of caustic potash which
into the neck of each flask. absorbs carbon dioxide present in the flask.
430 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
flower
parts
caustic
stand caustic potash potash
stand
mercury
A B
(2) Peroxidase. These are of wide occurrence in the Then tests are made for starch after 2, 5, 15 and·
plant tissues and oxidise various substrates (viz. 20 minutes. 1\\10 drops of solution and a drop of
phenols, amines) in the presence of H202 as iodine on a porcelain tile gives the test. (Also
electron acceptors. Hydrogen peroxide with an use Benedict's solution.) If blue colour does not
addition of hydrogen atoms and electrons form appear, dilute stock soln. of amylase with equal
water. volume of CaCh soln. and restart.
Peroxidase' The intense colour in the tube A indicates
A.H2 + H 20 2 ----~) A + 2H20 presence of starch. This intense colour also appears
in tube B, thereby indicating presence of starch.
(3) Dehydrogenase. These also remove hydrogen
Later, intensity decreases (in tube B) showing
atoms like oxidases and peroxidases to oxidise
disappearance of the starch.
the substrate. The acceptors receive hydrogen
atoms and get reduced (e.g., hydrogen Conclusions
acceptors-NAD or NADP). In plant cells, Amylase (Taka diastase) is an enzyme. It is widely
oxidase results in the formation of H202. The distributed in plant tissues particularly germinating
evidence, however, fails to show accumulation seeds. It is specific for starch and breaks it to simple
of hydrogen peroxide due to respiration. monosaccharides (glucose). It functions to meet the
Further, H202 is known inhibitor of many glucose need especially during seed germination.
enzymes and needs destruction. The tube A when heated does not show reactions
(4) Catalase. It is an enzyme which brings about be~ause the enzyme is denatured at high
decomposition of H202 into water and oxygen. temperature. Enzymes are proteins and are most
effective in concentrated solutions. Effective
Catalase
2H202 - - - . , . ) 2H20 + 02 temperature and pH range is very narrow and
beyond this enzyme is inactivated irreversibly.
Second experiment shows the effect of enzyme
Exercise 13 concentration on the rate of reaction. The amount of
Purpose : To study the effect of amylase starch (indicated by the comparative intensity of the
(diastase) on starch. blue colour) will be highest in a sample where
enzyme concentration was lowest. The tube with
Materials minimum starch shall have maximum enzyme.
Starch solution (or extract or slurry of potato If the amount of starch (substrate) is sufficient
pulp), taka diastase or extract from germinating barley and does not limit the reaction rate, then the rate of
seeds, (both are used for amylase), iodine solution, reaction is usually directly proportional to enzyme
Benedict's solution, test tubes, spirit lamp, etc. concentration.
Procedure
1. Take two test tubes. VII. Growth and Growth Hormones
2. Add a tablet of taka diastase (to 100 ml of water
Preamble
in each test tube).
3. Heat and bring to boil a solution in one test tube [I] The Definition
(A) while keep another (B) as such. The growth is defined as irreversible increase in
4. Add soluble starch solution to both. volume associated with increase in dry weight. In
5. Test the solutions in tubes A and B with iodine plants growth is localised to meristems only e.g. (1)
on porecelain tile or with Benedict' solution. apical meristems - root and shoot apices, (2) lateral
meristems - vascular cambium and cork cambium
Results
and (3) intercalary meristem.
1. The intensity of the colour in tube A remains
unchanged while the colour is intense in tube B [II] Growth curve
which decreases with time. The meristematic cells pass through three phases
2. In tube B first test for the presence of starch viz. cell division, cell enlargement and cell
should be done scon after the mixture is ready. maturation. The growth rate exhibits S· shaped
432 J Practical Botan}' : Vol 2
curve. The maximum growth rate occurs durring cell of cytokinins. These are also known to delay
enlargement phase and gradually declines towards senescence.
the phase of cell maturation.
