Ibdp Ess Topic 1: Systems and Models (Answers) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1 1

IBDP ESS
Topic 1: Systems and models (Answers)

1. A
[1]
2. C
[1]
3. B
[1]
4. C
[1]
5. B
[1]
6. D
[1]
7. C
[1]
8. C
[1]
9. C
[1]
10. B
[1]
11. A
[1]
12. B
[1]
13. (a) (i) solar energy/the sun 1
(ii) evaporation 1
300
(b) (i) 400 × 100 = 75%
need correct answer for the mark, not necessarily working. 1
336
(ii) 400 × 100 = 84% 1
(c) (i) 100 – 64 or 336 – 300 = 36 × 1015 kg
Award [1] for correct answer (36) and [1] for units (1015 kg). 2
(ii) Burning fossil fuels releases more carbon dioxide/greenhouse

gases [1]; …
which increases global temperatures [1]; … which melts ice [1];
increased temp. → increased evaporation → increased
cloud cover [1].max3
(d) Vegetation/plants/animals/organisms/biomass/soil water [1];
Appropriate mechanisms for transfer [2]/
1
e.g. organisms – water enters by absorption through roots or
digestive system [1];
water leaves by transpiration or excretion (sweating, urination) [1].max 3
(e) (i) Condensation/precipitation/run off/groundwater flow would
increase (because of extra water in atmosphere) [1]
Or: run off/groundwater flow would decrease (because of
extra evaporation from warmer surfaces) 1
(ii) (accept any two of)
• increase in evaporation/condensation leads to increased
cloud cover [1]; leads to increased reflection of solar
radiation/higher albedo [1];
• increase in precipitation leads to more snow [1]; leads to
increased reflection of radiation [1];
• decrease in the rate of evaporation decreases amount of water
vapour entering the atmosphere [1]; water vapour is a
greenhouse gas (so reducing it will reduce the greenhouse
effect) [1] and/or reducing atmospheric water vapour will
reduce cloud cover [1]; and hence increase radiation loss to
space [1].
(One change in flow [3 max], two changes in flow [4 max]) 4
(iii) (Response must follow on from (e) (ii))
For increases in flow given above; feedback is negative [1]
For decreases in flow given above; feedback is positive [1] 1
(If part (ii) is not answered or answer does not mention a
direction of change in flow and its consequences, no credit
can be given here.)
(f) Transformation = condensation and evaporation [1];
Transfer = precipitation and run off/groundwater flow [1]. 2
[20]
14. D
[1]
15. A
[1]
16. B
[1]
17. D
[1]
18. B
[1]
19. B
[1]
20. C
[1]
21. C
[1]
22. B
2
[1]
23. C
[1]
24. B
[1]
25. A
[1]
26. A
[1]
27. C
[1]
28. A
[1]
29. C
[1]
30. B/D
[1]
31. C
[1]
32. C
[1]
33. C
[1]
34. D
[1]
35. B
[1]
36. B
[1]
37. B
[1]
38. C
[1]
39. A
[1]
40. (a) feedback:
the return of part of an output of a system (or subsystem) as an input,
so as to affect succeeding outputs/OWTTE; 1
(b) Answers must have a definition, some explanation of negative
feedback and an example (which need not be as detailed as that
below) to achieve full marks.
negative feedback:
feedback that tends to damp down, neutralize or counteract any
deviation from an equilibrium and promotes stability/OWTTE;
example:
3
increase in number of predators (e.g. owls) → decrease in small
mammals (e.g. mice, voles, shrews) → increase in small
mammals → increase in predators;
explanation:
understanding of ecological relationships/processes;3 max
For the final mark the answer must show some understanding of
ecological relationships or processes, such as predation, disease,
breeding success. This material may be incorporated in the
example. Some or all of the information may be given in the
form of a diagram.
[4]
41. C
[1]
42. A
[1]
43. B
[1]
44. C
[1]
45. C
[1]
46. D
[1]
47. A
[1]
48. B
[1]
49. C
[1]
50. D
[1]
51. A
[1]
52. A
[1]
53. D
[1]
54. B
[1]
55. C
[1]
56. A
[1]
57. D
[1]
58. C
[1]
4
59. C
[1]
60. (a) Award [1] for every two correct responses:
pioneer species I: positive;
pioneer species II: positive;
climax species III: positive;
climax species IV: negative; 2
(b) Award [1] for each curve drawn approximating to the shape below,
in relation to dashed line. This dashed line is only included as a
guide and is not required for award of the mark. 2
P io n e e r s p e c ie s C lim a x s p e c ie s
Log of Log of
num ber of num ber of
s u rv iv o rs s u rv iv o rs
% L ife s p a n % L ife sp a n
(c) (pioneer species are usually r-strategists and climax species

are usually k-strategists)
pioneer species are likely to have higher (specific) growth rate/
climax species are likely to have lower (specific) growth rate;
pioneer species are likely to invest less in parental care/climax
species are likely to show greater investment in parental care;
pioneer species are likely to have competitive advantage in
the short term (while the environment is unmodified)/climax
species are likely to have long-term competitive advantage
(achieving the carrying capacity of the modified environment); 3
[7]
61. B
[1]
62. D
[1]
63. A
[1]
64. D
[1]
65. A
[1]
66. D
[1]
5
67. B
[1]
68. D
[1]
69. A
[1]
70. D
[1]
71. C
[1]
72. B
[1]
73. (a) (i) species diversity = number of species of organisms per unit;
habitat diversity = number of habitats/ecological niches per
unit area/within an ecosystem; 2
(ii) generally the higher the habitat diversity, the higher the
species diversity;
generally in a high mountain range the complexity of
vegetation decreases with altitude;
complex tropical forest communities at base provides
variety of ecological niches for many species;
or
less complex vegetation at higher altitudes provides fewer
ecological niches;
and thus can support fewer bird species;2 max
Any other appropriate points
(b) (i) animals with tusks/large tusks are more likely to be killed for
their ivory;
natural selection results in the removal of “unfavourable”
genes from the population;
organisms carrying these genes tend to die before reaching
adulthood;
in modern Africa, genes for tusks/large tusks can be considered
unfavourable;
and thus animals with tusks/large tusks will be removed from
population/not pass their genes on to the next generation;
over time, therefore, fewer and fewer elephants will have
tusks;2 max
Any other reasonable points
(ii) small populations become vulnerable because of poor social
structure (non-viable sex ratio, etc.);
low genetic diversity;
easily wiped out by disease/natural hazards/poaching;
however, an isolated population may become distinctively
different;
as it may carry a set of genes not typical of the parent
population;3 max
Any other reasonable suggestion
(iii) Must name one purpose and one weakness:
6
Purpose [1 max]
reduction of international trade, so that demand will be reduced,
and the killing of rare and endangered species discouraged;
Weakness [1 max]
some countries are still outside the Convention;
provisions difficult to implement/enforce, particularly in
less economically developed countries;
cumbersome/lengthy procedures for modifying the Convention;
a number of “exceptions” exist e.g. import/export of
organisms for scientific purposes (Article III part 3 of the
Convention);2 max
(iv) name of organism/conservation scheme [1 max];
details of management programme;
response will depend on organisms or scheme selected [3 max]
For example
Chuditch/Western Quoll;
the largest marsupial predator in Western Australia;
at the time of European settlement, Chuditch occurred in
approximately 70% of the continent;
by the late 1980s they had become endangered (population
less than 6000);
Perth Zoo has bred more than 300 Chuditch for release in
the last decade;
since the breeding programme began, Chuditch have been
downlisted from endangered to vulnerable (E);4 max
Must have one evaluation point for full marks.
(c) Humans interfere with ecosystems in the following ways:
removing some organisms for food or other uses (hunting,
timber-cutting);
habitat destruction e.g. forest clearance/wetland drainage;
and resultant substitution of artificial ecosystems for natural
systems;
artificial systems often have a single dominant food-chain;
e.g. grass → cow → human;
this contrasts with complex food-webs of forest ecosystems;
pesticides remove both target species and others;
artificial ecosystems have lower habitat diversity (farmland,
plantations);
and therefore lower species diversity;
crops/livestock have very low genetic diversity;
simplified systems have fewer energy/matter pathways/
feedback loops;
and may thus suffer changes from which recovery is impossible;5 max
[2 max] for simple statement of activities
[20]
74. D
[1]
7
75. B
[1]
76. B
[1]
77. C
[1]
78. C
[1]
79. D
[1]
80. (a) No mark is available for naming pollutants, but if no pollutant is
named a maximum of [2 marks] should be awarded. The same
pollutant need not be used for each of the three stages.
Production [1 max]
recycling could lead to less need for production (e.g. plastic);
producing less damaging alternatives for human use;
using different raw materials;
increasing price of commodity/taxing production of pollutant;
Release [1 max]
scrubbers/catalytic converters (e.g. sulphur oxides);
end pipe monitoring;
legislation/fines;
Long-term impact [1 max]
liming (e.g. acid rain);
restoration;
sealing off inputs;
Award credit similarly for any other valid strategies for the pollutants
named.3 max
(b) Depends on strategies chosen but the following are examples that
could be credited:
recycling can be very expensive;
impacts of “less damaging” alternatives may be discovered later (e.g.
some alternatives to CFCs have been found to be damaging to the
environment);
cost of fines and taxing can be passed on to consumer and provide
little disincentive to large international companies;
scrubbers and converters limited to small range of pollutants;
monitoring often has to be very thorough/regular/expensive to
be effective;
restoration, again very expensive and often very limited in its
success;
liming can cause damage in immediate locality;
sealing off inputs to specific ecosystems only possible with certain
systems/pollutants and pollutant is still present in the wider
environment;3 max
[6]
81. (a) (i) The Gaia philosophy envisages the entire planet
as a living, self regulating organism; 1
(ii) an open system exchanges energy and material,
8
a closed system exchanges energy but not material; 1
(b) sunlight converted by producers;
producers eaten by consumers;
some energy released as heat;
consumers eaten by other consumers;
detrital decay;3 max
(c) (i) For example coral reefs:
coral reefs increasingly seen as an economic
resource rather than a subsistence resource;
coral reefs have been used for increasingly
intensive fishing;
source of building materials;
sites for tourism;
pollution sink;
cultural and technological change for example
in fishing industry (dynamite fishing);
political motives behind promoting tourist opportunities;
under increasing population pressure;
has led to overfishing (unsustainable);
loss of biodiversity;
damage to extremely vulnerable polyps;
and knock-on effects throughout the ecosystem;4 max
(ii) For example:

