GEOHORIZONS AUTHOR

Bruce S. Hart  Earth and Planetary Sci-

Channel detection in 3-D ences Department, McGill University, Mon-
treal, Quebec H3A 2A7, Canada;
hart@eps.mcgill.ca
seismic data using sweetness Bruce Hart held positions with the Geological
Survey of Canada, Penn State, and the New
Bruce S. Hart Mexico Bureau of Mines prior to joining McGill
University in 2000. He was the Southwest Sec-
tion AAPG’s Educator of the Year in 2002 –
2003, a Visiting Lecturer for the Canadian So-
ABSTRACT ciety of Petroleum Geologists in 2006, and
was named an Outstanding Reviewer for Geo-
Sweetness is a seismic attribute that, especially when used in
physics in 2006.
conjunction with coherency, can be very useful for channel
detection in deep-water clastic and coastal-plain settings. Al-
though the attribute is not new, previous documentation of its ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
utility and derivation has been mostly lacking. In this article, I thank ConocoPhillips and in particular David
I present images of channels from three-dimensional seismic McGee for the access to the deep-water 3-D
volumes that were derived using sweetness, and discuss the seismic data, and for the permission to pub-
physical basis of the attribute. Furthermore, the modeling pre- lish the seismic images from that data set.
sented here suggests that sweetness could be used in a semi- Seismic data from Alberta were provided by
Millenium Seismic. Parts of this work were
quantitative way to predict net-to-gross ratio in channel sys-
undertaken while I was employed at Conoco-
tems. Sweetness is derived by dividing reflection strength by Phillips in Houston during a sabbatical leave.
the square root of instantaneous frequency. This mathemat- A grant from the Natural Sciences and Engi-
ical definition captures attribute relationships that seismic in- neering Research Council Discovery Grant
terpreters have been using qualitatively for many years: iso- program supported the research conducted at
lated sand bodies in shale successions tend to generate stronger, McGill University. Finally, I thank William A.
Hill and D. B. Macurda Jr. for their helpful
broader reflections than the surrounding shale. Sweetness be-
reviews.
comes less useful for channel detection when acoustic imped-
ance contrasts between sands and shales are low or when sands
and shales are highly interbedded.

INTRODUCTION

Seismic attributes can be used for both quantitative and qual-

itative purposes. Quantitative uses include prediction of phys-
ical properties such as porosity or lithology (e.g., Leiphart
and Hart, 2001; Sagan and Hart, 2006). Qualitative uses in-
clude detection of stratigraphic or structural features. A lim-
ited number of abstracts and articles have referred to an attri-
bute termed ‘‘sweetness’’ (e.g., Goff, 2004; Choo et al., 2006;

Copyright #2008. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received December 3, 2007; provisional acceptance January 15, 2008; revised manuscript
received January 27, 2008; final acceptance February 5, 2008.
DOI:10.1306/02050807127