Exercise 1
[III] Growth substances
The growth of a plant is mostly due to certain Purpose : Measurement of growth using
chemical substances which plant synthesizes in very auxanometer.
small quantities. These are produced at places other
Materials
than the growth points and are then transported to
1. Lever auxanometer, potted plant, weights,
places where they produce specific effects. These
string, etc. 2. Pfeffer's auxanometer, potted plant,
are variously known as plant hormones,
weight, smoked paper, etc.
phytohormones, growth substances, growth
regulators, etc. Three categories of hormones are Procedure
recognised chemically- (1) auxins, (2) gibberellins Two types of auxanometers are commonly used-
and (3) cytokinins. 1. Lever auxanometer or arc indicator and 2.·pulley
1. Auxins. Auxins form an important group. auxanometer .or Pfeffer's auxanometer.
Indole-acetic-acid (lAA) is the most common and 1. Lever auxanometer or arc indicator. In this
naturally occurring auxin in the plants. Synthetic type an indicator is fixed to a wheel around which
substances found to act as auxins are indole- passes a cord. One end of the cord is tied, gummed
butyric-acid (lBA), a and f3 naphthalene -acetic or taped to the apex of the stem. The cord is now
acid, phenyl-acetic acid and 2-4, dichlorophenoxy- passed over a small wheel to which an indicator is
acetic acid (2-4 D), etc. fixed. The other end of the cord carries a weight.
The studies about the distribution of auxin were 2. PfefIer's auxanometer or pulley auxanometer.
made on Avena coleoptile during its phototropic It gives a permanent. record of growth within a
movement. It is now known that stimulus specified time. A thread is tied to the tip of the stem.
(illumination) induces auxin at the apex and that it It is then passed over a small wheel attached to a
was water soluble. The auxin is generally inhibited large wheel and accurately centered around the
and photochemically inactivated on the illuminated same axis. At the other end of this thread a small
side. This substance is inhibited in its down ward weight is tied. Round the bigger wheel (to which a
movement on the illuminated side. It was smaller wheel carrying a thread from plant passes)
furthermore demonstrated that auxins move away passes another cord, both ends of which carry one
from the iliuminated side and are concentrated on small weight each. A smaller pointer is attached to
the side towards dark. This substance causes cell to the cord passing over the bigger wheel. It is-in
divide on the side where it is most concentrated i.e. contact with the drum which is placed close to the
on the dark side, thus resulting in a curvature pointer. The drum is wrapped with a smoked paper
towards the source of light. and is rotated by a clockwork mechanism.
Auxins affect the overall process of growth. It is
Result
responsible for cell division, cell elongation,
1. The arc indicator moves along the arc.
shortening of internodes, initiation of roots,
2. The smoked paper shows marks of the pointer
prevention of abscission layer, apical dominance,
movement.
parthenocarpy, flower initiation, etc.
2. Gibberellins. Gibberellins which form a Conclusion
distinct group of growth substances were first 1. Lever auxanometer. As the growth takes place,
isolated from a fungus Gibberella fujikuroi. This stem increases in length. The wheel slowly rotates
growth substance causes surprising elongation of the due to the pressure of weight. This results in the
stem, breaks genetic dwarfism, produces movement of indicator along the arc scale. The
parthenocarpic fruits, breaks dormancy and growth of the plant is thus recorded.
promotes flowering in long day plants . From the records, actual growth can be obtained.
. 3. Cytokinins. Cytokinins are substances causing The magnification of growth given by the indicator is
cells to divide and coconut milk, zeatin are examples first made known. For example, if the size of pulley is
(B-15)
Plant Physiology: Growth [ 433
! :I;~
untreated Cover the petri dishes with the lids.
-
Allow the petri dishes to remain in the dark at
25 ± 1°C for three days.
c:¢.;:>.:.•:.. I .
. 5. The measurement. The lengths of the sections
floated in various test solutions are measured and
A B c o
...------------, noted as L.
6. Drawing a graph. Mark LILo (Lo = original
length, i.e. 10 mm in this case) on Y axis of the graph
LILa and lAA concentrations in ppm on X axis. Join the
points to complete the graph.
1'0 ~-O:-"0':-1-~0""'1--1...L'0:----'10 Conclusion
IAA,p,pm The response of the sections is found to be
E directly proportional to the logarithm of
concentration of IAA used.
Fig. 2. Diagrammatic representation of Avena straight
growth test, A. Avena seedling, B. Cutting of
sections, C. Lo = length of freshly cut segment, D. Exercise 3
L = length of treated segments, E. graph showing
relationship between dose and response.
