EDEXCEL IGCSE GEOGRAPHY SUMMARY® on: * Urban Environments ¢ Fragile Environments This booklet belongs to: Hasan SayginelTED NORTHERN CYPRUS COLLEGE Name and Sumame of the student Hasan Sayg rel Date: 16 199/201¢ Glass /Nuraber, 10 A Level Science Subject GEOGRAPHY Topie Urban environments-Glossary Brownfield site Land that has been used, abandoned and now awaits some new use. Commonly found in urban areas, particularly in the inner city, Business park ‘Apurpose built area of offices and warehouses, often atthe edge ofa city and ona main road. Congestion When there is too great a volume of trafic for roads to cope with, so traffic Jams form and traffic slows toa crawl Deprivation ‘When people lack what the rest of society considers ‘normal such as good housing, reasonable incomes or access to healthcare. Ethnic group ‘group of people sharing the same characteristics of race, nationality, language or religion. Greenfield site ‘plat of land, often ina rural or on the edge of an urban area that has not yet been subject to any building development. nner city “That part ofthe built-up area and close to the CBD, often characterised by old housing, poor services and brownfield sites Landuse What types of buildings / economic activities exist in an area such as residential, — retail or industrial. land value The market value ofa piece of land; what businesses or individuals are |———— Prepared to pay for it (or rent it). Mega-city ‘city with @ population exceeding 10 milion. Planner ‘A decision-maker whose job it sto decide how to use land e.g. where to build roads, or houses. Planners often decide to conserve areas such as Greenfield sites by not allowing development. Rebranding Regeneration that also tres to give an area @ new image. Rebranded areas often have names and logos eg. MediaCityUK in Salford. Retail complex A purpose built area for shopping (and often leisure), such as an out of town shopping centre or retal park, Self-help (housing) When people in shanty towns / squatter settlements gradually improve their own housing and surroundings. Often they are helped by an NGO. Shanty town ‘An area of makeshift and unsanitary housing, often occupied by squatters (no legal right to occupy). WOVE TOIS cade Your Subj Teacher Neale SARK | Head Dap Pare Tas set tedkazelibriscen ther tosme UPS eouLo0 ea |Socio-economic group ‘Agroup of people distinguished by employment, income and social characteristies such as education and family status. Social deprivation ‘The degree to which an individual or an area is deprived of services, decent housing, adequate income and local employment. ‘Suburbanisation ‘The spread of low density, often detached or semi-detached, housing around ————— the edges of a city or town. Urbanization ‘The process of becoming more urban, mainly through more and more people —— living in towns and cities. Urban regeneration —_| The revival of old parts of the built-up area by either installing modern facilities, in old buildings (known as renewal) or opting for redevelopment (ie 1 all existing buildings and starting afresh).Glossary for some Geographical Terms (Resdevelopment: Total clearance of parts of old inner city area and building new houses. (Retimaging: Changing the standing and reputation of a whole city or part of it by focusing on some new identity or function and changing the quality and appearance of the built-up area. (Rebraiiding: Regeneration that also tries to give an area a new image (Urbanilregeneration: The revival of old parts of the built-up area by either installing modern facilities in old buildings and redevelopment. (Derelictland: Land abandoned and left to fall to ruin. (Brownfieldisites: Land that has been previously used, abandoned and now awaits a new use. GFSSRFIEIASIEBS: A plot of land, often in a rural area or on the edge of an urban area that has not yet been subject to any building development. (rbahimanagers: People who make important decisions affecting urban areas, such as planners, politicians and developers. (Gentrification: Act of improving housing in inner city areas to make it more attractive to richer people.Urbanisation Urbanisation is the process of becoming more urban, mainly through more and more people living in towns and cities. It is the growth of cities both in terms of area and populatior Note: Urbanisation was (or is) a consequence of development. At present although the level of urbanisation is higher in HICs, the rate of urbanisation is higher in LICs. High rates of urbanisation occur in LICs due to: * Most new economic developments in these countries are concentrated in the big cities © Cities are experiencing high rates of natural increase in population * Pull and push factors are leading to high rates of rural-urban migration Push factors in the rural areas Pull factors in the urban areas ‘© Poor services-health/education ‘+ Employment opportunities-higher wages ‘© Shortage of employment * Better health and education services ‘= Land division Variety of services | Mechanisation of agriculture ‘Better housing conditions (?) Landlordism ‘* Better communication and transport Urbanisation processes Agglomeration: This is the concentration of people and economic activities at favourable locations such as river crossing points, estuary mouths or close to a mineral source. Suburbanisation: The outward spread of the urban area, often at lower densities compared with the older parts of a town or city. (Detached — Semindetached hovsing) Urban sprawl: Unplanned and uncontrolled spreading of urban areas towards the country side. Counterurbanisation: The movement of people and employment from major cities to smaller cities and towns as well as rural areas.Settlement Hierarchy Hamiet Isolated Buildings / Farmsteads Primate city: It is the largest city with the largest population within a country. Conurbation: A conurbation is a very large urban area formed when cities and towns join together. E.g; Greater Manchester in the UK Millionaire cities: Cities with a population of one million and over. Megacities: They are those which have population over 10 million. Reasons encouraging suburbanisation * Transport improvements mean that people can live further out but still commute into the city centre for work=*Dormitory settlements* * Building developments follow the new transport routes: new, lower- density housing promises improved living conditions Overcrowding, congestion, and rising prices in the older parts of the city cause declining quality of living conditions * The arrival of more people and new businesses to suburbsExplanation for some of the reasons for counterurbanisation The crime rate > People tend to live in safer places. They probably hear from the daily news about the crime in the city or directly encounter and decide to resettle to a safer place with a lower crime rate. Pollution in the cily, bet / > Itis not just the air or environmental pollution that is disturbing! noise and sometimes visual pollution do also create a disturbance for people. People would rather live in a peaceful place