AAPG Bulletin, v. 92, no. 6 (June 2008), pp. 733 – 742 733
McGrory et al., 2006) and suggested that the at-
tribute is useful for detecting channels, typically in
deep-water settings. However, none of those pub-
lications describe the attribute’s derivation or pres-
ent images of channels imaged using sweetness. In
this article, I present examples of seismic images
that illustrate the usefulness of sweetness for imag-
ing channels in siliciclastic successions. I show that
corendering sweetness with coherency attributes
(e.g., semblance) can be a very useful visualization
technique. The software (GeoProbe1) employed
here corenders the two attributes by defining one
attribute (in this case sweetness) using color and
the other attribute (semblance) using shading (as if
light were shining on the data), a technique some-
times referred to as ‘‘bump mapping’’ in graphics
programming. The semblance attribute helps to de-
fine the channel margins whereas the sweetness at-
tribute helps to define the lithology of the channel
fill. I also present the results of simple seismic mod-
eling experiments and illustrate the utility of the
attribute for making relative predictions of net-to-
gross ratio.
WHAT IS SWEETNESS?
Sweetness is an attribute that was developed and
implemented into a seismic interpretation soft-
ware in the late 1990s for identifying sands and
sandstones (henceforth collectively referred to as
‘‘sands’’) using three-dimensional (3-D) seismic
data in clastic successions. It is derived by combin-
ing instantaneous frequency and reflection strength,
an approach first described by Radovich and Olive-
ros (1998). Mathematically, sweetness is derived
by dividing reflection strength (also known as ‘‘in-
stantaneous amplitude’’ or ‘‘amplitude envelope’’)
by the square root of instantaneous frequency. Re-
flection strength and instantaneous frequency are
complex trace attributes defined by Taner and She-
riff (1977). Reflection strength is amplitude inde-
pendent of phase, is always positive, and has the
same range of values as amplitude from which it
is derived. Instantaneous frequency is the rate of
change of phase, has units of hertz, and is related
to both the bandwidth of the seismic data and bed
734 Geohorizons
thickness. The units for sweetness (amplitude di-
vided by the square root of hertz) are difficult to
understand physically, and so sweetness is best
thought of as a relative value.
Parts of a seismic volume characterized by both
high amplitudes and low frequency will have high
sweetness, whereas other combinations of those
attributes will have low sweetness (Figure 1). This
definition captures relationships that seismic inter-
preters have observed and employed empirically
for many years in seismic data from marine clastic
settings: Shale-dominated intervals tend to be char-
acterized by low amplitudes (small acoustic imped-
ance contrasts) and relatively closely spaced re-
flections (high frequency), whereas isolated sandy
intervals, such as channel fills and frontal splays,
in the shales correspond to high amplitudes (high
acoustic impedance contrasts with the shales) and
low frequencies (broad reflections).
Because reflection strength is always positive,
the nature of the acoustic impedance contrast be-
tween the sand and shale is unimportant. Both high-
amplitude peaks and high-amplitude troughs (cor-
responding to positive and negative reflection
coefficients, respectively, using North American po-
larity) will correspond to high reflection strength
values and therefore correspond to high sweetness
values. This means that the sand can have either
higher or lower acoustic impedance than the sur-
rounding shale, but the magnitude of the imped-
ance contrast is important. When the magnitude of
the acoustic impedance contrast is small, reflection
strength will be small and sweetness will also be
small. As such, sweetness is not a particularly use-
ful attribute for distinguishing sands from shales
when the contrast in acoustic impedance between
those lithologies is low, or if destructive interfer-
ence from reflections above and below the sand
prevents high-amplitude reflections from develop-
ing (e.g., in successions with many closely spaced
sand and shale interbeds). In reality, any factor that
affects either reflection strength or instantaneous
frequency (such as pore-filling fluids, tuning effects,
etc.) will result in changes in sweetness. Sweetness
also shows variability in carbonate successions, but
further discussion of sweetness variations in car-
bonates is beyond the scope of this article.