Purpose : Cress root inhibition test for Indole
auxins.
to 900 ml with distilled water. Warm the solution to
Materials
80°C and keep at this temperature for 5 minutes.
Cress seeds (of family Cruciferae), petri dishes,
Make up to one litre with distilled water. This stock
distilled water, IAA, ethanol, sharp blade, filter
solution gives 100 ppm concentration of lAA.
paper, pipettes, measuring cylinder, measuring
Take six test tubes marked A to F. Add 10 ml of
scale, aluminium foil, sucrose solution, etc.
2% sucrose solution to each test tube. Now do as
follows to obtain desired concentrations. Procedure
Thbe A. Add 2 ml of IAA stock solution to 18 ml The following are the major procedural steps.-
sucrose solution already present. Mix the contents 1. Seed germination. About 50 sterilized cress
thoroughly. This gives 10 ppm IAA solution. seeds are germinated by placing soaked seeds on a
Thbe B. Add 2 ml solution from tube A to 18 ml damp filter paper in a petri dish containing some
sucrose solution already present. This gives 1 ppm water. The petri dish is covered with aluminium foil
IAA solution. and placed in the dark at 25±1°C for two to five
Thbe C. Add 2 ml solution from tube B to 18 ml- days, till the roots of the seedlings are about 2-5 cm
of sucrose solution already present. This gives 0.1 long. The seedlings are then placed in various test
ppm IAA solution. solutions.
Thbe D. Add 2 ml solution from tube C to 18 of 2. Preparation of IAA solutions. Dissolve 10 mg
sucrose solution already present. This gives 0.01 of lAA in 2 JDl_of ethanol (IAA is not soluble in"
ppmIAA solution. water, hence it is first dissolved in ethanol). Dilute
""nIbe E. Add 2 ml sucrose solution to 18 ml 900 ml with distilled water. Warm the solution to
sucrose ",olution in the test tube. There is no lAA in 80°C and keep at this temperature for 5 minutes.
the tube. . Make up to one litre with distilled water. This stock
Thbe F. Add 2 ml of distilled water to 18 ml of solution gives 10 ppm concentration of IAA.
sucrose solution already present. Take five test tubes, marked A to E. Add 18 ml of
The tubes E and F act as control. sucrose solution (2%) to each of the five test tubes.
4. The treatment. Transfer solution from tubes A Now proceed as follows to prepare different IAA
!O F to similarly marked petri dishes. concentrations.
Plant Physiology: Growth [ 435
Exercise 4
10 Purpose: To study the effect of gibberellic acid
IM,ppm on plant growth.
C
Materials
Fig. 3. Diagrarrunatic representation of cress inhibition test, Pea (Pisum sativum), bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)
for Indole auxins. A. Germinating cress seeds, plants, gibberellic acid, ethanol, distilled water, a tray
B. treated and controlled seedlings (Lc = length of with sand, plastic covering for plants, etc.
controlled seedling root; Lt = length bf treated
seedling root), C. graph- showing relationship Procedure
between dose and response. 1. Sow pea seeds (preferably dwarf variety) or
bean seeds in a tray containing sand. Maintain
Thbe A Add 2 m1 of IAA stock solution to obtain the seeds in moist condition by occasionally
1 ppm IAA concentration. watering the tray.
Thbe B. Add 2 m1 of solution from tube A and 2. Cover some of the two-week old pea plants by
obtain 0.1 ppm lAA concentration. plastic covers. Spray the rest with gibberellic
Thbe C. Add 2 ml of solution from tube B and acid solution (100 mgllitre; dissolve GA in 1 to 2
obtain 0.01 ppm IAA concentration. ml of 95% ethanol and dilute to 1 litre with
Thbe D. Add 2 m1 ~f solution from tube C and water). Remove the cover and spray the
obtain 0.001 ppm IAA concentration. uncovered plants with amount of ethanol used
Thbe E. Add 2 m1 of solution from tube D and for GA preparation. (This serves as control.)
obtain 0.0001 ppm IAA concentration. Allow the plants to grow and measure the
3. The treatment. Transfer the solutions from test following periodically:
tubes A to E to similarly marked petri dishes. (a) height of plants (from soil level),
Transfer a few germinated seeds to each petri (b) length of internodes,
dish after measuring their root length (U). ( c) length of leaves and
Cover the petri dishes with lids. (d) blade width.