with an attractive environment. Increased car ownership (Technological Developments} > Private transport is more widely used nowadays and it is easier way of transport as you park your car wherever you want, so it is always available. Therefore, since there is no necessity for bus and train links, people are able to live away from city centres where services are concentrated. Improved transport networks (Development in transport) > The setting up of motorways, underground metro links and many other means of transport lessened the time spent travelling and therefore made it possible to live away from city centres. Changing standards of living/increasing affluence > The living standards of people have risen and it is relatively high in HICs. High-income people may wish to have a house with large garden (with a pool) which would be located at a place with an attractive environment. It is not possible to find such a place in the city. So, these people move out of the city to the urban fringe and settle down there. Reasons for the growth of megacities © Rapid economic growth Economies of scale ¢ Rapid population growth © Multiplier effectGlobal/World Cities These cities are recognised worldwide as the places of great prestige, status, power and influence and all of these are critical hubs in the growing global economy. The problems of rapid urbanisation in LICs 1-Housing Problem Many urban dwellers either cannot afford or find accommodation satisfying their basic necessities. Consequently, they are faced with three alternatives which are: To sleep on the pavements or in public places; to rent a single room if they have some resources; to build themselves a shelter on land, which they do not own and on which they have no permission to build. Most of them prefer to set up homes in illegal shanty towns which usually lack the basic infra- structure and services. 2-Pollution and Health © Drinking water is often contaminated with sewage which leads to waterborne disease such as typhoid, cholera to spread. © The uncollected rubbish is an ideal breeding ground for disease. © There are few regulations on the local industry about pollution. They are rarely subjected to pollution controls so they discharge their waste into the air or rivers. Unemployment Migrants coming from rural areas are in search of job. However, most of the time, they are unskilled so that the jobs available for them are limited. Also, they are high in number and the jobs available do not meet them. Many are therefore unemployed or working in the informal sector. Most of these people are underemployed and live at a subsistence level.4-Transport and Congestior Governments of LICs cannot afford to set elaborate transport systems which would cope with the volume of traffic. As a result, the ones in presence are overloaded and overcrowded. So no matter if anybody is rich or poor, traffic congestion is a major problem for everyone. In addition, the numbers of vehicles cause high levels of atmospheric pollution. 5-Social unrest and Crime * People suffer stress-related illnesses. * People suffer high crime rates. © Drug trafficking and theft as well as gangs are obvious. Problems of urbanisation in HICs 1-Traffic congestion * Worsens as more people come to urban areas as many people commute. * The fact that the roads in the centres are old and narrow. 2-Housing problem * There is a greater demand for housing. People in HICs prefer to get married later and live in single houses. They also live longer. * Building new, affordable houses in urban areas is difficult. Land values are very high and land isa short supply. 3-Pollution * The major pollution seen in urban areas is air pollution or smog. * The fumes given off by traffic and industry mainly cause this pollution. * Poor air quality can lead to an increase in the cases of respiratory illnesses such as asthma and bronchitis.Possible solutions for problems of urbanisation 1-Housing problem * Redevelopment of brownfield sites * Development of greenfield sites but this can cause conflict with local people and create environmental problems ‘Traffic congestion (traffic management schemes] Park and ride schemes © Cycle lanes 1—> Done in the UK - London © Congestion charging * Car pooling to encourage people to share cars}—> Done in the USA * Set regulations about the levels of pollution * Reduce the burning of the fossil fuels Urban sprawl Urban sprawl is the rapid outgrowth of cities towards the countryside. Urban sprawl is a problem brought by urbanisation. * After the Second World War the British government introduced the idea of greenbelts to stop or reduce this process. Greenbelts: Greenbelts around the major cities are areas where construction is restricted. Purposes of green belts: > To check unrestricted sprawl of large built-up areas > To prevent neighbouring towns from merging into one another v To preserve the setting and special character of historic townsY In addition, New Towns or Garden Cities were set which are cities where people would live and work hout commuting to a major city. This would have reduced urban sprawl. However, most of these towns turned about to. be dormitory settlements. Counterurbanisation Reasons for counterurbanisation © Overcrowded city * Technological developments © City-more expensive-higher rents Higher crime rates * Pollution in the city * Development in transport © Congestion and traffic jams Higher standard of living Impacts of counterurbanisation on rural areas Population increases but most newcomers are commuters. New buildings constructed may not be in harmony with the old housing style of the rural area. Farming land is lost. Impacts of counterurbanisation on urban areas * Releases population pressure on the local housing. Reduces traffic congestion. * Slows down urban sprawl. Inequalities in urban areas Inequalities exist in all urban areas. Inequality means extreme differences between poverty and wealth, as well as in people’s well-being and access to things like jobs, housing and education. Inequalities may occur in: © Provision of houses * Access to open land © Access to services © Safety and security Note: Most of the time the inner city is of low quality as this is the zone of older housing and declining industry.Urban Zone | Location and appearance _| Land use characteristics _ ‘CBD -City centre ea -Old buildings -Tall buildings including skyscrapers _| -Company offices, banks “High bi open space ing density with little Places of entertainment such as theatres inner. “Around the edge of city centre Factories and warehouses -Unattractive, run-down appearance with many old buildings made worse by vandalism and graffiti -Residential-often terraced houses and high-flats Universities and hospitals Inner ring roads -Small shopping centres ~All the outer areas up to the edge of built-up area -Residential-mostly semidetached or detached housing -Generally smarter appearance in outer suburbs -Some areas of open space Small shopping centres selling everyday goods Url “Countryside meets with the urban area “Farmland lost as the urban sprawl continues outwards The segregation of urban land uses As the big-rent theory suggests, land at the city centre is the most expensive for two main reasons: it is the most accessible land and there is only small amount of it available. Although it is not always valid, mostly as distance increases from the city centre and commercial accessibility declines, land prices decrease. The centre is the peak land-value intersection. Businesses locate according to their budgets and locational needs and this as a result leads to what is known as the segregation of urban land. Similar activities or land uses come together because: They have the same locational needs. They can afford the same general level of land values. There are two different models suggesting patterns for urban land uses and these are: * Concentric Zone Model of Burgess * Sector Model of HoytConcentric Zone Model of Burgess According to this model different land use around a CBD are arranged as concentric zones. > Old industrial buildings and low cost housing surrounds CBD. > Medium cost housing surrounds low cost housing. > High cost housing surrounds medium cost housing. This model assumes that settlement is sited on a uniform plain with the same ease of transport in all directions. During industrialization factories were set up just outside the CBD so workers settled there to terraced houses. People, with higher incomes could afford to travel greater distances to work and shops. Therefore, they settled further way. In time, a segregation of land uses developed as concentric zones. Sector Model of Hoyt This model takes into account that settlements grow in time. Each land use is arranged as a sector around the CBD and continues to grow in that sector. Transport routes are important in the growth of these sectors.In High Income Countries (HICs) In Low Income Countries (LICs) High cost housing at the edge of the city Low cost housing at the edge of the city Run-down, very old housing in inner city Near the CBD, in the inner city, high cost housing. The segregation of people in cities People especially migrants become segregated according to their social class, type of occupation, ethnicity and personal wealth. The most obvious sign for this is the ghettos that are to be found in many cities. A ghetto is an area where an ethnic minority is concentrated and is the dominant population group. Factors favouring ghettos Internal Factors: Providing mutual support -Encouraging friendships and marriages to preserve their culture -Providing protection against any attacks from major population Poli | power -Speaking in their native language External Factors: -Migration of the majority population out of an area leaving it to be occupied Discrimination in the job market, unemployed, forced to live in areas of cheap housing -Discrimination by house sellers Social unfriendliness from the majority population -Racially motivated violence against ethnic minoritiesShanty Towns Shanty towns are housing areas of the poor people in LICs. They are usually located at the edge of the cities. They are areas of makeshift housing where houses are built using scrap materials. Shanties have no proper infrastructure or services. People migrating into the cities from rural areas to urban areas live in the shanties. This is because there are not adequate houses for everyone moving and also they cannot afford the rents of reasonable housing. Urban Fringe of HICs Push and pull factors of the urban fringe: Push factors of the inner parts of the city: Housing is too cramped, old and expensive © Businesses cannot afford the space to expand * Pollution, congestion and social problems Pull factors of the urban fringe: © Land is cheaper so new houses can be bigger Plenty of space for businesses to expand * Roads are less busy, air is fresher, social problems less obvious Reasons for out-of-town retail parks and other developments © Better accessi ity due to the advances in transport © Large car parking space © Serves more than a town or city © Cheap land * Room for expansionThe greenfield versus brownfield debate Inner City Decline ‘© The region surrounding the CBD is known as the inner city or twilight zone. The region is characterized with old industrial buildings and housing areas of the industrial workers. © The inner city areas of the British cities have gone into a cycle of regional decline after the Second World War. Causes of decline were: * Decline of the traditional industries such as textiles and iron and steel leading to unemployment of many people and abandoned industrial plants * Decline in trade due to competition with other countries resulting in the closure of shipyards and docklands. This also increased the unemployment rate. * Growth of outer city industrial estates © Lack of amenities in old inner city housing * New, attractive, suburban residential areas Indicators of deprivation © Poor housing (slums) © Unattractive living environment (graffiti, litter, vandalism) Poor quality services (shops, parks, schools, etc) Unemployment, poor educational achievement * Crime and anti-social behaviourGovernment policies for the inner cities involve the following aims: ‘© To improve housing conditions. ‘© To bring land and buildings back into use. © To improve the quality of the environment. © To attract new industries and private sector investment. * To increase job opportunities in the inner city. Changing fortunes of the inner cityUrban Rebranding processSao Paulo (Brazil) Sao Paulo is Brazil's largest city and 20% of the population live in shanty towns. It therefore has many shanties, some of which are over 40 years old. Most of the improvements are seen in these shanties. Improvements include the provision of basic facilities such as water and electricity. Community groups and neighbourhood associations developed which persuaded the government to help them reduce the crime rated by providing basic amenities to the shanties. Self-help schemes were introduced to improve the housing conditions in the shanties, where the government and local authorities provided the building materials whilst work force was provided by the shanty town dwellers. Furthermore, in some favelas, help has been made available so residents can get legal rights over their homes and land. This means that they are more secure and sell and buy land. There are also schemes to lend small sums of money to people running businesses in favelas via microlending. People may apply for microcredits for their investments. Of course a vast amount of money was required for these improvements that was provided by the Brazilian government and the World Bank.Southampton’s rural-urban fringe southampton was confined to a peninsula. However, the built-up area spilled over to the east of the neighbouring river Itchen. After the Second World War, the area has been held back by a green belt. As a result of development, people mainly workers migrated to this city, but there was no room for building houses for them. This resulted in the setting