JEAN M.
TWENGE San Diego State University
W. KEITH CAMPBELL
CRAIG A. FOSTER United States Air Force Academy**
Parenthood and Marital Satisfaction:
A Meta-Analytic Review
This meta-analysis finds that parents report lower
marital satisfaction compared with nonparents (d
5 2.19, r 5 2.10). There is also a significant
negative correlation between marital satisfaction
and number of children (d 5 2.13, r 5 2.06).
The difference in marital satisfaction is most pro-
nounced among mothers of infants (38% of moth-
ers of infants have high marital satisfaction, com-
pared with 62% of childless women). For men,
the effect remains similar across ages of children.
The effect of parenthood on marital satisfaction is
more negative among high socioeconomic groups,
younger birth cohorts, and in more recent years.
The data suggest that marital satisfaction de-
creases after the birth of a child due to role con-
flicts and restriction of freedom.
Deciding whether to have children is one of the
most important and life-changing decisions many
Department of Psychology, San Diego State University, 5500
Campanile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-4611 (jtwenge@
mail.sdsu.edu).
*Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens,
GA 30602-3013.
**DFBL, 2354 Fairchild Drive, M2, United States Air
Force Academy, CO 80840-6228.
Key Words: birth cohort, children, gender, marital satis-
faction, marriage.
574 Journal of Marriage and Family 65 (August 2003): 574–583
University of Georgia*
people make. In contrast to previous historical
eras, individuals today have an unusual amount of
freedom to decide if and when they will have chil-
dren and how many they will have. In many cases,
this is a mutual decision reached between marital
partners. In making this decision, couples some-
times consider an important question: ‘‘How will
children affect our relationship?’’ Folk wisdom
suggests that babies bring couples closer together,
and some couples name greater closeness as a rea-
son for having a baby (Brinley, 1991). Unfortu-
nately, some scientific research suggests that cou-
ples actually grow less satisfied with their marital
relationship after having children (see Belsky &
Pensky, 1988, for a review). Others may argue
that children will have no effect (that an unhappy
marriage will remain unhappy, and a happy mar-
riage will remain happy). Which viewpoint is cor-
rect? If there is an effect, how large is it? What
variables determine the effect of children on mar-
ital satisfaction? Finally, why might children af-
fect marital satisfaction? We seek to answer these
questions in this meta-analytic review of parent-
hood and marital satisfaction.
Understanding the transition to parenthood is
not simply a matter of scientific interest. Delin-
eating the relationship between parenthood and
marital satisfaction could have profound practical
value for those who wish to make an informed
decision about having children. Not only would
Parenthood and Marital Satisfaction
potential parents be able to make better decisions,
but also—and perhaps more importantly—future
parents could prepare for and hopefully counteract
the potentially negative effect of children on their
marriages. In short, social scientists and the public
alike may benefit from a clarification of the rela-
tionship between parenthood and marital quality.
Here, we first review the specific arguments pre-
dicting a decrease in marital satisfaction during
the transition to parenthood. Second, we outline
the moderator variables that may have an influ-
ence on the effect size. Third, we outline four gen-
eral theories that address the influence of children
on marital satisfaction. Finally, we present the re-
sults of the meta-analysis and test each of the rel-
evant theories.
WHY MIGHT THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD
DECREASE MARITAL SATISFACTION?
The seminal research on this topic was conducted
by LeMasters (1957), who suggested that the ad-
dition (or removal) of a family member could
force a reorganization of the family system. This
reorganization may be described as a crisis: a de-
cisive change for which old patterns are inade-
quate. In interviews with parents of sound mental
health who had at least one child under 5 years
old, mothers reported experiencing a loss of sleep,
chronic tiredness, confinement to the home, guilt
over not being better mothers, worry about their
appearance, and other dissatisfactions. Fathers re-
ported similar experiences and added problems
such as experiencing a decline in their wife’s sex-
ual responsiveness, economic pressure resulting
from their wife’s withdrawal from the workplace,
and general disenchantment with the parental role.