Allow the petri dishes to remain in the dark at Measure the above values for both - treated and
'25 ± 1°C for 48 hours. control plants.
4. Measurement. Measure lengths of roots of 3. Select 2 week old bean plants of approximately
seedlings placed in various test solutions, after the the same height. Apply following solutions of
test period. GA to the growing tip of two plants each:
5. Drawing a graph. Mark UlLc (U = length of (a) Distilled water (control),
treated seedling root at the end of test period; (b) GA lO-lM,
436 J Practical Botany .. Vol 2
Materials
Grains (caryopsis) of dwarf and normal varieties
of maize, gibberellic' acid (GA3) , distilled water,
vermiculite, enamel trays, measuring cylinder, etc,
Procedure
1. Seeds of dwarf and normal varieties of maize are
soaked in water. These are separately sown in
different enamel trays fIlled with damp
vermiculite. .
2. The seeds are allowed to grow till the first leaf
emerges.
3. Prepare the test solutions as follows. Dissolve
100 mg of GA3 in one litre distilled water. (or
proportionate amount as required). This gives
100 ppm concentration of GA3. This can be
0·001 0·01 0·' 1·0 10·0
GA ,..g/plant
used as stock solution.
4. Now for preparing lower concentrations, take 90
C
ml of distilled water and add 10 ml of stock
Fig. 4. Diagrammatic representation of dwarf maize test for solution to obtain 10 ppm concentration.
gibberellins. A. Response of normal plants to 5. Take 10 ml of 10 ppm GA3 solution as prepared
t.reatments, B. response of dwarf plants to
treatments, C. graph showing relationship. above and to it add 90 ml of distilled water in
another beaker. This gives 1 ppm concentration.
(c) GA 1O-2M, Repeat the procedure to obtain 0.1, 0.01 ppm
(d) GA 1O- 3M and concentrations of GA3.
(e) GA 10-4M~. 6. Add test material as prepared above to the cup
Allow the plants to grow for 2-3 weeks and formed by the emerging first leaf. Allow the
measure the characters given above. plants to grow for 7 days 30°C in light to observe
Tabulate'the observations. the response.
Result and conclusion Observations
Growth of Pea plants shows response to Note the observations as given below.
gibberellic acid treatment. The bean plants ~ould
exhibit effect of GA on stem tip. GA concentration Leaf sheath extension
1. Genetic dwarfism. The GA eliminates genetic (in ppm) (incm)
PLANT MOVEMENTS
I A. VlTe MOVEMENTS
" (a) Autonomic (spontaneous)
1. Movements of e.g. ciliary, a~lOeboid, cyclosis, etc.
locomotion [ locomolion
(b) Para tonic (induced) or tactic
e.g. chemotactic, phototactic, etc.
~
-" (a) Movements
of growth (ii) Paratonic
e.g. phototropic, geotropic, hydrotropic, etc.
2. Movements of
curvature (i) Autonomic
[
(b) Movements
of variation
C e.g. in Desmodium gyrens
(ii) Paratonic
e.g. nyctinasty, seismonasty, thigmonasty, etc.
B. MECHANICAL MOVEMENTS. e.g. hygroscopic movements as in opening of fern sporangia, opening of peristome in moss,
coiling and uncoiling elaters of Equisetwn spores, etc.
wooden box
openin
pot
clinostat
~j'
B
plant
root
B c
A
Fig. 3. Demonstration of phototropism.
440J Practical Botany: Vol 2
Procedure
'hanging rod
The following are major steps- 5 olvent front
1. Preparation of paper. (1) Cut chromatography
paper Whatman No. 1 into square sheets to a " moving spot
II
size which would fit in easily in the
chromatography jar (or a specimen tube). /1 oading spot
(2) Draw a pencil line 1/2 inch above the bottom of V
each sheet. ~
V ,.......solvent
2. Preparation of plates. (1) Prepare a slurry of -
-- ---------
silica gel by blending cellulose with silica gel in "'"
distilled water (10 g cellulose : 4 g silica gel : Fig. 2. Chromatography chamber.
80 ml distilled water).