conservation areas / national parks;
restricting resource use or allowing resource
use at a sustainable level within the park;
will have economic implications;
can be difficult to police;
ocean is an open system;
indigenous people need to retain control;
victim of your own success;3 max
[12]
82. (a) The pedosphere is the biotic / non-biotic link between
the lithosphere and the biosphere;
there is a two-way movement of water between the
pedosphere and the hydrosphere;
there is an exchange of atmospheric gases with the pedosphere;
atmospheric processes influence the pedosphere
(e.g. through soil erosion);
atmospheric factors will affect soil forming processes
(e.g leaching, weathering);
soil organisms are part of the biosphere but also part of the soil;
biosphere contributes detrital / organic matter to the soil;5 max
(b) Sandy soils are characterised by large grains and large pore spaces
whereas clay soils are characterised by small grains and small pore spaces;
sand soils are therefore freely drained (but have poor water retention);
whereas clay soils hold water well (but have poor water retention);
9
whereas clay soils hold water well (but are subject to water logging);
clay soils have a better nutrient content due to the clay humus complex
whereas sand soils do not;
sand soils tend to have a blocky or crumb structure favouring root
growth whereas clay soils tend to have a platy structure which can
inhibit root growth;
clay soils are traditionally more difficult to work / plow (heavy and sticky
when wet, hard when dry), sandy soils are generally easier to work;
clay soils heat and cool quickly, sandy soils exhibit a slower
thermal response;5 max
(c) Award [1] for naming systems. e.g. N. America cereal farming
nomadic herding in Tanzania
Commercial measures tent to be large scale;
high technology;
and may be supported by government initiatives;
examples of measures:
addition of fertilizers;
crop rotation;
contour plowing;
plowing technology which leaves roots in soil;
strip cultivation;
tree belts as wind breaks;
subsistence measures tend to be small scale;
low technology;
ad hoc;
based on traditional practise;
and may be supported by grass-roots initiatives;
example of measures:
terraces;
application of organic fertilizers (manure);
debris dams;
shifting cultivation;
tree planting;
agroforestry;7 max
[17]
83. (a) 6
10
In s o la tio n In s o la tio n
185000 1972000
F jo rd O pen sea
3 4 7 0 P h y to p la n k to n
F a rm e d s h rim p 847
461
K aw ai
S a lm o n
26
410 4 .3 6 .2 572
In u it
1 2 .5 O th e r h u m a n a c tiv itie s 4 .1 M a n a g in g s a lm o n
1 4 M a n a g in g s h rim p fa rm F is h in g fo r
k a w a i 6 .7
Award [1] for each two correct labels.

(b) (i) the quantity of organic matter produced or solar energy
fixed, by photosynthesis in green plants per unit area
per unit time; 1
(ii) net primary productivity is GPP less the biomass / energy
lost by plants through respiration; 1
(iii) nutrient and mineral availability;
temperauture; 2
847 – 572
× 100 = 32.5%
(c) kaway 847 ;
461 – 410
× 100 = 11.1%
salmon 461 ;
kaway is more efficient;3 max
(d) in terrestrial systems most food is harvested from relatively
low tropic levels, but in aquatic systems most food is
harvested from higher trophic levels;
energy conversions along the food chain may be more
efficient in aquatic systems;
initial fixing or available solar energy by primary producers
tend to be less efficient due to the absorption and reflection
of light by water; 3
11
(e) salmon is a source of income as well as a food source; 1
(f) technology likely to be simpler;
methods likely to be more traditional;
environmental impact will probably be smaller
more likely to be sustainable in the long term;3 max
[20]
84. (a) the greenhouse effect is the normal and necessary effect of greenhouse 3
gases (such as carbon dioxide, methane and CFCs) in the atmosphere;
which maintain global temperatures and enable life to exist;
global warming is the expected increase in global temperatures
due to an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
(due to human activity such as burning fossil fuels);
(b) a system can be defined as an assemblage of parts and the relationship
between them, which constitute an entity or whole;
the concept of a system can be applied at a variety of scales;
atmosphere is extremely complex, a system approach enables
the complexity to be simplified;
the atmospheric system is an open system involving the exchange
of matter and energy;
energy inputs in the form of solar insolation can be modelled
and then transfer of energy leading to the greenhouse effect can be
more clearly understood;
the concept of equilibrium and how this has been upset by the addition
of extra greenhouse gases to the atmosphere can been seen;
the process of negative and positive feedback which occurs as a
result of increasing greenhouse gases can be seen;
positive feedback, for example, higher temperatures leads to faster
growth rates and more carbon dioxide which gives higher temperatures etc.;
negative feedback, for example, in the increased temperatures leading
to higher rates of evaporation, more clouds and a consequent reduction
in solar insolation;6 max
(c) A range of possible points could made, but may include some of the following.
altering human activity through incentives and penalties is difficult
because economic systems are currently dependent on fossil fuels;
countries are unwilling to adopt alternative lifestyles;
or unable (often in the case of ELDCs) to invest in developing
alternatives (such as solar technologies) to reduce emissions of fossil fuels;
current global warming is thought to be occurring as a result of
emissions during the industrial revolution. Even if emission of greenhouse
gases is reduced now, global warming is expected to occur in the future;
extracting the pollutant from waste emissions in not always technically
possible (how to prevent the emission of methane when a cow farts?);
standards for emissions of greenhouse gases can be imposed, but not all
countries will sign the agreements (e.g. recent debate at the Kyoto climate
change conference);
as these agreements are voluntary it is hard for the international community
to ensure that all members are adhering to the agreed limits;
carbon taxes can be imposed, but wealthier countries are at an advantage
in that they can buy rights to emit more carbon and this has consequences
for industrial development;
12
the process by which the biosphere naturally extracts and removes the
pollutant from the ecosystem are not fully understood (e.g. the role of the
oceans as sinks for carbon is not fully understood), so it is hard to develop
ways of removing excess carbon
often the nations who emit most greenhouse gases will not be adversely
affected by global warming. (They may even benefit agriculturally.)
There is therefore little incentive for them to address the problem;
global warming is a controversial issue and scientists do not agree on
the probable consequences. This is used as an excuse by some nations
not to address the problem;11 max
[20]
85. (a) (i) feedback that tends to damp down/neutralize/counteract
any deviation from an equilibrium, and promotes stability; 1
(ii) feedback that amplifies/increases change (it leads to
exponential deviation away from equilibrium); 1
(b) most ecosystems contain inbuilt checks and balances;
without internal balance an ecosystem would spiral out of control;
without negative feedback no ecosystem could be self-sustaining;1 max
(c)
ste a m / w a ter v a p o u r / w a te r
sm o k e
co al en erg y /
e le c tr ic it y
c o ld w a te r w a rm w a te r
Three correct [2], one or two correct [1].2 max

[5]
86. (a) age-sex pyramids are useful because they allow patterns to
be clearly seen;
wide base indicates a high birth rate and expanding population;
allow estimate of population numbers;
gender imbalances can be seen;
proportions of fertile population can be seen;
all of these factors will affect population growth;
however, the pyramids do not give specific information
about socio-economic conditions;
e.g. use of contraception, government policies;
enable “how much” not “why” questions to be answered;6 max
(b) the area of land (and water) required to support a defined human
population at a given standard of living;
takes account of the area required to provide all the resources
needed by the population and to assimilate all its wastes;
13
it is the inverse of carrying capacity;
[2 max] for definition.
ecological footprints tend to increase in size with socio-economic
development;
technological advancement produces a larger footprint as more
resources are needed and more waste is produced;
populations at a lower economic level have footprints that are
easier to define (fewer resources used from outside their
immediate area);5 max
[3 max] for discussions.
Give credit for examples e.g. hunter-gatherer in Tanzania have
a smaller footprint than urban population of New York.
(c) arguments for population control
population growth is not sustainable even with an expanding
resource base;
greater environmental pressure on the planet is inevitable;
ethically it is wrong to overpopulate the planet (what right
have we to disproportionately consume resources?);
smaller family size allows for greater/higher standard of
living measured in capital resources;
arguments against population control
goes against tradition and culture;
as technology advances resources are used more efficiently,
therefore environment will be able to support a larger population;
population control by society/government is an infringement
on basic human freedom;
curbing population growth will produce a demographic
population that is top-heavy (old people predominate) and dependent;
larger families are vital in a society where family labour is essential
to domestic and economic survival;
forced population control doesn’t always work;
population growth is an indicator of an expanding resource base;6 max
Give credit for use of examples.
Expression of ideas [3 max]
[20]
87. (a) a simplified description of reality;