Further research has supported and extended
LeMasters’ (1957) findings. The transition to par-
enthood may (a) increase chores, stress, and
strain, partially due to decreased time for discus-
sion (Anderson, Russell, & Schumm, 1983; Lo-
pata, 1971); (b) interfere with couple companion-
ship (Glenn & Weaver, 1978; White, 1983); (c)
interfere with the couple’s sex life (Blumstein &
Schwartz, 1983); (d) overload the number of so-
cial roles accumulated by the new parents (Rollins
& Galligan, 1978); (e) exacerbate inequity be-
tween partners that underbenefits wives (Feeney,
Peterson, & Noller, 1994); and (f) create negative
evaluations of marriage, especially among nontra-
ditional women (Belsky, Lang, & Huston, 1986).
Thus it appears that the transition to parenthood
575
may result in a number of consequences that de-
crease marital satisfaction.
Nevertheless, there are certainly many instanc-
es when children improve or increase satisfaction
or at least do not have a negative effect. Further,
the decrease in satisfaction may be experienced
disproportionately by some individuals (e.g., by
women more than men). Examining moderator
variables may help address these questions.
Moderator Variables
Past research on the effect of children on marital
satisfaction has been understandably hindered by
the difficulty of including multiple moderators in
single studies. Most studies, for example, include
only one type of sample and thus cannot compare
across many variables. Meta-analysis offers the
potential to examine moderators that have not
been compared in the literature thus far because
they are only evident when one looks across stud-
ies. The moderators examined in the present meta-
analysis include the following: (a) gender of par-
ent, (b) age of child, (c) socioeconomic status
(SES) of parents, and (d) birth cohort (i.e., the
birth year of the parents). We also examine the
measure of marital satisfaction used. All of these
variables could moderate the effect size. For ex-
ample, any differences in marital satisfaction be-
tween parents and nonparents could be stronger
for women compared with men.
Theoretical Models
As noted earlier, children likely exert multiple in-
fluences on marital satisfaction. Explanations of
these influences vary; nevertheless, it is important
to elaborate and understand the general theoretical
underpinnings of the effect. In the present paper,
we combine the insights of past research into four
general theoretical models. We call these (a) the
role conflict model, (b) the restriction of freedom
model, (c) the sexual dissatisfaction model, and
(d) the financial cost model. Each model is asso-
ciated with a pattern of predictions on the mod-
erator variables. In meta-analysis, each of the in-
dividual predictions can be tested empirically.
Role conflict model. The addition of children to a
family can lead to a reorganization of social roles
along traditional lines. This is especially true for
women, who are often expected to take on a pri-
marily caregiving role for the child. The father
also may be expected to take on a greater bread-
576
winning role than before. A problem arises when
the couple does not desire traditional roles. Wom-
en, for example, may give up or downgrade their
professional roles for the sake of their caregiving
roles. The result may be more power for husbands
(who now are the significant or sole breadwinners;
Feeney et al., 1994). Women also may experience
some psychological stress as they see themselves
primarily in a caregiving role, especially if they
are accustomed to a professional role (Belsky et
al., 1986). In addition, many women are overbur-
dened and feel that they are not receiving enough
help from their partners (Hochschild, 1989). Fi-
nally, becoming a parent adds another social role,
and having more roles may lead to stress and con-
flict (Rollins & Galligan, 1978).
The role conflict model generates several spe-
cific predictions for the moderator variables. First,
women should experience greater dissatisfaction
compared with men. Women are the primary care-
takers, so their roles change more when a child is
born. Second, the effect should be greater when
children are infants. Older children demand less
direct caregiving and spend much of their time in
school. Thus they create less role conflict for par-
ent caregivers. Next, high SES individuals (espe-
cially women) should suffer the lowest satisfac-
tion with the presence of children. High SES
women may have successful careers that they may
scale back or give up with the arrival of a child.
In general, high SES people enjoy the freedom
and individualism that money and professional ca-
reers bring; the loss of freedom and reduced au-
tonomy experienced after the birth of a child may
require a greater adjustment (e.g., Jenkins, Ras-
bash, & O’Connor, 2003).
Last, there might be a birth cohort effect. Re-
cent birth cohorts, where women expect and ex-
perience more nontraditional roles, should report
the largest negative effects of children. Women
today have more prestigious work roles and have
taken on the assertive personality required for
these roles (Twenge, 2001). The adjustment from
professional career woman to mother is much
more radical than the smaller adjustments of pre-
vious decades (when women had less prestigious
jobs or were not employed at all before having
children). In addition, having children is now seen
as a choice, rather than a social imperative (Yan-
kelovich, 1981). Thus parents might believe that
it is their ‘‘fault’’ when the transition to parent-
hood is difficult, rather than seeing it as the natural
next step in a marriage and something that every-
one experiences.