up of new towns which turned out to be commuter dormitories. Southampton has excellent motorway links such as M3, M27, M271 that run through the green belt. It also has a thriving port. Despite the restrictions of development in green belts, a few developments have been allowed on greenfield land to take the advantage of the excellent transport links. These developments were: Nursling industrial Park: It is located beside the M271 and it mainly has distribution and storage services. * Southampton Science Park: It is located near the M3 and it benefits from access to R&D at Southampton University. * Hedge End Retail Park: It is located close to the M27 and it is one of the largest out-of-town retail parks in the south of England. Adanac Business Park: It is located next to M271 and it has modern business facilities and landscaped grounds. The park is earmarked for major office developments and large space occupiers like the Ordnance Survey.Re-imaging Bradford Bradford in West Yorkshire, England with a population of around 500,000 is one of the largest cities in the UK. Its growth was based on the textile industry, particularly wool, but this industry collapsed during the second half of the 20th century. This was largely due to the invention of new synthetic fabrics. After deindustrialisation, Bradford City Council has been forced to find new economic activities to support the city, and find new uses for land that was once occupied by the woollen industry. They should also have shaken off the old image of the rundown scenery of the closed woollen mills, giving a new image to the city. Bradford has done well in building up a new economy. It has now some modern engineering, chemicals and ICT industries. It has also developed a leisure and tourism industry by turning its industrial heritage into tourist attractions. Mills that still stand have been transformed into museums, galleries and some other things. Other abandoned buildings have undergone regeneration too. Some were demolished and the resulting brownfield sites were filled with offices, flats or shopping centres. From this urban regeneration, a re-imaged Bradford has emerged. HK Clowe of the factories reaclled in high employment poverty ord social vnvesk Many cbandow! facteiey and wachate os well a3 Woollen mills became derelict volesZomba (Malawi) Zomba is a city located at the African state of Malawi in central Africa. It had been a British colonial capital for years. It is now independent and replaced by Lilongwe as the capital city. The city is best known for its British architectural structure. In the centre of Zomba was the Governor's residence, the army barracks and the Gymkana Club with its polo field and huge park. The CBD lies to the south and is the most accessible part of the city where main roads meet. Factories are mainly concentrated in two locations. They are located along the main road leading to the airport and the other close to the CBD. The rest of built-up area is occupied by housing. Three classes of residential are may be distinguished: High-class residential areas: These are located mainly in the inner city around the CBD. These areas date back to the colonial times. Consequently, it has the infrastructure such as water, sewerage and electricity. This pattern is the opposite to that find in HIC cities where the inner city tends to house the poor. Middle-class residential areas: These surround the high-class residential areas. Many of these started out as low-class housing and in time they have been upgraded and prowided with some basic amenities. Low-class residential areas: They ave found on the lower land where thee ts 0 risk of flooding. These ove essentially shanty tons RAree close to the CBD —> prone to flood avsided by viban developmentTED NORTHERN CYPRUS COLLEGE Name and Saran othe Sent Hasen Sayginel pate: O5/01f 2015 as Reber TOA Lave Rand SRE sae GEOGRAPHY Tore Topic 7 — Fragile environments ‘Adaptation (global Changing lifestyles and economic activity to suit a different climate, such as farming warming) different crops or installing air conditioning. ‘Agro-forestry Combining agriculture and forestry, as in the planting of windbreaks in areas suffering from wind erosion or growing trees for fue. | Deforestation The feling and clearance of forested land by humans 3 | Desertification The spread of desert-like conditions into semi-arid areas. + [Droushe ‘long, continuous period of dry weather (below average rainfall | Famine {A widespread, serious, shortage of food. Inthe worst cases it can lead to starvation and even death Global warming ‘slow but significant rie in the Earth’s temperature, it may be caused by the build up of excessive amounts of carbon dioxide inthe atmosphere which increase the areenhouse effec. Greenhouse effect | The warming ofthe Earth’ atmosphere because pollution is preventing heat from (enhanced) Malnutrition When people lacka balanced, sufficient diet. Often malnourished people never get quite enough food and /or lack key nutrients, Migration When people move from one area to another. The United Nations defines migration as moving for more than 1 yer. Orbital changes (Changes in the way the earths orbits the sun, on very long timescale, which can change the earth's climate, 9k | overgrazing Putting too many animals on grazing land so that the vegetation cover is gradually destroyed, eww eduzevbris.com Population pressure | When there are too many people for the resources (water, farmiand) of an area to support: Solar output Changes in the energy emitted by the sun (seen as changing sunspots of the sun's surface) which can alter earth's climate 2K | soil erosion The removal of soil by wind and water and by the movement of soil down slope. 2 | sustainability ‘Actions that minimize the negative impacts on the environment eg. pollution and promote human wellbeing "DUE TOS Aeatomic Year Subject Teacher: Naat SAKA Head of Deparing Parents Ta ] ‘iter Bosna FOT100Fragile Environments Fragile Environments:A term used to describe those natural environments that are sensitive to, and easily abused by human activities. There is a delicate balance between living and non-living parts in the world. This balance is easily upset by natural hazards but it has recovered in most cases. For thousands of years, however, humans have been making use of environmental resources to provide food, fuel and building materials. They have done so without causing much damage to the environment. However, it is the growth of the world’s population that today most threatens to disturb the fragile balance of environment. Three processes are responsible for making environments more fragile: © Soil erosion © Desertification © Deforestation These three processes are also linked to the important issue of global warming, and climate change. They are both causes and consequences of climate change. Sustainability:Actions that meet the needs of the present without reducing the ability of future generations to meet their needs. Ecological footprint:A measure of the mark we humans make