designed to show the structure or workings of an object, system or concept;2
(b) oceanic circulation/ice/human activity/land and terrestrial features; 1
[1] for any two correct.
(c) nitrogen/oxygen/carbon dioxide/water vapour/methane/ozone/
other named trace gases; 2
Four correct [2], three or two correct [1].
(d) solar inputs will be short wavelength, and radiation outputs will be long
wavelength; 1
(e) pollutant emissions leading to photochemical smogs;
increased global temperatures through burning fossil fuels;
altering chemistry of precipitation through sulfur dioxide/SO2 and
14
nitrogen oxide/NOx emissions; x depletion of stratospheric ozone
increasing input of UV light;
reducing rainfall through deforestation;3 max
(f) strengths:
it stresses the interactions (feedback) within the system;
represents the complex atmosphere as a system with inputs, outputs
and transfers;
Accept other reasonable strengths.
limitations:
nature of the interactions is not really shown;
some categories are too broad to be helpful e.g. atmospheric circulation;
some interactions are not shown;
relative importance of different parts of the system not shown;4 max
Answer must refer to both strengths and limitations for full marks.
[13]
88. (a) diversity: early = low, late = high;
size of organisms: early = small, late = large; 2
(b) r-species – produce large numbers of offspring, opportunistic,
pioneer species/first to colonise an area;
K-species –produce a small number of offspring and are suited
to long-term climax communities; 2
(c) as pioneer species die out their remains contribute to organic matter
in the soil;
this makes it easier for other species to colonise and over time litter
from the biomass will lead to a build up in organic matter;
soil organisms will move in and break down litter;
pioneer species will help to weather parent rock;2 max
(d) (i) how well an ecosystem is able to cope with changes; 1
(ii) food webs are more complex (high species diversity) so
species can turn to alternative food sources if one species
is reduced;
nutrient cycles are closed and therefore self sustaining/
not dependent on external influences;
large amounts of organic matter = good source of nutrients;2 max
[9]
89. (a) (i) energy is neither created nor destroyed/energy is
conserved/OWTTE; 1
(ii) 1000 kJ – 100 kJ (10%) = 900 kJ;
output = 900 kJ – 135kJ (15%) = 765kJ; 2
(b) (i) 1. evaporation;
2. transpiration/evapotranspiration;
3. precipitation;
4. run-off/infiltration; 2
Four correct [2], three or two correct [1].
(ii) too simplistic/no values/no indication of time/two dimensional; 1
Accept other reasonable answers.
(iii) 1960 = 2 × 103 km3 yr–1 2000 = 4 × 103 km3 yr–1;
15
42
2 × 100 = 100%; 2
Correct answer on its own, award [2].
(iv) increasing global population requiring more water;
industry expanding and requiring more clean water (cooling
processes, etc.);
globally, greater use of water for irrigation;
increase in water use by developing countries; 3
[11]
90. (a) Answer should demonstrate an understanding of atmospheric
insulation and how this is achieved within the atmosphere.
Particular reference should be made to the role of carbon dioxide,
which is transparent to incoming radiation and absorbs out
going radiation.
greenhouse gases transparent to incoming short wave solar radiation;
outgoing long wave radiation trapped/reflected by greenhouse gases;
gases include CO2, CH4, N2O, O3, H2O and CFCs;
Two correct gases needed for [1].
creates a “thermal blanket”;
maintains an average Earth temperature of about 30°C;4 max
(b) Answer should address biomes, global agriculture and human society.
biomes:
north/south shift in biomes relative to the equator (latitude shift);
movement of biomes up slope (altitude shift);
agriculture:
crop zones move north/south from equator;
e.g. wheat belt in North America may move north;
cultivation patterns will change;
crop types may change;
water resources will change and limit/expand crop production;
changing global weather patterns will influence rain patterns and
alter crop production dynamics;
society:
national resources base will change;
water resources will change;
which will drive economic, social and cultural change;
sea level rise may cause economic and social stress due to loss
of land and resources (including migration);7 max
Accept any other reasonable answers.
All of the above should be supported by case study evidence or examples.
(c) Award [3 max] for any three of the following.
systems models are not always accurate;
model is less complex than reality;
data series too short for confident predictions;
not all elements are known or understood;
Award [1] for each of the following.
16
present trend based on data collected since industrial revolution;
long-term data (10 000 years) show climate fluctuation cycles not
overall rise;
some models predict future rise others argue for future cooling;6 max
[20]
91. (a)
H eat H eat L ig h t H 2O
C O 2
O 2
T is s u e to o th e r
TR EE tr o p h ic le v e ls
L itte r to s o il
N u trie n ts
W a te r 3 max
Award [1] for tree in box, [1] for two matter flows and [1] for two
energy flows.
(b) producers convert solar energy into chemical energy through

photosynthesis;
one of the main contributors to organic matter in soil;
through symbiotic bacteria, producers are significant in fixing
nitrogen;
provide habitat for other organisms;2 max
Accept other reasonable statements that show ecological knowledge.
(c) e.g. Chilean matorral3 max

p ro d u ce r p rim a ry c o n s u m e r se c o n d a ry co n su m e r
A c a c ia c a v e n s
O c to d o n d e g u / F e lis g u ig n a /
C h ile a n th o rn
ro d en t C h ile a n w ild c a t
tre e
Award [1] for appropriately labelled trophic levels, [2] for three
appropriate species or [1] for two appropriate species.
Do not accept rabbit, fox etc., unless there is some identifying
feature i.e. snowshoe hare and arctic fox.
(d) long-term stability leading to speciation/complexity;
high species number per unit area (South America 0.125 species km–2
versus 0.0027 species km–2 in temperate forests in North America);
high number of endemic species;
17
limiting factors low and so high productivity leading to high diversity;3 max
(e) decomposers break down tissue;
release nutrients for reabsorption by producers;
form basis of decomposer food chain (which may be energetically
more important in some ecosystems than grazing food chains);
as chemosynthetic autotrophs may form basis of food chain;
through incomplete breakdown of organic material contribute
to build up of humus and improve nutrient retention capacity in soil;
are vital in nitrogen cycle;2 max
(f) primary productivity would decrease;
Award [2 max] for the following.
acid rain can damage foliage directly thus reducing photosynthesis;
increase in solubility of nutrients facilitates leaching with consequent
loss of productivity;
increases susceptibility of trees to stresses such as disease/
temperature/insects/fungal infection;3 max
[16]
92. (a) interval between 1st and 2nd peak is about 90 days and interval
between 2nd and 3rd peak is approximately 75 days;
90 75
2 = 82.5 80 (± 4 days)/15 January + 80 days ≈ 20 April (± 5 days) 2
(b) T. occidentalis: 7; (±1)
E. sexmaculatus: 1550; (± 50) 1
Both needed for [1].
(c) (i) 25 to 30 September; (±3 days) 1
(ii) 10 December; (±2 days) 1
(d) (i) 15 days; (±5 days) 1
(ii) the predator population takes some days to take advantage
of the increase in prey;
availability of food facilitates reproduction of prey;
predator cannot increase in number without access to
food and so must wait for increase in prey;1 max
(e) (i) the increase in prey leads to a corresponding increase in
predator which corrects the trend towards increase in prey;
the decrease in prey leads to a corresponding decrease in
predator which corrects the trend towards decrease in prey;
the periodic nature of the population curves indicates a
feedback controlled interaction;2 max
(ii) elimination of predators/competitors;
modern medicine decreasing effect of disease;
elimination of density-dependent limiting factors;
importation of food or resources from other areas to
overcome shortages;
increased efficiency in utilization of resources;
our ability to colonize almost any habitat;
tools and technology;3 max
(f) melting of polar ice caps causes lowering of planetary albedo thus
18
increasing amount of solar energy at Earth’s surface, leading to
increase in temperature;
melting of tundra through warming causes release of methane
causing more warming;
increased evaporation leading to increased precipitation at poles
triggering net cooling;2 max
[14]
93. (a) eutrophication;
excess nutrients (phosphates and nitrates) contribute to (may
cause) eutrophication;
both nitrates and phosphates are limiting factors for plant
growth in many aquatic environments;
removing this limiting factor causes massive blooms of algae,
which reduces input of light to lower depth;
lack of light may result in plant death leading to (high rate
of) decomposition;
decomposition leads to low O2 which leads to plant/animal death
leading to further decomposition;6 max
Accept other reasonable examples of feedback.
(b) death of aerobic organisms (e.g. fish, plants, crabs);
increased turbidity;
loss of macrophytes;
reduction in length of food chains;
loss of diversity;
loss of nursery sites;
loss of commercial fisheries;5 max
(c) Altering human activities:
organic farming techniques would virtually eliminate the need
for synthetic fertilizers, reduce run-off of nitrates and
phosphates into water courses;
use of “green” detergents with low phosphate content;
Regulating and reducing the pollutant at point of emission:
monitoring of effluent to ensure compliance with regulations;
treatment of effluent or sewage to eliminate nitrates and phosphates;
reducing use of fertilizers through careful monitoring of soil
conditions to ensure correct amount is applied (thus reducing run-off);
Clean up and restoration:
dredging of sediments to remove nutrients;
replanting and restocking with plants and fish respectively;6 max
Award full marks only if there is at least one example from each area.
[20]
94. (a) recycling (where solid waste is used again);
incineration (where solid waste is burned);
landfill (where solid waste is buried);2 max
(b) (i) eutrophication 1
(ii) oxygen depletion leading to the death of aerobic organisms;
19
development of algal blooms deprives water of oxygen as
bacteria break the blooms down;
increased turbidity;
loss of macrophytes;
reduction in length of food chains as fewer species can be
supported;
reduction in biodiversity as vulnerable species become extinct;
increased sedimentation;2 max
(c) (i) open system 1
(ii) an open system involves the exchange of matter and energy
with surroundings;
(from the diagram it can be seen that) both energy and
matter are being exchanged;
closed systems do not occur naturally and isolated
systems do not exist;2 max
(iii) Accept any reasonable evaluation. Answers could include:
clearly shows every stage of the farming system from farm
to consumer;
shows most of the inputs required and the negative
environmental outputs which result (often ignored in the
usual analysis of such systems);
negative – no mention of profits or products, only adverse
environmental impact;
confusing as flows of energy along the system are not illustrated;
no actual figures for amounts shown, i.e. not proportional;
distinction between stores, inputs, outputs, processes,
outcomes is unclear;4 max
Both strengths and weaknesses must be included for full marks.
If only strengths or weaknesses [2 max].
[12]
95. (a) Award [1] for each factor identified. Specific ecosystem examples
must be included e.g. Australian coral reef, Brazilian tropical
rainforest, for full marks. If no examples given [3 max] can be
awarded.
natural hazard events e.g. in montane forest loss of species due
to eruption of Mount St Helens;
global catastrophic events e.g. meteor impact and extinction of
dinosaurs;
habitat degradation, fragmentation and loss e.g. pandas and
bamboo forest in China;
introduction and/or escape of non-native and genetically
modified species;
monoculture e.g. loss of wild grass species and insects in North
American grain belt;
pollution e.g. DDT and loss of bird species in North America in 1970s;
hunting or collecting e.g. shooting of large predators in tropical
Savannah;
harvesting e.g. cod population in North Atlantic Ocean;6 max
20
(b) more diverse ecosystems are generally more stable and therefore are
less fragile;
due to their variety of nutrient and energy pathways;
species have a greater choice of food sources if one species
becomes extinct;
biodiversity includes diversity of habitat as well as diversity of
species;
more diverse ecosystems are better able to cope with natural
threats to their survival and therefore less fragile; 5
credit given for different interpretations of “fragility” though
concept of fragility must still be valid within an understanding
of ecosystem functioning.
(c) many groups are involved in loss of biodiversity and therefore
education to a wide audience is important;
people who are often the direct cause of biodiversity loss
(e.g. through hunting) need to be educated as to the longer-term
value of preserving ecosystems;
as they will play a central role in their conservation (producer);
other communities may indirectly play a role (e.g. as a market
for tropical hardwoods) and so should be educated to help reverse
destructive practices (consumer);
education can have a huge, immediate impact when damage is
inadvertent;
e.g. coral reef education programmes for divers;
education is the first step in increasing lobbying of governments
to ensure environmentally sustainable practice (policy makers);
education is not the only factor – legislation plays a vital part
in establishing e.g. conservation areas;
and international treaties to control trade in endangered species
and agreements over pollution;
proper finance is vital to run conservation areas and ensure
enforcement of international agreements;7 max
Give credit to candidates who link their response to the statement
to reverse loss of biodiversity should be awarded [5 max].
[20]
96. (a) systems are assemblages of parts and the relationships between
those parts, which together constitute the entity or whole;
both types of systems will have common features such as inputs,
outputs, flows and stores;
social systems are more general, however, in that there will be lots
of different types e.g. a transport system/economic system/farming
system/class system;
energy and matter will flow through ecosystems, whereas social
systems will have flows of e.g. information/ideas/people;
both types of system will exist at different scales;
and have common features such as feedback and equilibrium;
trophic levels and levels in society;
there are consumers and producers in both;5 max
For full marks answers should show both similarities and differences.
(b) herbivory – when a consumer feeds on a producer;
21
e.g. rabbit eating grass;
competition – a common demand by two or more organisms upon
a limited supply of a resource (e.g. food/water/light/space/
mates/nesting sites);
e.g. two male lions competing for the same territory and mates;
parasitism – a relationship between two species in which one
species (the parasite) lives in or on another (the host), gaining
all or much of its food from it;
e.g. strangler fig tree and mahogany tree in a tropical rainforest;
mutualism – relationship between individuals of two or more
species in which both benefit and neither suffer;
e.g. elephant and acacia tree;
predation – when one species hunts another;
e.g. lion and wildebeast6 max
Award [4 max] if specific examples of species are not included.
Candidates need to describe each interaction. All examples may
be from the same ecosystem.
(c) Candidates may choose any contrasting biomes. Award [3 max] if
specific biomes are not mentioned.
climate determines the global distribution the productivity of biomes;
climate is a limiting factor as it controls the amount of photosynthesis
which can occur in plants;
water availability, light and temperature are the key climate controls;
photosynthesis is a chemical reaction, therefore temperature will
also affect rates of photosynthesis;
this is why e.g. tropical rainforests, which have high constant
temperatures (typically 26 °C) and rainfall (over 2 500 mm p.a.)
throughout the year;
have high rates of NPP;
e.g. hot deserts have high temperatures, but low precipitation
(typically under 250 mm p.a.);
therefore rates of NPP are very low;7 max
Give credit if appropriate diagrams are included.
[20]
97. (a) (i) figure 2 – marine food webs because there are more links
in the food web;
there are more tropic levels;
there is more than one food source at each tropic level;
there is no organism dependant on a single food type;2 max
Award [2] for correct food web and two correct reasons,
award [1] for correct food web and one correct reason.
(ii) if rabbits were removed grass would increase dramatically;
succession would occur: grass – scrub – trees;
fox population would crash and disappear without a food source;2 max
(iii) if foxes were removed the rabbit population would rise
dramatically;
22
rabbits would overgraze their food source (grass) and the
rabbit population would crash;
dynamic balance between rabbits and grass may result;2 max
(b) (i) A 1
(ii) C 1
(c) (i) use of a global resource at a rate that allows natural regeneration;
and minimises damage to the environment; 2
(ii) fishing effort should be set at a level that will not deplete
the overall krill population;
krill should not be fished at a level beyond which they can
naturally regenerate their population numbers;
baseline studies undertaken to find out how much krill there is;
monitoring of krill populations/monitoring catch;
setting quotas and limiting fishing effort (boat numbers,
size, setting seasons, control on gear type);4 max
[14]
98. (a) (i) maize, USA; 1
(ii) intensive agricultural system;
high levels of inorganic fertilizer used per unit area;
high yielding/management-intensive crop varieties
(possibly GM types);
extensive and intensive weed, pest and disease control;
efficient harvesting;
possibly irrigation;3 max
(iii)
Low Input Systems High Input
Systems
migratory pastoralists, Kenya cattle, UK
shifting cultivation, Papua New wheat, UK
Guinea
maize, USA
5 correct [2], 4/3 correct [1], 2/1 correct [0]2 max
(b) (i) MEDCs have a greater proportion of animal protein in their