Journal of Marriage and Family
Restriction of freedom model. Children greatly di-
minish the freedom of individuals in a marriage.
Children demand a great deal of time and atten-
tion. These demands directly interfere with the
pursuit of the parents’ own pleasures, and thus
children restrict the experience of freedom for par-
ents. The restriction of freedom model generates
several specific predictions, many of which are
similar to those for the role conflict model, prob-
ably because role conflict involves giving up free-
dom to pursue professional goals for the purpose
of childrearing. We present both models, however,
because their explanations for the effects are dif-
ferent practically and theoretically. For example,
a woman who desires a traditional role might not
feel role conflict but may still experience a restric-
tion of freedom.
The restriction of freedom model predicts that
women should experience greater dissatisfaction
than men, as they generally experience the greater
restriction of freedom. Similarly, the effect should
be greater when children are infants, because in-
fants demand the most time and attention. High
SES individuals (especially women) should suffer
the greatest dissatisfaction, as they are more likely
to leave or scale back desirable careers. More re-
cent studies should also find greater dissatisfac-
tion. Recent decades have seen increasing individ-
ualism and autonomy (Frum, 2000; Gough, 1991;
Twenge & Campbell, 2001), and individuals today
are less tied to family and social responsibilities
than those in the past (Putnam, 2000). In addition,
couples have children later in life on average and
thus become accustomed to a life of adult free-
doms before they become parents. Therefore, the
restriction of freedom brought on by parenthood
might come as a shock to more recent birth co-
horts.
Sexual dissatisfaction model. Children often inter-
fere with parents’ sex lives (Blumstein &
Schwartz, 1983). It is more difficult to have a sex-
ual relationship with children in the house. The
decrease in sexual intimacy may have negative
consequences for marital satisfaction.
The sexual dissatisfaction model generates sev-
eral specific predictions. Because men report
greater sexual desire in marriage (Baumeister, Ca-
tanese, & Vohs, 2001), men should experience the
greater dissatisfaction. Next, the effect of children
on sexual satisfaction might be largest for parents
with infants, because infants demand attention
throughout the evening and night. There should
be no effect for either SES or birth cohort, as these
Parenthood and Marital Satisfaction
variables are unlikely to interact with sexual sat-
isfaction.
Financial cost model. Children are expensive.
They can place significant stress on family fi-
nances, which may lead to dissatisfaction with the
marriage (e.g., LeMasters, 1957). The financial
cost model generates several specific predictions.
LeMasters suggested that the financial burden of
children should be greater for husbands than
wives because husbands are the traditional bread-
winners. Therefore, this model suggests greater
dissatisfaction among men. Children are generally
more expensive as they age, so the effect should
be greater for older children. There should be a
larger effect for low SES couples who will strug-
gle to make ends meet with the addition of chil-
dren. As for birth cohort, the effect should be
stronger with recent cohorts because children are
more expensive for recent than for earlier cohorts
(for example, the increase in the cost of a college
education has far outstripped inflation, as have
housing and day care costs).
PRESENT META-ANALYSIS
We conducted a meta-analysis of the effect of
children on marital satisfaction. We had three pri-
mary goals for this analysis: (a) to verify the mag-
nitude and direction of any existing effect of chil-
dren on marital satisfaction; (b) to investigate the
scope and moderators of the effect (e.g., Does the
effect occur for men and women? Are there birth
cohort differences?); and (c) to test four proposed
theoretical explanations for the effect of children
on marital satisfaction.
METHOD
Sample of Studies
We searched for articles using three techniques:
(a) PsycLIT (1974–2000) and Sociofile (1974–
2000) using the keywords children and marital
satisfaction; (b) reference sections of all included
journal articles for additional relevant articles; and
(c) dissertation abstracts, a major source of the
unpublished data of masters’ theses and disserta-
tions, using the same keywords (dissertations un-
available through interlibrary loan were examined
at the Library of Congress). We did not search for
conference papers, given the difficulty of system-
atically searching for and obtaining such papers.