on the natural world. Factors affecting the ecological footprint: > Rate of population growth > Level of consumption of resources per person > Type of technology Soil erosion Soil erosion is the removal of topsoil by the action of rain or wind. A result of soil erosion is that the fertility of the remaining soil is greatly reduced. Soil erosion is a natural process, but it is made worse by people. There are three main types of soil erosion:* Sheet erosion:Moderate rainfall removes topsoil from bare soil slopes. * Gully erosion:Intense rainfall cuts gullies in the slopes where there is little vegetation cover. This type of erosion start as rill erosion and in time small rills join to form gullies. * Wind erosion:In dry conditions, loose dry soil is blown away. Soil erosion is made more rapid and severe where there is misuse of land. Activities that cause problems include: > Removing vegetation by cutting down trees and bushes for fuel or to make way for more farmland. As a result, the soil is exposed to the wind and rain > Overgrazing by animals, the soil is left bare > Overcultivating the soil by failing to feed it with fertilisers or by growing the same crop in the same field year after year. This monoculture weakens the soil structure and removes vital minerals from the soil. The net result is that, crops will fail and the soil will be left exposed to the forces of erosion. > Compacting the soil by the use of heavy machinery. This reduces the rate at which rainwater is able to infiltrate the soil. So much of the rainwater flows across the soil surface and erodes the soil as it does so. > Ploughing fields in the same direction as the slope. This readily encourages gullying. Desertification Desertification is the spread of desert-like conditions into semi-arid areas. Desertification is a natural process and its natural causes include: > Changing rainfall patterns: Rainfall has become less predictable over the past 50 years and the occasional drought year has sometimes extended t become several years. > Soil erosion: The removal of soil means less support for the vegetation. > Intensity of rainfall: When rain does fall it is often very short, intense periods. This makes the rain difficult for the soil to capture and store; so water resources become less. Desertification is made worse by human activity. The main human causes of desertification are: * Population growth: rapid population increase puts more pressure on the land to grow more food. © Overgrazing: Too many animals can destroy vegetation.* Overcultivation: Intensive use of marginal land exhausts the soil and crops will not grow. * Deforestation: Trees are cut down for fuel, fencing and housing. The roots no longer bind the soil, leading to soil erosion.g Consequences and Management of soil erosion Consequences The consequences of soil erosion are all negative: © Loss of farmland * Reduction in food production ,and therefore: > Malnutrition: the lack of a proper diet exposes people to all sorts of disease. The mortality rate is raised. > Famine and starvation: If food shortages persist, then famine and starvation follow. The mortality rate is raised even higher. > Migration: There comes a time when people have to migrate or stay put and die. They move to a place that is free from soil erosion or they migrate to urban areas. > Food aid: If famine and starvation are at a large scale, there is a chance of receiving international food aid. Management Management of soil erosion is all about preventing further erosion from happening. This is done by: Planting trees and shrubs can reduce wind speeds to reduce wind erosion. Terracing and contour-ploughing reduces soil erosion down slopes. Increasing vegetation cover and mulching soil prevents it from heavy rain. Small dams in streams or existing gullies can reduce the speed of water and reduce water erosion. Building lines of stones or earth walls along contours reduces run off and helps keep more water in the soil. > Organic farming: Organic farming uses animal manure and manure crops to keep the soil fertile and well structured. > Permaculture: Permaculture mixes food and tree crops, which ensures the ground surface is well covered. vvvv vDeforestation Deforestation is the felling and clearing of forested lands by humans. These are the causes of deforestation: > Commercial logging/timber extraction: Only valuable trees are chopped but as they fall, they damage other trees. Even more damage is caused by clear-felling, where other trees are also chopped down and chipped for pulp. > Road building: Roads have been built through rain forests to enable minerals, timber, cattle and crops to be moved easily. Roads also bring in new settlers who clear areas for farming. > Land for peasants: Land allows peasants to grow their own food and the wood that is cut down provides them with fuel. It stops overcrowding in other parts of the country. > Agriculture: Areas of tropical rain forest have been cleared for plantations growing a single crop such as rubber or coffee. Plants and grassland are grown which huge herds of cattle graze on for a few years before another area is cleared for seeding with grass. > Mining: Large areas of forest are cleared for the open-cast mining of minerals such as iron, gold and copper. >» HEP: Rivers are damned and huge areas of forest are flooded as a result. These are the consequences of deforestation: > Countries such as Brazil have gained economically from exploiting the goods and services of the rainforest, in the same ways that HICs benefitted from clearing their forests over the centuries. > Biodiversity is lost as habitats for animals, birds and insects are destroyed. A wide variety of medicinal plants are also lost. > Forests absorb carbon dioxide from the air and deforestation means this doesn’t happen. So deforestation is contributing to the build-up of greenhouse gases. Slash and burn method release CO, to the atmosphere. Roads open up more areas of the rainforest for further development. When loggers take the valuable hardwood trees from the forest, they also clear all the other trees to make it easier to get the timber out of the area. vvv> Open-cast mining destroys large areas of forests (leaving scars) and pollutes rivers. > Leaching: Removing the trees leaves the soil bare; rainfall easily washes away the nutrients. » Native tribes — they are forced into smaller and smaller areas causing them to clear patches of land before the land has fully recovered. Managing rainforests in a sustainable way The sustainable management of forests can be achieved by: > Protection of forests: In some countries areas of forest are conserved. and protected as national parks where none or very little development is taking place. » Carefully planned and controlled logging in forests. » Selective logging of only those trees that are valuable, leaving the rest of the forest untouched. » Replanting of forested areas that have been felled. » Restrictions on the number of logging licences given to reduce the amount of forest loss. » Heli-logging: Helicopters are used to remove the logs because less damage is done to the remaining forest. > Developing alternative energy supplies to reduce the amount of wood needed for fuel. » Agroforestr ombining crops and trees together on the same land. > Substitution: Finding alternative sources for the resources being taken out of the rainforest. Causes of global warming and climate change Global warming is the slow but significant rise in the Earth’s temperature. On average, global land temperatures are 1°C higher now than they were at the end of the nineteenth century. Natural causes of climate change Orbit wobbles ‘Sun output changes eee Volcanoes Ocean current changesGreenhouse gases Greenhouse gas | Sources Carbon dioxide _| Released when fossil fuels and fuel wood are burnt Methane Decay of organic matter | Nitrous oxides _| Burning of fossil fuels and use of artificial fertilisers | CFCs Gases released via coolants Greenhouse effect Shortwave radiation from the Sun passes through the atmosphere. The Earth’s surface is warmed up. It starts to reradiate heat. Radiation from the Earth is longwave infrared radiation. While some heat is lost into space, most are trapped by the greenhouse gases and reflected back. Heat is retained in the atmosphere. This is known as the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse effect is a natural necessary event. It maintains life on Earth. However, now the levels of greenhouse gases are so high that an enhanced greenhouse effect is occurring which is leading to global warming. Enhanced greenhouse effect: The warming of the Earth’s atmosphere because pollution is preventing heat escaping into space. Consequences of global warming and climate change © Sea levels will rise as a result of rising temperature. This is because of the melting of ice in the poles of the Earth and also the shrinking of major glaciers such as in Greenland. Vast quantities of meltwater is release by the melting of these stores. The sea level already rose by 0.2 m during the last century. The sea level is predicted to rise up to 1-2 m by the end of this century. Due to a 1m rise in sea levels, major coastal cities will lose their coasts. The value of property that would be lost is really high. Miami is an example for a threatened city. There would also be massive volumes of migration. Migration as well as coastal submergence would have a devastating impact on the economies of many countries such as the USA. * More hazards are likely to happen. Tornadoes, heatwaves, droughts and cold snaps are likely to increase in frequency and intensity. Since seas and oceans will also be warmed, more intense and more frequent tropical storms are likely to occur too.* Ecosystems will be subject to rapid change. Plants and animals may not have enough time to get adapted. Global warming may lead to extinction of many species. Main areas in danger are coral reefs, coniferous and tropical forests, grasslands and wetlands. © There will be some economic benefits, although these will be few in number. Climate change will allow farming to be pushed further towards the poles and to higher altitudes. Crop yields are likely to increase in Northern Europe and North America. However, crop yields will fall even further in Africa in the Sahel region, for example. © Agreater proportion of the world’s population will be at risk from insect borne and water borne diseases. * Global warming is expected to increase food insecurity and water insecurity. They could easily lead to conflict due to scarcity. Managing the causes of global warming and climate change Ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions would include: * Reduce our use of fossil fuels « Find alternative energy sources to replace fossil fuels Reduce deforestation and increase afforestation * Develop carbon capture techniques Adapting to global warming and climate change Rising sea levels: either have to build defences or move inland More hazards: improve the ability to predict and prepare for them Ecosystem changes: Open up new areas for development Health: improve medical treatment of those diseases that are likely to spread ‘* Conflict: international cooperation to defuse conflicts over scarce resourcesDesertification of Sahel, Africa Sahel is the area south of the Sahara Desert stretching the width of the continent where savannah climate is seen. It has a semi-arid climate and the temperatures are always hot. There is a long dry season and total precipitation is just enough for grasses as well as some trees and shrubs to grow. (Vegetation cover changes as moved from the equator towards the Sahara Desert. The south of the Sahel has more trees as it is closer to the tropical rainforests but the north of it is close to the desert so there is only a thin grass cover. This region is under the threat of desertification.) As the rainfall is seasonal and unpredictable there are nomadic herders in the Sahel who continuously move from place to place in search of water and grass for grazing. Due to climate change much less rain has fallen for a period and this exhausted the landscape making it more like a desert. This happened mainly due to overgrazing. For a period, in the past however, water was plentiful and livestock as well as crops did well. Then there was an increase in population which has put more stress on the environment. It was possibly this that was responsible for the climate becoming drier. Soil was left bare in time and soil erosion occurred. Crop failures started and millions of animals died. Migration of people started due to starvation to less arid areas. To reduce desertification, a technique was used in Burkina Faso. Small stone walls were built following the slope of the land which then act as dams when the rain falls, stopping surface water run-off and allowing water to filtrate into the soil. This inexpensive method can increase crop yields by 50%.Drought in Chad (en LEDC) Physical reasons for drought in Chad Chad is @ country that is basically split into two. The northern part is in the Sahara Desert and only has about 1180 millimetres of rain a year. The southern partis in the Sahel and is semidesert. About 80% of the population lives In the south and depends on subsistence farming and livestock rearing, Less than 3% of the land is arable, The mean annual rainfall at Ati is only 393 millimetres (nearly all of which falls in July and August). Because the ‘ain falls in the summer months, the high temperature evaporates a lot of it before it can sink into the soil or reach the water table. In the many years between 1970 ‘and 1983 with below average rainfall, Lake Chad shrank enormously and the area was thrown into crisis. Crops failed, pastures died and water supplies dried up leading, to insufficient food and water for the people and their ‘animals. There was widespread malnutrition in the country. Human activities that make the effect of drought more severe ‘Two important factors that contributed to the drought problems in Chad were that, during the previous wetter- than-average