SEMIQUANTITATIVE APPLICATION
Goff (2004) suggested that sweetness could be
useful to help constrain the range of possible net-
to-gross ratios in deep-water turbidite settings.
To test his conclusion, I undertook some simple
seismic modeling and generated a 3-D seismic cube
that could be used to examine the effects of chang-
ing net-to-gross ratio, and changes in thickness of
the sandy interval, on sweetness. In the crossline
direction, the geologic model consists of a strati-
graphic ‘‘interval’’ of constant thickness but with
a net-to-gross ratio that ranges continuously from
0.96 at one end (mostly sand) to 0.04 at the other
end (mostly shale; Figure 2). In the inline direc-
tion, the thickness of the interval ranges from 5
(below tuning) to 120 m (16 to 394 ft) (greater than
the wavelength) in 5-m (16-ft) increments. The
model was convolved with a Butterworth wavelet
having a dominant frequency of 30 Hz. The dimen-
sions of the resultant 3-D cube were 100 cross-
lines by 14 inlines, and the net-to-gross ratio is
known at every trace location. I then loaded the cube
into a seismic interpretation package (Figure 3A)
and generated a sweetness version of the volume
(Figure 3B).
Figure 1. Surface showing sweetness
(vertical axis and color bar) as a function
of some theoretically possible combina-
tions of reflection strength and instanta-
neous frequency. Values of reflection
strength are the same as amplitude (in-
stantaneous amplitude values correspond
to 8-bit amplitude values) but are all
positive. Units for instantaneous frequency
are in hertz (the range of instantaneous
frequency was chosen to be typical of
petroleum industry seismic data sets). High
sweetness (yellow and orange) is associ-
ated with high reflection strength and
low instantaneous frequency.
The reflections at the top and base of the in-
terval were autotracked in the amplitude cube,
and then these horizons were used to extract var-
ious sweetness measures (e.g., extractions along
horizons and between horizons). The clearest re-
lationship between net-to-gross ratio and sweet-
ness was observed between the root-mean-square
sweetness and net-to-gross ratio in the analysis win-
dow (Figure 4). Although there is variability in the
values of sweetness between lines, and there is
some variability (‘‘scatter’’) along each line, sweet-
ness is proportional to net-to-gross ratio for all mod-
eled thicknesses. Because the seismic model is noise
free, the scatter in the attributes (visible in the
sweetness cube; Figure 3B) is related to the way in
which the attributes are computed by the software
(cf., Barnes, 2007).
These results confirm the utility of using sweet-
ness to make semiquantitative predictions of net-
to-gross ratio. Nevertheless, as the interval thick-
ness starts approaching or exceeds the wavelength,
the seismic data, including sweetness, start showing
individual beds in the interval. In this case, ampli-
tudes, and sweetness, are decreased because these
beds are well below tuning thickness. It should also
be noted that although sweetness is proportional
Hart 735
Figure 2. Geologic model used to gen-
erate seismic models used to examine
relationships between net-to-gross ratio
and thickness of the entire sandy inter-
val. The net-to-gross ratio ranges along
each transect from 0.96 (left) to 0.04
(right) and that corresponds to the cross-
line direction in the resultant three-
dimensional seismic cube. The thickness
of the sandy interval ranges from 5 to
120 m (16 to 394 ft) in the inline direction.

to the net-to-gross ratio at a specific interval thick- (1) the zero-offset acoustic modeling used here
ness, the absolute values of sweetness are also af- does not capture elastic or amplitude-versus-offset
fected by the interval thickness. Finally, the mod- (AVO) effects, (2) multiples or noise were not in-
eling used in this study was simplistic. For example, cluded in modeling, and (3) the stratigraphy is very

Figure 3. (A) Seismic ampli-

tude cube generated by con-
volving different geologic models
(Figure 2) with a Butterworth
wavelet having a dominant fre-
quency of 30 Hz. The modeled
net-to-gross ratio and interval
thickness are known at every
trace location. Reflections from
the top (blue) and base (orange/
yellow) of the sandy interval
were autotracked and used
to extract sweetness values.
(B) Sweetness volume gener-
ated from the amplitude vol-
ume shown in part A. Figure 1
shows color bar values for
sweetness.