(2) Another method to prepare slurry is to suspend (a) Extraction of leaf pigment: Add 50 ml of
2 g of kieselgel in lOml of distilled water. procooled acetone to leaf pulp, stir well and filter
(3) The homogeneous slurry is spread uniformly through fine linen cloth.
over the clean mcroscope slides. Allow the gel (b) Separation of chlorophylls and carotenoid
to set and to oven dry them overnight at 4Q c. 0
extracts: (1) Add 50 ml of procooded 80% acetone
3. Preparation of extract. Cut fine strips of spinach to leaf pulp to which small quantities of acid-washed
leaves, place in a clean mortar and reduce it to sand and a small amount of CaC03 is added.
pulp with pestle. There are two possible (2) Transfer the clear supernatant green coloured
methods. The first (a) is simple for the use of liquid to 10 ml of ethyl ether in a separatory
under graduate classes. funnel.
442 J Practical Botany.' Vol 2
OA
&a
Oc ~! ~\O £,-, ,
00
\
tl dry then
rotate 90'
solvent I
~
OJ
ii
B2 t:J '-J ~
.~ solvent
II
W iii
.. ~~------------~~
\ original spot \..ongm second dimension ~rigin
(3) Deposit a small amount of extract gradually on Asparagine, cystine and cyeine - brown;
the pencil dot. Proline - yellow.
(4) Hang the paper along the glass rod with dot at Determine the Rf value by following formula-
the base after spot of the extract is dry. Indentify the components by comparing results
(S) Allow the paper edge to dip in the solvent with standardised values.
(phenol) but keep the pencil mark well above Rf = distance from ongin travelled by compound
the solvent level. distance of solvent front from origin
(6) Close the chamber airtight and permit 16-18 Chromatography of anthocyanins.
hours to develop the chromatogram. Anthocyanins from Impatients balsamina flowers
(7) Remove the paper and allow it to dry. can also be separated. Exract is prepared by
(8) Mark the position of the solvent. grinding the material with 1% HCI in 9S% ethyl
(9) Now turn the paper 90° (i.e. the original spot alcohol. The solvent used for thin layer
should now be in the right hand lower corner chromatography is n-butanol- acetic acid-water (S
instead of left). : 1 : 4). For two dimensional paper chromatography
(10) Place paper in the direction in another chamber of anthocyanins use solvent I t-butanol- acetic
with n-butanol-acetic acid-water solvent. acid-water (3: 1: 1) and solvent II; 10% acetic acid.
(11) Allow to develop for 10-12 hours. The chromatogram is run as described above.
(12) Remove paper before solvent reaches its tip. Circular chromatography. (1) A disc of
(13) Dry the paper and spray uniformly with Whatman no. 1 paper is cut and radial sectors are
ninhydrin (triketohydrindene hydrate or marked.
ninhydrin 0.1 g dissolved in 100 ml of water (2) A hole is made in the centre and a wick is passed
saturated n-butanol). through it.
(14) Heat the paper at 90°C for 5 minutes. (3) A spot is placed ncar the inner edge of the
(lS) Outline the spots with pencil. sector.
(4) A 3/4 petri dish is filled with butanol-acetic
Results acid-water (4: 1: S) solvent.
Most amino acids react with spray agent to give (S) A wick is placed in the solvent and disc of paper
various colours; generally amino acids give purple with a spot extract is kept horizontally over this
colours; petri dish.
Phenylalanine, tyrosine, and aspartic acid - blue (6) The petri dish is covered by a suitable chamber
colours; Tryptophan-olive brown; or kept in a desiccator.
Appendix
1. Some Laboratory Techniques
grain or a fungal spore. For example a fungal (4) The diameter of a fungal spore would be
spore measures 2 divisions of ocular. (2 X 14.4 ,u)·28.8,u.
The length, breadth, diameter, etc. of different
structures can be measured in this way.
Fixing Agents and Preservatives decant. Add a few drops of saturated aqueous
solution of ferric acetate. Cool by keeping in
1. Carnoy's fluid
ice for at least twelve hours. Filter and store
100% ethyl alcohol 30 cc
the stock in refrigerator. For storage use
Glacial acetic acid 5 cc
dropping bottle that is dark or covered with a
Chloroform 15 cc
It is used for root tips, anthers, etc. and IS black paper.
preferred for its great penetrating power. 2. Aniline blut-
2. Formalin-Aceto-Alcohol (cotton blue, china blue, water blue)
50% or 70% ethyl alcohol 90 cc
Aniline blue 1 gm
Alcohol 90% or water 100 cc
Glacial acetic acid 5 cc
For better results stain or alcohol should be
fu~~ 5~
slightly acidifIed with hydrochloric acid.