diet (approx 26%), whereas LEDCs are more dependant
on grain crops;
MEDCs generally have greater variation in their diets than LEDCs; 2
(ii) MEDCs tend to have larger ecological footprints than LEDCs;
because they have high “grain equivalent” food consumption
lifestyles;
they consume high levels of fossil fuel;
high CO2 emissions;
produce larger amounts of waste;
higher lifestyle expectations and possess more consumer goods;
23
use proportionately more raw materials;4 max
(iii) limits biodiversity because of herbicide and pesticide
elimination of non-crop species;
introduces toxins through fertilizers/irrigation;
limits habitat type because of monoculture;
eutrophication due to fertilizer application;
risk of hybridization from GM maize;
aesthetic impact on landscape;2 max
(iv) trampling from livestock leading to soil loss/desertification;
cause overgrazing and soil loss/desertification;
introduce diseases from herds to native species;1 max
[15]
99. (a) There are a number of valid answers. Impact may be both
direct and indirect.
changing crop type will change soil cohesion and soil protection;
humans may change the nature of soil mechanically e.g. plowing/
lightening with sand;
humans may change the nature of soil chemically e.g. liming/
use of fertilizers/pesticides/fungicides;
human may alter slopes – terracing etc.;3 max
(b) (i) global warming is caused by an increase in greenhouse
gases leading to an increase in mean global temperature;
due to the trapping of extra short wave radiation;
greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, ozone
and water vapour;
these are released as fossil fuels are burned/through
farming and industrial processes;3 max
(ii) increase in temperature could lead to desiccation;
evaporation due to increased temperature may lead to the
accumulation of natural salts changing the chemistry and
structure of the soil (salinization);
lower temperatures may cause freeze–thaw processes to
break up soil and allow more rapid weathering;
increased rainfall may cause increased runoff and thus
soil erosion;
increased rainfall may cause leaching and erosion of
material from the soil profile;
decrease in rainfall will lead to aridification and make
soil surface prone to wind erosion;
increase in wind magnitude and frequency will increase
surface erosion (in terms of volume and rate);4 max
(c) (i) any system that is open to energy and material outputs
and inputs and can be described as an open system;
e.g. a forest or ecosystem (to be ecological the example
must have biological inputs and outputs). 2
(ii) the Earth acts as a complex self-regulating organism via a
series of feedback mechanisms;
24
rather than being a passive object controlled by external
forces and chance;
theory by James Lovelock and demonstrated via his Daisy
World Model;2 max
(iii) lacks quantitative values;
oversimplifies complex relationships;
lacks complex network connections;1 max
[15]
100. (a) LEDC
basic/lack of technology generally;
rice farming is typical of LEDCs/where rice is often the staple crop;
cash crops for export such as sugar cane, tobacco;
houses look fairly simple and made from local/cheap materials/
thatched roofs;
dependence on working animals;
labour intensive (family labour);
mixed cropping on small scale;2 max
LEDC but no reasons award [0].
(b) inputs: [1 max]
water/technology/cattle (livestock)/sunlight/rain/manure/
seed/labour/soil;
Award [1] for any three of the above.
processes: [1 max]
planting/ploughing/harvesting/irrigating/repair/respiration/
run-off/labour;
outputs: [1 max]
jute/vegetables/mangoes/Jack fruit/Palm/coconut/sugar
cane/spices/crops/waste/income/energy/rice/food/
Betel nuts/tobacco/cattle (livestock)/heat/oxygen/carbon
dioxide/wheat/mustard;3 max
(c) different crops planted at different levels;
rotation of crops to match seasonal rainfall patterns;
monsoonal climate so main crop is rice;
irrigation technology used in dry season;
livestock fed differently at different times of year;
different jobs done at different times of year;2 max
(d) (i) when nutrients, dissolved in water, wash down through
the soil/paddy and are lost; 1
(ii) process by which nitrogen in atmosphere is fixed to
form nitrate by blue-green algae (and converted into a
useable form for plants); 1
(e) (i) because the terraces are level there is little run-off by water
so soil is not washed away/terraces prevent soil erosion/
soil collects in paddies; 1
25
(ii) oxygen is required by decomposers to break down
organic matter (the oxidized zone is closer to the surface
and richer in oxygen)/higher BOD in oxidized zone as
more decomposers, thus more decomposition; 1
[11]
101. (a) greater biomass;
higher levels of species diversity;
soil conditions are more favourable e.g. with greater organic content;
better soil structure/greater water retention;
lower pH;
plant species will be taller and longer living;
more K-strategists/few r-strategists;
greater community complexity and stability/equilibrium;
greater habitat diversity;4 max
(b) Award [3-4 max] for human threats, [3-4 max] for natural threats
and [2-4 max] the consequences.
e.g. Great Barrier Reef off the coast of Queensland, Australia
human threats:
such as tourism, coral very fragile and easily damaged by divers’
fins/touching coral/breaking bits off for souvenirs;
over fishing can disrupt the balance of species in the food chain;
inadvertent damage from anchors and pollution from boats;
run-off of fertilizers from sugar plantations on the coast;
sewage and pollution from coastal settlements such as Cairns
can lead to excessive nutrients and algal blooms;
increased sedimentation due to deforestation of mangroves to
make space for tourist developments make water cloudy reducing
productivity;
disrupting the interdependence of coral ecosystem with sea grass
beds and mangrove ecosystems;
global warming increases sea temperatures leading to coral bleaching;
natural threats:
all of these make coral more vulnerable to natural threats such as disease;
natural predators e.g. crown of thorns starfish;
structural damage from storms/cyclones;
increased sea temperatures due to El Niño;
can lead to coral bleaching;
which has knock-on effects on the fish species who depend on the
reef for food, protection and nurseries for young;
consequences:
coral reefs are able to withstand some threats but the collective effect
of human and natural processes can lead to damage of the reef and
species, which depend on it, and the breakdown of the ecosystem;
when the “critical threshold is reached” (when even if threats stop
ecosystem will not recover);
loss of biodiversity;
the valuable role that the ecosystem provides e.g. in conjunction
with mangroves sea grass beds as a line of coastal defence;
as an economic resource;10 max
(c) Award credit if diagram is used to illustrate the concept of
26
negative feedback.
feedback is the return of part of the output from a system as input,
so as to affect succeeding outputs;
positive feedback tends to amplify/increase change;
negative feedback on the other hand tends to damp down/neutralise
any deviation from an equilibrium and promote stability;
it is negative feedback therefore which leads to the regulation of
equilibrium within ecosystems;
e.g. effect of a storm on a rainforest – high winds blow down a
tree, leaving a gap in the canopy, this lets in more light,
encouraging new growth;
rates of growth are rapid as light levels are high, so new saplings
compete to take place of old tree in the canopy and equilibrium
is restored;4 max
A range of possible examples may be used.
Award [2 max] if no example used.
[20]
102. (a) societies demand for water has continued to grow throughout the
industrial period;
demand for water is expanding in both MEDCs and LEDCs;
in LEDCs, expanding populations/changing agricultural practice/
expanding industry (often heavy);
general per person increase in water needs are making demands
heavier;
in MEDCs social lifestyles require more water, e.g. people wash
more, water plants more, wash cars more;
water is a finite resource and countries are reaching their resource
availability limit;
water resources need to be managed more carefully;
new water resources need to be found/resource use needs to
be controlled;5 max
(b) an ecological footprint represents the hypothetical area of land
required by a society/group/individual to fulfill all their resource
needs;
the footprint size considers both resource needs and waste
assimilation;
it is the opposite of carrying capacity, a finite area can support
a finite population;
technological advancement may reduce footprint size;
as a model for monitoring environmental impact the ecological
footprint can allow for direct comparisons between groups and
individuals, e.g. MEDCs and LEDCs;
in addition it can highlight sustainable and unsustainable lifestyles,
e.g. populations with a larger footprint than actual land area are living
beyond sustainable limits;5 max
(c) the technocentric manager approach to water resource management
would suggest that future needs can be met by technology, innovation
and the ability to use “untapped” reserves;
technocentric managers would support desalination/iceberg capture
27
and transport/wastewater purification, synthetic water production/rain
seeding/deep aquifer extraction;
would also look at innovative ways to reduce water use per se,
both in industry and at a domestic level;
the ecocentric manager approach would highlight the overuse
and misuse of water;
encourage the conservation of water;
encourage greater recycling;
encourage water use within sustainable level;
encourage water use that had few detrimental impacts on habitat,
wildlife and the environment;
monitoring use to remain within sustainable limits;
encouraging industry and society to use less water;8 max
[20]
103. (a) the enrichment of a water body (lake, stream etc.) by increased
nutrient inputs (primarily phosphates and nitrates);
depletion of oxygen content of water;
leads to the development of algal blooms;
the enrichment may be natural/artificial;
accelerated by human activity;2 max
(b) process A: (agricultural) run-off/surface flow/nutrients entering
lake;
process B: leaching/sedimentation/seepage/dead remains sinking/
infiltration; 2
Accept other reasonable responses.
(c) agricultural source:
fertilizers (containing phosphates and nitrates)/animal waste/manure;
Do not accept pesticides.
non-agricultural source:
detergents (domestic)/industrial effluent/sewage; 2
(d) identify potential sources of eutrifying materials (detergents,
fertilizers, effluents);
identify if source is point/non-point pollution;
put in strategies for removing/reducing these pollutants e.g.
reduce fertilizers use;
use organic fertilizers/use detergents with no phosphates/
prevent run-off, etc.;
remove contaminated sediment from water body/dredge it;
re-oxygenate water body;
nets to reduce organic input;
educate water source users about eutrophication problems;3 max
[9]
104. No mark scheme available
105. (a) the landmass has a low elevation/no land higher than 4 metres;
28
the islands are relatively small (less than 1 km across);
the islands are in a tectonically active ocean;
not sheltered by large land masses;2 max
(b) groundwater – replenishable;
rainwater – renewable;
freshwater from desalination – renewable; 3
Accept replenishable as a classification of rainwater.
(c) Maldivian groundwater has been contaminated with ammonia,
phosphates, nitrates and chloride;
nitrates – below WHO guidelines;
ammonia – two island exceeds WHO guidelines (× 4);
phosphate – all islands exceed WHO guidelines(× 3 to × 9);
chloride – all islands exceed WHO guidelines(× 2 to × 5);
sources of contamination – domestic waste/agricultural waste/landfill
waste/degrading organics/tsunami debris/sea water/sewage;4 max
Award [3 max] for description and [2 max] for two or more sources of
contamination.
(d) (i) tourists consume relatively large amounts of freshwater/
Maldives has a finite amount of groundwater and annual
rainwater budget;
when tourist needs outstrip supply, tourism will have
reached and gone beyond these limits; 2
(ii) by 2050 the numbers of countries with a chronic scarcity (below
2740 litres capita–1 day–1) of water will have increased;
between 2000 and 2050 the percentage of people in the
world suffering from chronic water scarcity will rise (from
3.7% to 17.8%); 2
Figures are not required.
(e) strategy: tourist numbers could be limited;
evaluation: which reduces resource use and tourist pressures;
however, also reduces tourist revenue;
strategy: development taxed to pay for habitat protection and
conservation;
evaluation: may make tourism more expensive/less profitable, but
may guarantee sustainable environment and tourism for the future;
strategy: tourist environmental education;
evaluation: environmentally aware tourist less likely to cause damage,
e.g. standing on coral/using waste excessively;6 max
Award [4 max] if only two strategies addressed, [2 max] if only one
strategy addressed. Accept any other reasonable suggestions.
(f)
29
lo s s o f
b io d iv e rs ity ;
lig h t p o llu tio n ;
fis h in g ;
c o n fu s e s o rg a n is m s
in c re a s e d a t n ig h t;
a g ric u ltu re ;
b rin g in
h a b ita t lo s s ; T o u r s im c o a s ta l p o llu tio n ; d is e a s e s ;
d u e to w a s te fro m im p o rt
to u ris t d iv in g ; d e v e lo p m e n t; fo o d ;
d e v e lo p m e n t;
tra n s p o rt;
c o ra l d a m a g e ;
fo s s il fu e l
b u rn in g ; c lim a te
change;
Award [1] for each impact, up to [4 max]. Accept any other4 max
reasonable points and model design.
(g) tourism generates valuable hard currency/revenue for many LEDCs;
generates job opportunities;
introduces people to new cultures, societies, ideas and environments;
highlights conservation issues and environmental problems;2 max
[25]
106. (a) Earth is a closed system;
inputs – solar radiation/Sun’s energy/light and output – heat energy;
materials recycled within the system/matter recycled (may discuss
space ships and meteorites moving a small amount of matter in and out); 3
(b) climate change is a significant shift in climatic conditions;
may be warming or cooling;
positive feedback allows for movement away from equilibrium and
decreases stability;
negative feedback dampens down deviation from equilibrium
and increases stability;
example model:
ice caps melting leads to reducing albedo/more dark sea to
absorb heat/temperature increase leading to more ice cap melting
thus positive feedback;
ice caps melting leads to more evaporation more clouds/albedo
effect of clouds stop energy reaching Earth’s surface/decrease
warming thus negative feedback;
in short term, positive feedback model appears to operate e.g.
temperature change over industrial period/in the long-term, negative
feedback appears to operate e.g. glacial cycles; 7
(c) advantages: [2 max]
allows us to predict;
30
simplifies complex systems;
can change inputs and see what happens;
can show them to others;
Accept any other reasonable suggestions.
disadvantages: [2 max]
not accurate;
rely on the expertise of the people making them;
on validity of input data;
different people interpret them differently;
can be hijacked politically;4 max
Accept any other reasonable suggestions.
(d) Responses to this question will depend on the candidate’s own
personal viewpoint but examples could be:
example 1:
stating viewpoint: [1 max]
global warming is the biggest threat to life on Earth ever and we
are heading for catastrophe;
evidence: [3 max]
evidence for heating of the Earth is overwhelming;
evidence from increasing greenhouse gases caused by human activities;
ice caps retreating;
glaciers retreating;
sea levels rising;
more floods;
hurricanes increase in severity;
example 2:
stating viewpoint: [1 max]
global warming may be occurring but has throughout the life of
the Earth and will bring benefits to many people;
evidence: [3 max]
shift of biomass towards the poles will mean
crops can grow where they could not before;
more rainfall in some areas is a good thing;
if the Arctic ice melts, we can mine for minerals and oil under
the Arctic Sea;
large areas of Siberia and Canada will be warmer and easier to
live in;4 max
Award up to [3 max] for any three pieces of evidence. Accept
any other reasonable suggestions.
[20]
107. (a) (i) the orderly process of change over time in a community;
changes in the community of organisms cause changes in the
physical environment;
this allows another community to become established and replace
the former through competition;
leading often to greater complexity;2 max
(ii) time;
31
distance (from sea);1 max
(iii) soils will become more mature;
soils will be deeper;
contain more organic material;
become more complex;
develop distinct horizons;2 max
(b) positive feedback; 1
[6]
108. (a) as altitude increases rodent species number decreases;
there are fewer rodent species numbers at high altitude;
there are higher rodent species numbers at low altitude;
inverse relationship;1 max
(b) migration of species up the mountain;
melting/loss/reduction of snow cap/migration of snowline up
mountain;
appearance of new species;
loss of species/species unable to adapt to rapid changes/lower
diversity;
increased growth rates;3 max
(c) (i)
Rough grass Woodland Bracken
Wood mice 6 50 7;
Bank voles 3 15 23;
Both figures needed to receive [1]. 1
(ii) species’ preference for nesting/shelter sites;
preferred food sources located in particular habitats;
rough grassland marginal for both species because it offers
little shelter from predators;
mice and voles occupy different niches;2 max
(iii) so that the when animals are recaptured population size/Lincoln
index can be calculated; 1
[8]
109. (a) (i) 900 – 6.6 = 893.4 kcal lost;
893.4
900 × 100;
= 99.3% loss; 2
Award [2] for correct final answer.
(ii) there is energy lost from respiration and waste production at
each level within a food web;
crop production harvests food from lower down in the food
web than harvesting fish from the top, therefore it is more efficient;
crops capture energy directly from primary source;
fish harvesting utilizes a resource that is several steps away
from primary production;2 max
(iii) heat;
respiration;
32
feces;2 max
(b) (i) animals provide a source of protein (essential for the human
diet);
animals convert vegetation to food that would not be available
to humans directly;
produce diverse products (milk/meat/blood/wool);
taste and culture affect demand;
additional benefit that they are working animals;3 max
(ii) Award [1] for two inputs. Award [1] for each two associated
impacts. Award [1] for two outputs. Award [1] for each
two associated impacts. e.g. for milk production
IN P U T S O U TPU TS
In p u t O u tp u t
fo o d / g ra s s / s ila g e m ilk
Im p a ct Im p a c t
p o s sib le p o llu t io n o f tra n s p o rt o f m ilk a n d
w a te r c o u r s e s fr o m s u b s e q u e n t p ro c e s sin g
f e r t i l is e r s a n d e f f l u e n t u s e s fu e l a n d th u s h a s
a n im p a c t
In p u t O u tp u t
d ru g s a n d s u p p le m e n ts w a s te
Im p a c t Im p a c t
d ru g s m a y e n te r w a s te m a y e n te r
h u m a n fo o d c h a in w a te r c o u rs e s a n d
c a u s e e n ric h m e n t
Accept any other reasonable answers.4 max