736 Geohorizons

Figure 4. Crossplots of root-mean-square (RMS) sweetness
(extracted between the base and top of the interval) and net-
to-gross ratio derived from the seismic model shown in Figure 3.
The net-to-gross ratio is known at every trace location from the
original model (Figure 2). Note the positive, nearly linear rela-
tionship between these two variables.
idealized. Other types of stratigraphic successions
(e.g., fining upward, coarsening upward, random
successions) might respond somewhat differently,
even if net-to-gross ratio is the same. Forward
modeling, which is more sophisticated than the
example shown here, could be employed to test
these effects.
SAMPLE IMAGES
This section illustrates several examples of the use
of sweetness to image channel features. As shown
below, corendering (i.e., simultaneously display-
ing) sweetness with semblance (a type of ‘‘coher-
ency’’ attribute) is a powerful combination for
defining channels and their fill. The utility of co-
herency attributes for channel detection was first
documented by Bahorich and Farmer (1995).
Figure 5 is from a deep-water setting, between
2 and 2.5 s into the data (i.e., the shallow section
above potential reservoir levels). The vertical tran-
sect shown in part A displays areas of high and low
amplitudes. Based on their reflection character,
the low-amplitude intervals are typically inter-
preted as shale, and high-amplitude reflections
are commonly interpreted to represent channel fills
(where the reflections are discontinuous and/or
appear to be associated with incision) or possibly
condensed sections (where the reflections are con-
tinuous). Part B of Figure 5 shows the vertical tran-
sect with an inclined slice through the volume that
corenders sweetness and semblance, and in part C,
the vertical transect has been removed. Note how
the labeled high-amplitude reflections in part A
correspond to a single meandering channel that is
visible in the sweetness image. In addition to the
channel sands, high-amplitude continuous reflec-
tions and distinctive stratal terminations (e.g., trun-
cation below, onlap above) are associated with con-
densed sections or sequence boundaries (discussion
of the local stratigraphy or relationships between
sequence boundaries and condensed sections is be-
yond the scope of this article). This succession of
views allows relationships between stratigraphic
(part A) and planform (part C) geometries and
between amplitude and sweetness to be quickly
assessed.
Figure 6 shows a larger area of the inclined
slice shown in Figure 5. Part A is a slice through an
amplitude volume (top), and part B is an equiv-
alent slice (bottom) that corenders sweetness (col-
ors) and semblance (black). Although the locations
of some channels are detectable in the amplitude
slice, the margins of the channels are clearly de-
fined by the semblance attribute, and the variations
in sweetness suggest variations in the lithology of
the channel fills. Two areas of channel develop-
ment can be defined, one on the left and one on the
right, with at least two superimposed channels (each
with slightly different sinuosity) visible in each area.
The channels on the right have higher sweetness and
are therefore based on modeling results presented
previously, probably sandier, at least at the level
of the slice. Clearly, the combination of sweetness
and semblance is superior to a conventional am-
plitude slice for detecting channels and predicting
the lithology of the channel fill. The slice approxi-
mately follows the level of the channels (it was not
possible to derive a horizon slice that showed both
channel systems), but it also cuts through an ero-
sion surface that underlies the channels. Note the
high-amplitude and high-sweetness area, marked
Hart 737
Figure 5. (A) Vertical transect through
an offshore, deep-water three-dimensional
seismic volume, showing high-amplitude
reflections characteristic of sands in a
shaly succession. (B) Combination of the
vertical transect shown in part A with
an inclined slice through a corendered
semblance and sweetness volume. The
discontinuous high-amplitude reflections
from part A correspond to a meandering
channel. (C) Inclined slice through the
corendered semblance and sweetness
volume showing the planform geometry
of the meandering channel shown in
part A. Scale for sweetness images shown
in parts B and C is shown in Figure 1.

as a condensed section, on the figure. In cross sec-
tion (not shown), the reflections at this level have
high amplitudes, are laterally continuous, and have
other stratigraphic characteristics typical of units
described as shaly condensed sections. This exam-
ple shows that it is not just sands that can generate
high sweetness values, and an interpreter would
need to use sweetness in conjunction with other
lines of evidence (e.g., reflection character, map
view distributions) to predict lithology.
Figure 7 shows three views of some submarine
channels from approximately 4 to 4.5 s into the data
(i.e., a typical reservoir level). As per Figure 5, the
top image is a vertical transect through the am-
plitude version of the seismic data. Two laterally
stacked (sensu Mayall et al., 2006) channels are
apparent in part A, the upper channel being lat-
erally offset and incising into the lower channel.
Areas of high and low amplitude are visible in the
seismic transect, and the low-amplitude areas
would typically be interpreted as shale. The chan-
nels appear to cut down into some relatively high-
amplitude, continuous reflections. Similar seismic
stratigraphic relationships have been interpreted
as channels that have incised into a frontal splay
as part of a broadly prograding system (e.g., Posa-
mentier and Kolla, 2003; Saller et al., 2004). The
middle image shows a sweetness and semblance
slice intersecting the vertical amplitude transect.
The high-amplitude areas in the vertical transect