It is popularly known as FAA and is a standard
universal fIxative. It is the most extensively used 3. Crystal violet (Gentain violet)
fIxing and killing agent. Crystal violet 1 gm
Distilled water 100 cc
3. Formalin-Propiono-Alcohol
In the preparation of FAA use propionic acid 4. Erythrosine
instead of acetic acid. The following are two recipes :
4. Randolph's modified Navashin fluid (a) Erythrosine 19m
5gm Alcohol 90% 100 cc
Solution A. Chromic acid
Glacial acetic acid 50 cc (b) Erythrosine 19m
320 cc Absolute Alcohol 5 cc
Distilled water
Solution B. Natural form~ 200 cc Clove oil 95 cc
Saponin 3gm 5. Fast green
Distilled water 175 cc TlIe following are. two recipes :
At the time of use, mix solutions A and B in (a) Fast green 0.5 gm
equal amounts. Recommended for buds, roots Alcohol 90% 100 cc
tips and similar objects. (b) Fast green 0.5 gm
5. ,,'Bouin's fluid Absolute alcohol 25 cc
Picric acid (1.5% aq. solution) 75 cc Clove oil 75 cc
Formalin 25 cc 6. Gram's iodine
Glacial acetic acid 5 cc Iodine 2gm
This fixative is more useful than those with Potassium iodide (KI) 3 cc
chromic acid. Distilled water 300 cc
Stain~
7. Hematoxylin
1. Acetocarmine It is a chromogen derived from logwood
Dissolve 1 gm of stain in 100 cc of boiling 45% Haematoxylon campechianum of Leguminosae.
acetic acid (or propionic acid). Cool and Two types of hemato~lins are commonly
Appendix [ 447
3. Laboratory Reagents
For Physiology Experiments and Microchemical Tests
Acetone. (a) 80% Acetone AR 800 ml; distilled Barium chloride. 20 gm of Barium chloride
water to make 1000 ml dissolved in 100 ml water.
(b) 80% Acetone 800 ml; distilled water to Barium hydroxide. N/10.
make 1000 ml. Ba(OH)z 12.15 gm.
Acids. Boiled and distilled water 500 ml.
Gm/ rnl required Benedict's solution. (a) Dissolve 173 gm of
Mol. wt. litre Molarity for 1000 rnl. sodium citrate and 100 gm of sodium carbonate
N soln. (NazC03) in about 600 ml of distilled water. Warm
the solution. Filter if necessary. .
HCl
HN03
36.47
63.02
. 445
989
12.2
15.7
8Z.0
63.8 (b) Dissolve 11.3 gms of cupric sulphate in
H ZS0 4 98.08 1742 17.8 28.Z about 150 ml of distilled water. Add the latter
CH 3COOH 60.03 1046 17.4 57.4 solution to the former slowly and with constant
CH3(CHOH)COOH stirring. Dilute to one litre.
90.08 103Z 11.5 87.3
Benzidine solution. Dissolve 4 gm of benzidine
Agar-Agar. Bring 1000 ml distilled water to (p - diaminodiphenyl) in 100 ml of glacial acetic
boil, add 30 gm of agar with constant stirring. Pour acid.
uniformly in petri dishes after agar has dissolved
Calcium chloride.
completely. If desire to store for more than twelve
hours, autoclave the containers with agar-agar. 1.48 gm CaCI Z added to 1000 ml water makes 0.01 M
Ammonium hydroxide. Mol. wt. 17.03%, by 14.8 gm CaCI Z added to 1000 ml water makes 0.1 M
74.0 gm CaCI Z added to 1000 ml water makes 0.5 M
weight 21.0 gm/litre 252, molarity 14.8, ml required 148.0 gm CaCI Z added to 1000 ml water makes 1.0 M
for 1000 ml N solution 67.6.
448 1 Practical Botany: Vol 2
(8-15)
Index
Alphabetical Lists
-Of Important Families And Botanical Names Of Plants Appearing In The Book.
BOTANICAL NAMES
(B-JS)