[13]
110. (a) a simplified description;
designed to show the structure/workings of an object/system/concept;
require approximations to be made;2 max
(b) predicting the growth of human populations: [3 max]
growth of human population depends (at a simple level) on birth rates
and death rates;
from this rates of natural increase can be calculated and population
total predicted;
population pyramids enable policy makers to chart what proportion
of the population are in the fertile age bracket helping to predict
likely birth rates;
demographic transition model shows how population growth is
33
linked to economic development;
enables the reasons for population growth to be understood;
but not all countries conform to the stages identified;
models are hugely simplified, and may not reflect the complex and
unpredictable factors which affect growth rates e.g. war/disease;
predicting climate change: [3 max]
models can demonstrate anticipated changes to climate based on
carbon emissions;
model only as good as the data that goes in and it may be suspect;
conflicting models can show different effects in same place;
hugely complex in terms of numbers of factors involved in
atmospheric systems so in process of oversimplification accuracy is lost;
e.g. role of feedback/ocean systems not fully understood;
Accept other examples of feedback.
assessing demands human populations make on their
environments: [3 max]
ecological footprints can be effective for comparing environmental
impacts of different societies;
able to provide a quantitative estimate of human carrying capacity;
a quantification of what can be a very complex set of factors;
can be useful tools for getting people to think about their impact;
stresses the systems approach and interconnectedness of eco and
social systems;
very difficult to calculate figures e.g. per capita CO2 emissions;9 max
To receive full marks answers must have a balance of strengths
(c) strategies for controlling growth include availability of contraception/
financial incentives/public information/legislative changes (e.g.
making abortion illegal);
often the reasons for family size can be attributed to cultural
factors so for policies to be effective they need to understand the
underlying reasons why people decide to have a certain number
of children;
the need for male children in some cultures is linked to the
traditional practices and structures e.g. inheritance by male heirs
and dowries for females;
sometimes cultural factors indirectly play a role in fertility rates
e.g. education and employment opportunities for women lead to
delayed marriages and lower birth rates;
provision of contraception in e.g. remote, rural communities
may not be enough – programmes to educate males to be willing
to use the contraception are also needed;
cultural norms may be ingrained/deeply felt and policies need
to address these at the deepest level to change attitudes e.g.
religious beliefs in catholic countries;
culture and tradition evolve over time/cultural change can occur
and governments can be a part of this;
education and economic development are important factors in
bringing about cultural change;7 max
[20]
34
111. (a) Transfers: [3 max]
transfers normally flow through a system and involve a change in
location;
water will flow through soil (infiltration) to replenish groundwater
(transfer);
excessive flow of water through a very porous soil will wash away
the nitrates into rivers and sea (leaching);
water can flow from soil into plants by uptake into roots;
Transformation: [3 max]
lead to an interaction within a system in the formation of a new end
product/involve a change of state;
soil water may evaporate back into the atmosphere (transformation);
few plants have the ability to absorb atmospheric nitrogen directly,
so it has to be converted by bacteria;
these bacteria exist, in decaying remains/in the soil, to form nitrates
which can be taken in by the plants in solution with water in the
ground (nitrification);
but people can also add nitrogen to the soil in the form of artificial
fertilizers;
by planting leguminous crops e.g. peas/beans/clover, which are
able to fix atmospheric nitrogen;
the soil is the home of bacteria and if it becomes waterlogged near
the surface the bacteria are unable to break down the decaying plant
and animal matter;
then the poorly decomposed matter forms peat on the surface e.g.
in a peat bog (denitrification);5 max
(b) large-scale cereal cultivation in the prairies, USA – high technology
approach to minimizing wind erosion;
e.g. use of specially adapted ploughs;
shelterbelts of trees planted;
GM crops with shorter stalks to minimize wind damage and exposure
of soil;
application of fertilizer to retain fertility of soil;
small-scale agriculture e.g. vegetable farming in Thailand – manure
from working livestock allowed to fertilize soil;
terraces built by hand to reduce run-off;
fields allowed to be fallow/rest by crop rotation/soil is rested;
variety of crops grown reduces the likelihood of exposure of soil at
different times;
commercial farming system relies on a technological approach to
managing the soil (technocentric);
whereas subsistence depends more on traditional practices, which
have evolved over time as people live on the land (ecocentric) e.g.
application of manure;
tend to be low tech and simple;
but system can break down when population pressure leads to
abandonment of traditional methods;
e.g. shortage of firewood means manure is burnt for fuel instead
of being returned to land;8 max
Award [1] for naming commercial and subsistence farming systems.
35
Award [4 max] if no named systems are mentioned. Answer needs
to show comparison. If systems are simply described award [6 max]
(c) systems are models with inputs, outputs and storages;