738 Geohorizons

correspond to high-sweetness areas in the time
slice. The lower image shows the slice alone. Cross-
cutting relationships visible in the slice would allow
the stratigraphic relationships (i.e., relative timing)
of the channels to be deduced. High-sweetness
areas on the sides of the channels represent the
sandy frontal splay in this inclined slice through the
data instead of condensed sections. Comparison of
the vertical transect and the slice (parts A and C,
respectively) allows relationships between plan-
form and cross sectional geometries to be com-
pared and understood, especially when slices and
transects can be interactively moved through the
3-D volume (not possible for this article).
Figure 8 shows a slice through Tertiary coastal-
plain deposits. Structural dip is low, and so the
time slice is approximately parallel to the stratig-
Figure 6. Comparison of inclined slice
through an amplitude volume (A) and
an equivalent slice showing corendered
sweetness (colors) and semblance (black)
(B) through a deep-water clastic section.
Channel systems are visible. The inclined
slice cuts across stratigraphy but has
the advantage of showing two different
channel complexes at either side of the
image. Color scale for sweetness is shown
in Figure 1. Note the improved definition
of the channel systems and differences
in sweetness that probably represent
changes in lithology (net-to-gross ratio)
in the channel systems at the level of the
slice.
raphy. As in the deep-water examples presented
earlier, sweetness is corendered with semblance in
this image. The semblance data clearly indicate the
margin of some crosscutting channels and the lo-
cation of at least one significant fault. Variations in
sweetness within the channels suggest variations in
lithology (i.e., sandiness) at the level of the slice.
Most of the interchannel areas are of low sweetness
and, thus, are probably shale. This example helps
to demonstrate the utility of sweetness for channel
detection in settings other than deep-water clastics.
One final example illustrates limitations on
the usefulness of sweetness for channel detection.
Figure 9A and B show slices through an amplitude
volume and corender sweetness and semblance
from a part of the Western Canada sedimentary ba-
sin. The slice parallels an underlying downlap or
Hart 739