years, there was rapid human population growth, plus an increase in livestock numbers of about 35%. When the drought started, there was no longer enough pasture for the animals. The result of this lack of pasture ‘was overgrazing, which removed the remaining grass and ‘exposed the soll. With no roots to hold It in place, the soll was easily blown away. The soll erosion was worsened by the soil's dryness ~ dry soil is lighter than wet soil and more easily removed. The overgrazing also led to less. ‘humus ending up in the soil (humus is decayed vegetation, Which helps soil particles to stick together). The reduction in humus caused the soil structure to break down, so it ‘crumbied into individual particles that were lighter and ‘more easily blown away. Chad's human population growth led to an increasing ‘amount of woody vegetation being removed for use as ‘firewood ~ again leaving the soll more exposed to Desenr, Senare Moen Desert © Weather station BD hetugoes 2m tsomyer (men wind erosion. The water table also fell, because Of the lack of rain filtering down to replenish it - ‘and because the higher population was drawing more water from the boreholes for themselves. ‘end their animals. Overcultivation is another result S250 a 2) ont ~~~ 500---= =" cera sAWeEL Sane area in Chad 2> Fig. 7.52 The division of Chad between desert and semi-desert of population growth. It leads to soll exhaustion, where the nutrients are removed until all fertility is lost. Desertifeation occurred in Chad much more quichly than would have happened had the carrying capacity of the land for both vestock and humane not been exceeded. Te grass would stl have died in the long drought. but might - overtime - have been replaced by more drought resistant vegetation (and the soll erosion might not have been so severe). But, once the soilhas gone, the recovery of the vogetation becomes almost impossible. °2008 had below-average rainfall and, in 2009, the cereal harvests failed because of insutficient rainfall again. This {allure of the rains and the crops resulted in widespread malnutrition and the loss of over 30% of livestock (780 000 cattle died). Over half of Chad's children suffered from chronic malnutrition (leading to an inability to fight off disease). The child mortality rate was very high. Over 2 million people were affected by the drought and crop failure. Even though the 2010 harvest was good (because adequate rains fell), food aid was still expected to be needed in 2011. > Sustainable farming There re ways in which desertifcation canbe stopped and even reversed, The folowing examples have ll been tried succesfull inthe Sahel Reducing the number of farm animals. This stops overgrazingand allows the protective vegetation grow back Growing crops a wel as keeping animals. The animal ‘manure i used to fertile the sol and help the eps to gon. Planting more tees to protect the sol fom wind and tain, The tre rots help to hold the soll together and > prevent eresion @) Bung arth dams to colect and store water nthe wet season. The stored wate is then used to irate gainae anystion — Done in Bute ‘The work of ald agencies The efforts of aid agencies in Chad have been hampered by 2 certain amount of lawlessness in the country, and the fact thatthe problems continue to increase in scale. Chad's population has continued to grow. By 2024, it had reached 10.76 million, which is almost five times larger than it was in 1950. It is still increasing by 2% @ year (there are high death and infant mortality rates, but an ‘even higher birth rate). Between 2003 and 2011, about 340 000 refugees entered Chad (mainly trom Sudan) This put extra strain on Chad's already stretched resources, There are also about 700 000 internal refugees in the country, because of fighting between government and ‘opposition forces, ‘The United Nations Refugee Agency has been working to stop desertification by: planting young trees, including woodland trees ilike ‘cacia) and fruit trees (like mango) 449) orovicing the people with firewood, to prevent the ‘Skisting W605 and shrubs from being cut down *Ox rewoog in We TST PIB A sustainable strategy to protect water resources has also been developed. It is planned to replace electric pumps with manual ones, which are cheaper to maintain. Wells have been dug in dry river beds, to preserve the water in the aquifer beneath the water table deep in the rocks. Lake Chad Lake Chad is shallow, so a decrease in rainfall quickly reduces its size. It shrank from 25 000 km? in size to ‘about 8000 km?, partly because of the drought years and partly because more water was being removed for crop Inigation. Between 2009 and 2014 it increased in size ‘again.Amazon Rainforest and Causes of Deforestation The tropical rainforest of Brazil's Amazon region is the largest of its kind in the world, however since the early 1970s it has being deforested on a large scale. There are many tree species, some of which are in great demand. These include mahogany and teak. For centuries the Amazon rainforest has been inhabited by groups of Amerindians. These do hunting and a type of farming called slash and burn. Slash and burn is the clearing of small patches in the forest by burning the trees. The ash is then spread to the soil to increase its fertility for farming. After a few years, Amerindians move to another place. Therefore, they are also known as shifting cultivators. The Amerindians do no long-term damage to the forest and their use of the forest's resources is sustainable. Recent human activity in the rainforest has been much more devastating. Large-scale deforestation has taken place for a variety of reasons. © Mining is one reason which is done in relation with the Great Carajas Project in the Amazon Basin. Amazon is rich with its ores and the EU is funding the projects of mining for iron, aluminium, copper and so on. Road building like the Trans-Amazonian Highway is another reason. Trees are also cut down to open space for new settlements and small farms to house migrants from the cities. © Moreover, deforestation occurs because of logging for timber exports, for example teak and mahogany in the Amazon Basin. © Huge cattle ranches to provide large companies with meat are another reason for cutting down trees to open space. « Plants are sometimes extracted for their medicinal value. Reservoirs and dams for a number of hydroelectric power schemes leaves trees under water. These include Itaipu, Tucurui and Xingu complex.Amazon Rainforest and Consequences of Deforestation Cutting down trees on a large scale, that is deforestation, has become a serious issue for the Amazon Rainforest since the early 1970s with many consequences. Although trees are cut for beneficial purposes, this large-scale clearing of forested areas has drawbacks to both local and global environment. Brazil takes the advantage of having the Amazon rainforest. Amazon rainforest is not only rich with its biomass but also with its ores. The government in relation with other organizations cut down demanded trees like mahogany