activities such as overgrazing, deforestation, unsustainable agriculture
and irrigation cause processes of degradation;
these include soil erosion, toxification and salinization;
systems approach stresses the interconnectedness of soils and
emphasizes the knock-on impact that actions can have;
with overgrazing an understanding of the balance of animals that
can be supported before the critical threshold is reached will help
farmers plan herd size;
seeing soils as renewable resources in equilibrium (inputs of nutrients
through rain and organic matter) and outputs through natural leaching;
will help farmers to compensate for the losses to overall nutrient
balance by removing crops, and the importance of returning nutrients
through the use of fertilizers;
understanding that soils are living systems which are integral parts
of ecosystems will help farmers to take a broader perspective when
managing their land e.g. deforestation on nearby slopes can have
an impact on water flows and likelihood of soil erosion in flash
flood conditions;
some processes of degradation are examples of positive feedback
e.g. less vegetation → greater wind speeds → more soil erosion →
less top soil → less vegetation etc., understanding this can help
farmers to break the cycle;5 max
Do not accept arguments that are not linked to the concept of systems.
[20]
112. (a) positive feedback because the effects of the problem make the
problem worse; 1
Award [0] if no reason is given for positive feedback.
(b) traditionally defined as development which meets the needs of the
current generation without compromising ability of future generations
to meet their own needs;
but in this context it suggests development which has a positive
role in enhancing the environment;
and is dependent in some way on a healthy population;2 max
Accept any other reasonable responses.
Award [1 max] if no reference is made implicitly or explicitly to
figure 2.
(c) simple, easy to see the connections;
shows clearly how actions in one area can have a knock-on effect
on the original development;
can distinguish between positive and negative actions and
consequences;
but far too simple, detail of what constitutes sustainable as opposed
to inappropriate development is not clear;
exact natures of the causal relationships are not explained;2 max
Award [1] for a strength and [1] for a weakness.
36
[5]
113. No mark scheme available
114. (a) reduces direct impact/edge effects of more rigorous human activity
in production zone;
raises revenue from ecotourism to support conservation management;
through ecotourism/education, raises awareness of conservation issues;
allows research and thus more understanding of threatened species
and their protection;
encourages support of local communities by making some provision
for them;2 max
(b) difference: strict reserve is (proportionally) smaller and so;
influence: less protection for forest species;
difference: production zone is (proportionally) smaller and so;
influence: may be less effective in raising sufficient revenue/
gaining support from local people;
difference: buffer zone is in direct contact with edge at some points
and so;
influence: is more vulnerable to unmanaged human activity
outside park;
difference: overall shape is more elongated/boundary more
reticulated and so;
influence: is more vulnerable to edge effects;2 max
Award [2] if answers include both a difference and an influence on
success.
60
(c) (i) unlogged: 68 × 100 = 88%;
331
logged: 345 × 100% = 96%;2 max
Award [2] if both correct values are given. Award [1 max]
if either one or both values are incorrect but working is
shown correctly.
(ii) logging likely to remove larger Ficus/fig trees in harvesting
host trees;
Ficus/fig trees may establish themselves more easily with
increased light/ reduced canopy due to logging;
logging processes and transport may aid in dispersal of
Ficus/fig trees;
logging may selectively remove competitors of Ficus/fig trees;2 max
(d) any appropriate example in which it is shown that many other species
within ecosystem depend upon it;2 max
Be lenient with any strict sense of a “species” i.e. “trees” is not
acceptable but “pine trees” would be.
Award [2] if it is shown that more than two groups depend upon it
and [1] if it is shown that two other groups depend upon it. Award [0]
37
if no species is identified.
(e) (i) abundance of six/most species is less in logged area/more in
unlogged area;
abundance of Black and white colobus is more in logged
area/less in unlogged; 2
(ii) (Black and white colobus more abundant in logged area because)
less competition from other primates;
they prefer lower tree density;
they feed on trees not harvested by loggers;
they form smaller but more numerous groups in lower density
forest;1 max
(iii) adjacent areas are similar in all other relevant respects;
that size of groups is similar in both areas;
that areas are indeed adjacent (map would suggest that they
are at least 10–15 km apart);
that data was recorded at same season/year;1 max
(f) it interferes with the success of other species than the crop species
e.g. primates;
it limits growth of mature keystone species e.g. Ficus/fig trees;
it removes nutrients stored in harvested biomass;
it causes incidental damage through e.g. transport/noise/soil
compaction/erosion;1 max
(g) (while all four parishes given make direct contact with a large
production zone in the park)
other parishes only in contact with buffer zone/have no access
to production zone (where management is less stringent) e.g.
Karusandara/Dura/Nkongooro;
some parishes may benefit financially from tourist traffic outside
park and so not dependent on park resources e.g. Bigodi/Busiriba;
some parishes have very little direct access to park at all/minimal
boundary to the park e.g. Kigaraale;2 max
Award [1] for each valid difference with appropriate named
location up to [2 max].
(h) cause: have traditionally depended upon forest resources for
subsistence;
strategy: offer agreements whereby they can obtain certain
traditional resources;
cause: cannot achieve sustainable provision outside of forest;
strategy: offer practical/financial assistance to set up sustainable projects;
cause: damage to crops from park animals;
strategy: develop methods of preventing animals from entering crops;
cause: poverty in the face of great wealth evident in park
management/tourists;
strategy: revenue sharing;2 max
Award [1] for any acceptable cause and [1] for a relevant strategy.
(i) difference: fewer DGs involved in energy conservation technology;
reason: less direct benefit to them possibly than more localized
PAs working together/less technical understanding than SOs;
difference: more DGs monitoring illegal forest use;
38
reason: have more public authority than PAs and SOs/more
personnel/ resources available;
difference: more DGs forming policy and law;
reason: have more public authority than PAs and SOs;
difference: more SOs promoting research;
reason: have more technical understanding;
difference: more SOs seeking funding;
reason: have more international contacts;2 max
(j) evidence: strict reserve has been established – figure 2;
discussion: less than recommended in model;
rainforest ecosystem of particular global significance;
evidence: many aspects of original model are implemented – figure 2;
discussion: provides good holistic approach to conservation;
evidence: letters show awareness/support among local people
– figure 7;
discussion: small number of letters/anecdotal/from only three parishes;
letters also indicate there are still infringements of restrictions;
evidence: some parishes have signed agreements – figure 8;
discussion: only 29 % of population by time of report;
but this is a major hurdle, so impressive achievement;
evidence: incentives such as controlling crop damage/sustainable
projects/revenue sharing are in place to encourage
support of locals – figure 8;
discussion: revenue sharing provides very little money;
evidence: many decentralized groups/local parishes do have
an environmental agenda – figure 9/figure 10;
discussion: no mention in these reports of this being associated
with Kibale specifically;
study only reports how groups see their own role
without any objective assessment;4 max
Award [1] for any reasonable evidence derived from resource material
and [1] for any appropriate point of discussion. Award [2 max] if no
discussion is given. Award [3 max] if no figure numbers are given.
[25]
115. (a) non-renewable are natural resources which cannot be replenished
within a timescale of the same order as that at which they are taken
from the environment and used (e.g. fossil fuels);
renewable are natural resources that have a sustainable yield/harvest
equal to/less than their natural productivity, (e.g. food crops, timber);
replenishable are non-living natural resources that depend on the
energy of the Sun for their replenishment, (e.g. groundwater);
renewable are biotic and depend on biotic processes;
whereas replenishable are abiotic and depend on abiotic processes;3 max
(b) Award [1] for a named example of replenishable natural capital.
e.g. ozone/groundwater;
e.g. for ozone:
human actions damaging resource:
human activity releases ozone depleting substances such as CFCs/
halons/NOx;
CFCs are found in refrigerants and propellants;
pollutants enhance the rate of destruction of ozone in the stratosphere;
39
ozone depleting substances already released remain active for long
periods;
there has been a decline in the amount of ozone in the stratosphere
of about 4 % every ten years;
ozone depletion has lead to “holes” in the ozone layer e.g. over Antarctica;
possible effects:
ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (270–315 nm)
of ultraviolet light from passing through the Earth’s atmosphere;
so a thinning/hole allows more UVB wavelengths through;
this has consequences such as increases in skin cancer/increased
mutations;
damage to plant tissues;
and reduction of plankton populations;
which has knock-on effects for their consumers (zooplankton)/for food
chains/webs;
e.g. for groundwater:
human actions damaging resource (examples need to be related to
groundwater not other water resources):
human activity is releasing pollutants so water quality is lost;
sources of pollution include agricultural products;
and underground storage tanks/landfills/septic tanks/mining run-off;
excessive abstraction/extraction/groundwater mining means water
tables are lowered;
can lead to salt water intrusion in coastal areas, further contaminating
supply;
excessive use of surface water means that groundwater supplies
are not being replenished;
possible effects:
reduced availability of water resources;
knock-on impacts on agriculture, as less water is available for
irrigation and yields decline;
higher costs of water for industry, with knock on effects for economy;
increase in tensions/conflict over the limited resource;8 max
Award up to [5 max] for human actions damaging resource and up
to [5 max] for possible effects.
(c) description: Award [3 max]
the Gaia hypothesis was developed by James Lovelock;
it compares the Earth to a living organism in which feedback
mechanisms maintain equilibrium;
the initial hypothesis was that the biomass modifies the conditions
on the planet to make conditions on the planet more hospitable
(full homeostasis);
and that the earth is a global control system of surface temperature,
atmospheric composition and ocean salinity;
evaluation: Award [5 max]
strengths:
sustainable management means ensuring resources are not degraded/
natural capital is not used up, so that future generations can
continue to use the resource;
global perspective is useful because many problems have global
40
consequences e.g. global warming;
so understanding knock-on effects outside of national boundaries
helps governments to be more responsible;
understanding that our actions can have an impact on others is good
for getting societies to think about impacts on different generations,
not just in different countries;
sometimes problems need international agreements e.g. CITES for
trade across boundaries to ensure populations are big enough to
sustain the species;
ecosystems are affected by global processes e.g. hydrological cycle/
atmospheric system;
global perspective stresses the interrelationships between systems so
knock-on effects are reduced;
weaknesses:
but ecosystems can exist at many scales, and so a more local
perspective is sometimes appropriate;
human actions can be culturally specific e.g. traditional farming
methods;
often local methods have evolved to be more sustainable/appropriate
for the local environment;
individual/small-scale community action can be very effective for
managing resources sustainably e.g. recycling;
some environmental problems are local in nature e.g. point source
pollution;7 max
Evaluation needs strengths and weaknesses. Award [2 max] if only
strengths or weaknesses are addressed.
[20]
116. (a) as population increases this tends to increase resource consumption;
unless per capita resource consumption is reduced;
generally however per capita resource consumption increases over time;
thus, total resource consumption increases even faster than population;
more energy is needed to supply goods/services to more people/
more land is needed to feed these people;
carrying capacity can be defined as the maximum number of a
species/load that can be sustainably supported by a given environment;
carrying capacity tends to limit the total resource consumption;
this in turn limits population growth and/or per capita resource
consumption;
i.e. populations either have to stop growing or consume less;
this limit can be, and is, exceeded in human populations due to
import of resources from other systems;
it can also be exceeded in the short term but not sustainably;
in order for resource consumption to be sustainable population
growth must remain within the limits of the carrying capacity;
if carrying capacity is exceeded there will be consequences in
terms of demand for resources not being met;
if resources are used more frugally/efficiently then carrying capacity
can support a larger population;
this statement is suggesting that as well as managing resource use,
societies/ governments need to manage the numbers of people in
41
order to support populations indefinitely;5 max
(b) both factors usually operate on populations;
and may be either internal or external;
density-dependent factors operate as negative feedback mechanisms
leading to stability;
where a change in density leads to inhibition/reversal of that change;
density-independent factors are not influenced by changes in
population density and so do not lead directly to stability;
however they are often responsible for high mortalities (e.g.
winter, seasonal flooding, bush fire);
which are necessary to reduce population to a level within the
control of density-dependent factors;
hence when density-dependent factors do change, fluctuations
can be dramatic;
density-independent factors are of particular importance for
r-strategists;4 max
(c) a steady-state equilibrium is a common property of most ecosystems;
some ecosystems undergo long-term changes to their equilibrium
while retaining integrity to the system (e.g. succession);
ecosystems have a tendency to return to their original equilibrium
following natural disturbance/most ecosystems are able to cope
with natural changes to their equilibrium;
e.g. coral reefs coping with storm damage/grassland ecosystems
coping with bushfires/tropical rainforest coping with loss of big
trees due to storms;
human activities can be the source of high levels of disturbance
and thus ecosystems are pushed beyond a point of no return/
equilibrium is irreversibly changed;
e.g. tropical deforestation on a grand scale does not allow
regeneration to take place;
e.g. equilibrium of aquatic ecosystems can be upset by the addition
of excessive nutrients/through eutrophication, where the nutrient
balance becomes upset;
human activities can interrupt succession so that the ultimate
equilibrium, the climatic climax, is not reached (plagioclimax);
e.g. grazing/burning arrests the succession of forest;
successful ecological management involves recognizing how much
disturbance an ecosystem can cope with;
and that while human activity may not directly cause loss of
equilibrium, it may leave a system more vulnerable to natural
disturbance;
e.g. combination of human activities on reefs through overfishing/
coral bleaching/ pollution have weakened the reefs so that they are
less able to cope with natural threats like El Niño events;
human activities can be tailored to match and fit in with natural
levels of disturbance within ecosystems;
e.g. agroforestry/small-scale shifting cultivation is a method of
farming which mimics natural processes so that ecosystems can
regenerate/equilibrium can be restored;9 max
Award [1] for any point of equal weight and validity about the
importance of understanding equilibrium and [1] for any example
42
of an ecosystem used to show how equilibrium has been upset by
human activities. Award [5 max] if no examples are mentioned.
[20]
117. (a)
Energy Advantage Disadvantage
source
natural gas; plentiful supply at burning releases carbon
present/cheaper than dioxide/non-renewable;
burning coal or oil;
wind; renewable resource/once only available when wind
turbines built it is cheap; blows/not always near
population centres;
Award [1 max] for natural gas/wind.3 max
Award [1] for each pair of correct responses of advantages and/or
disadvantages.
Do not credit “cheap” with no qualifier.
Credit advantages and disadvantages for an incorrect source to
avoid error carried forward.
(b) inertia/satisfied with existing system;
country wishes to increase diversity of energy sources;
pressure to meet quotas for renewable energy;
some resources not continuously available;
country does not have that resource e.g. HEP, near sea for wave;2 max
Accept other reasonable responses.
(c) people are selfish/inertia/tragedy of the commons;
people desire a better lifestyle which is equated with wanting
more e.g. bigger car/having a fridge;
poor design of equipment/buildings e.g. standby on electrical
equipment/phantom loads;
education; (do not accept “don’t know better”)2 max
(d) environmental systems increase their disorder/all energy ends
up as heat;
environmental systems increase their order so go against the law
for a short time;1 max
Do not credit answers which just state the second law without relating
it to environmental systems.
[8]
118. (a) model B
corridor allows organisms to migrate between reserves/greater number
of opportunities for mating with a wider population/greater genetic
diversity because more individuals can mix; 1
No marks for stating model without reason.
Accept Model A if valid reason is given. e.g. separate reserves mean
that if wildlife in one are wiped out/killed, others may survive.
Reasons must relate to genetic diversity.
(b) (i) living mass is large in the rainforest/tall trees/many layers
of vegetation/large amounts of nutrients stored as there is
43
a lot of biomass per unit area; 1
(ii) high levels of rainfall washing nutrients out of the soil/leaching
results in infertile soil/loss of nutrients; 1
(iii) open because matter/nutrients (and energy) are freely exchanged
outside the system; 1
(iv) Strengths:
simple to interpret/quantitative to some extent/pictorial so
easy to compare with others;
Limitations:
no indication of quantities as numeric values/simplistic; 2
(c) found in parts of the world with high population density so pressure
on the land to remove forest and grow food;
it takes a long time to recover from logging/destruction;
have biological hotspots with high biodiversity so many species
affected;
valuable timber is removed and so forest damaged;2 max
Do not accept acid rain (Brazil is low for acid rain).
Do not accept tourism/ecotourism unless tied to impacts on habitat(s).
Credit answers which either address reasons why this ecosystem is
intrinsically fragile or reasons why people might destroy the habitat.
[8]
119. No mark scheme availabl
120. (a) (i) tundra; 1