Figure 7. (A) Vertical transect through a seismic amplitude
volume showing the two stacked, incised submarine channel
systems. (B) Combination of the vertical transect shown in part
A with an inclined slice through a corendered semblance and
sweetness volume. Note that the plane somewhat cuts across
the stratigraphy. (C) Inclined slice through the corendered sem-
blance and sweetness volume showing the planform geometry
of the channel systems shown in part A. Crosscutting relation-
ships, defined by semblance, are useful for defining the relative
ages of the channel systems. Color scale for sweetness is shown
in Figure 1. Note changes in sweetness, probably associated
with changes in sand content at the level of the slice, in the two
channel systems. High-sweetness areas outside of the channel
probably represent sandy frontal splay deposits over which the
channel system has prograded.
maximum flooding surface (i.e., it is approximate-
ly conformable to stratigraphy) and cuts through
the data at the level of coastal-plain deposits of the
Upper Cretaceous Dunvegan Formation, a broadly
740 Geohorizons
deltaic package. Plint (2000) used gamma-ray-log
signatures and other data to show that fluvial and/
or deltaic distributary channels and possible in-
cised valley fills should be present at the approx-
imate level of these slices. Some relatively nar-
row channels are identifiable in the amplitude slice
(Figure 9A) but are more difficult or impossible
to identify in the sweetness or semblance slice
(Figure 9B). Figure 9C shows representative logs
through the Dunvegan interval in this area (un-
fortunately none of the available wells penetrate
the channel features visible in Figure 9A). Sand-
filled channels are likely not identifiable using
sweetness because of a variety of factors that in-
clude (1) a lack of consistent impedance contrast
between sandstones and shales, (2) an interference
from closely spaced adjacent reflections in this het-
erolithic part of the section, and (3) the relative
thinness of many of the channel deposits (most sand
thicknesses are well below the approximately 20-m
[65-ft] tuning thickness for this part of the data).
I have observed similar results (i.e., channels not
detectable using sweetness in areas where logs sug-
gest that they should be present) in other 3-D seis-
mic data volumes from sand-dominated coastal-
plain successions.
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
Sweetness is not a new attribute, but there are
few, if any, good published examples of its appli-
cation for channel detection (data confidentiality
issues undoubtedly contribute to this problem).
As such, the utility of the attribute for visualization
of channels and making semiquantitative predic-
tions of net-to-gross ratio may not be appreciated by
the geologic community at large. This article seeks
to illustrate the types of features that may be im-
aged with sweetness and to discuss some of the lim-
itations on the application of that attribute.
Sweetness is a useful attribute for detecting
channels or other stratigraphic features when those
features can be distinguished from a ‘‘background’’
lithology by a combination of instantaneous fre-
quency and reflection strength. Hart (2008) defines
Figure 8. Time slice through a seismic
cube from the Tertiary Gulf of Mexico
showing delta plain channels and faults.
Sweetness (colors: high sweetness in yel-
low and orange) is corendered with
semblance to define channel margins
and faults. Variations in sweetness within
channel segments suggest changes in
lithology (e.g., net-to-gross ratio).

Figure 9. (A) Amplitude slice through

delta plain deposits of the Dunvegan
Formation in the deep basin of western
Canada. Note the presence of channel
systems. (B) Corendered sweetness (scale
shown in Figure 1) and semblance at
the same level as the amplitude slice shown
in part A. Note that the channels are less
visible in this view than in the amplitude
slice. (C) Representative well logs (GR =
gamma ray, DT = sonic) through the
Dunvegan Formation. Note the hetero-
lithic nature of the delta plain deposits
and the lack of a clear relationship be-
tween lithology and velocity (and there-
fore acoustic impedance) in that interval.

Hart 741
attributes, like sweetness, that capture changes in
waveform shape that are caused by changes in
stratigraphy as ‘‘stratigraphically significant’’ attri-
butes. Sand-filled channels, from deep-water or flu-
vial systems, are stratigraphic features that can be
well imaged by sweetness. As such, the attribute
has potential application in seismic geomorphology
studies, in that it can be used to help predict the
lithology of features seen in planform. Care would
be needed when using sweetness in areas where
abrupt pressure changes (e.g., onset of hard over-
pressures), diagenetic changes (e.g., onset of silica
cementation), or other phenomena are likely to af-
fect the relative acoustic impedance contrasts be-
tween sands and shales over relatively short strati-
graphic intervals.
Unfortunately, I could not use logs from wells
to test the lithology predictions for any of the chan-
nel features imaged using sweetness in this article.
As such, it was not possible to calibrate the sweet-
ness attribute to measured sand thicknesses from
logs, or even to test the lithology predictions. How-
ever, and from a semiquantitative perspective, the
modeling presented in this article supports the use
of sweetness to estimate at least a relative net-to-
gross ratio (as proposed by Goff, 2004), although
the thickness of the interval (commonly an un-
known in exploration settings) does influence the
result. As demonstrated in this article, sweetness
cannot be used alone for lithology prediction in all
settings. However, integration of well logs (where
available), seismic modeling, seismic stratigraphy,
quantitative seismic analyses (e.g., AVO studies),
or geologic analyses with sweetness-based images
should help to reduce drilling risk.
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