and teak, and also do mining to obtain the revenue. This plays an important role in the economy of a such LIC. However, deforestation has serious drawbacks. Firstly, there is the loss of biodiversity due to selective logging taking place in the area. Clearfelling is even worse in which no matter the species of the tree, they are all cut down. Soil is left bare and is therefore vulnerable to leaching and soil erosion. Soil eventually loses its fertility and it is also washed or blown away which is much worse. Desertification occurs in time due to these. Mining, on the other hand, is typically open-cast, and destroys large areas of vegetation leaving scars. It also pollutes rivers. Some of the rivers in the Amazon are polluted with Mercury which is highly toxic. Furthermore, roads have opened up the Amazon, allowing easier access and encouraging uncontrolled development which leads to uncontrolled development. Since trees are associated with carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere, deforestation is likely to encourage global warming. One social consequence of deforestation is the encroachment of the lands of indigenous people. These people have less space to do their hunting and farming. This may result in conflicts. In conclusion, deforestation is necessary, yet it creates serious problems.Sustainable Management of Forests in Malaysia Malaysia has been rapidly deforesting its forests. However, its logging policies have dramatically improved since the pre-1980s. The Malaysian government and the timber industry have tried to make forestry more sustainable by various ways. Authorities ensure that logging companies only use selective cutting methods and they do not cut more trees per hectare than they are allowed to. Companies employing clearfelling methods do not get their license renewed. Moreover, the use of bulldozers and heavy destructive machinery are restricted. Some of the forest areas are protected as national parks. 14 per cent of peninsular Malaysia's forest is protected from development. Furthermore, helilogging which is the logging of trees using helicopters is used, although it is a very expensive method of removing logs from the forest. Yet, helilogging is far less destructive to the rainforest ecosystem as many trees do not need o be cut for machinery to be able to reach the trees to be cut and the logs to be carried back. In addition, three particular projects are being implemented through the Community Forestry Development scheme. These include village forestry, urban forestry and forest recreation. Village forestry is the project which encourages the planting of traditional fruit trees to ensure a sustained food supply for local people. Urban forestry is the scheme where trees are planted alongside the main roads and in open spaces to stabilise temperatures, create shade and soil erosion. Finally, forest recreation is simply replanting of trees to forested areas. All of these are the methods in Malaysia that aimed sustainable forestry.Flooding in Bangladesh Much of Bangladesh is one huge flood plain and delta formed by the confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna Rivers. Nearly three quarters of the country lies less than 10 metres above sea level. Therefore, this country frequently faces floods and the situation is exacerbated by global warming. Global warming in relation with climate change is likely to be a problem to Bangladesh. Although river flooding is already bad in Bangladesh, it would get worse because of heavier rain and sea level rise. Tropical storms could also become even more frequent, and could move further inland, doing more damage to homes, lives and infrastructure. On the other hand, the dry season is already getting longer and this could cause droughts. Apart from these environmental problems, there are some economic and social problems. More river flooding and more intense tropical storms would mean more damage to people’s homes, more sickness and more disruption to lives and the economy. Furthermore, even a small rise in sea level could massively reduce Bangladesh’s farmland and economic agricultural output. Yet, Bangladesh has a very large and fast-growing population and many are farmers who need land to work. Shrimp farming, for example, is an important form of aquaculture in Bangladesh, but due to rising sea levels, it is being damaged. One last economic problem caused by global warming and increasing flooding is the cost of protecting settlements from flooding which is not affordable by the citizens or the government. In conclusion, global warming is exacerbating the bad situation of Bangladesh.The Challenge of International Cooperation over Carbon Emissions The first step taken in international cooperation to cut greenhouse gases was taken in the Montreal Protocol of 1987. This aimed to cut down the emissions of CFCs which result in the depletion of the ozone-layer. CFCs have been gradually replaced with less harmful substances and the problem was solved. This raised hopes for further agreements on the emissions of other greenhouse gases. In 1997, a summit was held in Kyoto, Japan and a treaty was set to cut down emissions of carbon dioxide. The Kyoto Protocol required countries cutting down on their emissions by at least 5% by 2012. However, only 38 counties signed and very few met their targets. Sweden is an exception that has already managed to cut its emissions by 10%. Kyoto also set up a Clean Development Mechanism. Countries that beat their emissions targets gets carbon credits that they can sell to other countries. Countries that help poorer countries beat emission targets also get credits. Unfortunately, the agreement would not work if all the big industrial countries agree. Yet, the USA, China and India did not sign up although between them, they nearly account for the half of all global emissions. They blame each other or LICs for excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. After the Kyoto Protocol, another conference was held in Copenhagen in 2009. Copenhagen Accord was a new agreement that softened the terms of Kyoto. However, no agreement could be reached. China is a very densely populated country and it is blaming the USA for releasing so much carbon dioxide into the air with much lower population. China believes that she has the right to release large quantities of carbon dioxide as she has a very large population. The USA, on the other hand, is reluctant to cut down on emissions because it is a well-developed country and its citizens have high-standards of living. She does not want to step back in development and is blaming the undeveloped LICs for emitting carbon dioxide into the air. LICs, however, need to develop. Therefore, they say that HICs are either going to allow them to produce energy for development and release carbon dioxide as a result or pay them for development. Since, many countries are half-hearted with this issue, it cannot be solved. However, the UN continues to try to achieve a treaty that would be agreed by all the nations.