(ii) water/light/temperature is limiting;
water is frozen for most of year in permafrost;
precipitation rates are low;
snow cover prevents light reaching plants for part of year;
it is dark for 4 months of the year;
precipitation is lowest in months when light levels are highest;
temperature is low due to low intensity of solar insolation;
infertile soil due to low temperatures/acidity/waterlogging/low
nutrient turnover;2 max
Accept any other reasonable suggestion.
(b) (i) warmer in summer/June to September in both periods;
temperatures consistently higher in 1991–2004;
especially in winter months/November to April;
smaller temperature ranges in 1991–2004;
temperature above freezing/warmer earlier in 1991–2004;
total precipitation lower in 1991–2004;
drier/lower precipitation in the summer/June to August in both periods;
total precipitation is more evenly distributed in 1991–2004;
anomalously low precipitation in October 1991–2004;
precipitation lower in every month in 1991–2004;3 max
Award [2 max] if either precipitation or air temperature are
not mentioned.
Accept converse answer in each case but do not credit both.
44
(ii) climate change/global warming/natural variation/increased
combustion of fossil fuels; 1
(c) (i) geographical isolation/no interbreeding with mainland reindeer;
adaptation to local conditions/no predators so no need for
long legs/natural selection;2 max
(ii) Do not award marks if arrows are drawn onto the table in
the incorrect direction.
Do not credit food chain for mainland reindeer if warble flies
are missing.
Svalbard reindeer:
(solar insolation) → small arctic plants → reindeer ;
Mainland reindeer:2 max
w o lf
(solar insolation) → reindeer moss/lichen → wild reindeer w a rb le fly
(iii) Award [1 max].

Svalbard’s food chain is less stable because;
Award [1 max].
it has fewer trophic levels/interrelationships are simpler/
chain not web;
habitat covers a smaller land area;
smaller populations are more likely to crash;
human impact on Svalbard may destabilize that food chain;
low nutrient value of food;
no predators to manage/control Svalbard reindeer population;2 max
Do not award mark for stating wild reindeer food chain is less
stable. Accept other valid reasons.
(d) (i) positive feedback amplifies/increases change/leads to
(exponential) deviation away from an equilibrium, whereas
negative feedback damps down/ neutralizes/counteracts any
deviation away from an equilibrium; OTTWE 1
(ii) Positive feedback: [2 max]
methane gas released from mining increases global warming/
greenhouse effect;
higher temperatures melt permafrost, releasing more methane
so temperature increases further;
coal dust deposited on snow or ice reduces albedo/reflection
of solar energy/increases solar energy absorbed so ice and
snow melt;
with no snow cover, albedo is further reduced, so frozen
soil thaws;
as permafrost melts, methane gas is released so temperatures
increase further;
Negative feedback: [2 max]
dust particles in the atmosphere act as condensation nuclei
leading to more precipitation;
dust particles washed out of atmosphere by extra precipitation;
so atmospheric dust/precipitation levels return to normal;4 max
Accept any other valid example.
45
(e) (i) very cold/permafrost/frozen;
low running costs/little electricity used;
few natural hazards;
little chance of civil unrest/little human disturbance;2 max
Do not accept answers which relate to general advantages of
having a seed vault or benefits to Svalbard e.g. jobs/tourism
revenue.
(ii) many rare/endangered wild plants are threatened with extinction

by human activity/natural hazards;
wild plants are often used for developing new drugs/providing
genes to give disease resistance/ability to withstand adverse
conditions to other species;
the species and/or genetic diversity of wild plants may be
culturally and aesthetically significant (and therefore worth
preserving);
ecosystems may become unstable if key species disappear/
diversity is reduced;
maintaining genetic diversity of food crops is vital for breeding
new varieties to cope with disease/adverse conditions;
many older varieties of food crops are no longer grown,
so the genetic diversity they provided for development of
new varieties is lost;
some transgenic crop varieties have a “terminator” gene, so
cannot produce viable seed for farmers to plant the following
season;2 max
(f) (i) latitude: 76° (accept 75°–77°) – 81° (accept 80°–82°) North/N; 1
(ii) exploitation of more inaccessible resources becomes economically
more viable as reserves diminish/prices rise;
increased demand for oil and gas encourages further exploitation
in new areas;
improved technology is now available for coping with difficult
Arctic weather and subsea conditions;
access becomes easier as ice thins/areas become ice free for
more of the year;
countries want their own oil and gas supply for strategic reasons;
increasing demand for resources due to population growth;
increasing demand for resources to sustain increased
expectations of higher standards of living;
recently discovered new reserves in the area;2 max
Answers must relate to an increasing trend.
[25]
46

Ibdp Ess Topic 1: Systems and Models (Answers) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1 1

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Ibdp Ess Topic 1: Systems and Models (Answers) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1 1

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IBDP ESS

Topic 1: Systems and models (Answers)

(ii) Burning fossil fuels releases more carbon dioxide/greenhouse

(c) (pioneer species are usually r-strategists and climax species

(ii) For example:

Award [1] for each two correct labels.

Three correct [2], one or two correct [1].2 max

87. (a) a simplified description of reality;

(b) producers convert solar energy into chemical energy through

(c) e.g. Chilean matorral3 max

(b) (i) MEDCs have a greater proportion of animal protein in their

104. No mark scheme available

Accept any other reasonable answers.4 max

(c) systems are models with inputs, outputs and storages;

113. No mark scheme available

120. (a) (i) tundra; 1

(iii) Award [1 max].

(ii) many rare/endangered wild plants are threatened with extinction

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