577
Thus the sample of data points includes journal
articles, masters’ theses, and dissertations.
We searched for two types of studies, which
we analyze separately: studies comparing the mar-
ital satisfaction of people with children to those
without, and studies examining the correlation be-
tween marital satisfaction and number of children.
Studies reporting separate means or correlations
by relevant variables (e.g., sex) were included as
separate data points in the analysis; thus some
studies yielded more than one data point. The
searches yielded studies representative of the lit-
erature: four studies (3%) sampled exclusively
White respondents; 22 (15%) of the studies sam-
pled a minority group exclusively (Black, Hispan-
ic, or Asian); and most samples (122) were pre-
dominantly White but included all racial and
ethnic groups (82%). The searches yielded 97 ar-
ticles containing 148 data points that met the cri-
teria for inclusion in the meta-analysis. These
studies included a total of 47,692 respondents.
Criteria for Inclusion
We used several criteria for deciding which arti-
cles to include in the meta-analysis. First, an ar-
ticle needed to have a sample that included both
parents and nonparents. These took several forms:
Some couples were studied longitudinally, allow-
ing their satisfaction to be examined before and
after the birth of their first child. In other studies,
surveys compared the marital satisfaction of cou-
ples with children to that of couples without chil-
dren or simply reported a correlation between
marital satisfaction and the number of children. In
some cases, articles reported separate statistics on
marital satisfaction for couples with children of
different ages; in these cases, we compared non-
parents to parents with the youngest children (to
most accurately capture the transition to parent-
hood period). Second, the article needed to report
statistics sufficient for the calculation of an effect
size (d). We coded d from r, t, F, or means and
standard deviations (see, e.g., Wolf, 1986). A refer-
ence list of articles and dissertations included in the
meta-analysis is available by request to J. M. T.
Weights for d
We corrected for bias in d using two techniques.
For studies comparing couples with children to
those without, we used the formulas for w pre-
sented in Hedges and Becker (1986). For studies
reporting the correlation between marital satisfac-
578
tion and number of children, we converted each r
to z and then weighted by n 2 3 (Hedges & Olkin,
1985). For ease of presentation, we converted the
z back to d in the results. In all cases, positive
effect sizes indicate that parents’ marital satisfac-
tion was higher than that of nonparents’ or than
those with fewer children, whereas negative effect
sizes indicate that parents’ marital satisfaction was
lower than that of nonparents’ or than those with
fewer children. Thus a negative effect size means
that parenthood is associated with lower marital
satisfaction, and a positive effect size means that
parenthood is associated with higher marital sat-
isfaction. In a few cases, effect sizes were simply
reported as nonsignificant; for such effect sizes, a
null effect (d 5 .00) was entered.
Analyzing the two types of studies separately
proved useful for theoretical reasons as well.
Comparing parents and nonparents is the most di-
rect way of addressing how parenthood affects
marital satisfaction. The correlation with number
of children is less direct. Because samples usually
include many more parents than nonparents, stud-
ies reporting a correlation with the number of chil-
dren are concerned with the effect of a larger ver-
sus a smaller family on marital satisfaction.
Analyses
In performing the analyses, we employed standard
techniques used in meta-analysis (e.g., Hedges &
Becker, 1986). First, we weighted the effect sizes
as explained in the previous section. For all stud-
ies and for moderator variable subgroups (e.g.,
women with infants), we computed an effect size
and heterogeneity statistic (called total H or HT
for all samples and H within or HW for subgroups).
These statistics are computed using a x2 distribu-
tion and indicate whether the samples are signif-
icantly heterogeneous from each other. This anal-
ysis determines only that there is significant
variation among the samples; analyses for specific
moderator variables must be performed to ascer-
tain the source of this variation. To compare sub-
groups of moderator variables with each other, we
used H between (HB), which is analogous to an
analysis of variance (ANOVA).
Theoretical Moderators of Effect Size Magnitude
We coded each study for moderator variables that
might influence the effect size. A study that re-
ported means or correlations separately for mod-
erator variable subgroups (e.g., sex) was included
Journal of Marriage and Family
as separate data points. We coded each study for
the following variables: sex; age; race/ethnicity of
sample; length of marriage; age of children; SES
(coded as low, middle, or high); measure of mar-
ital satisfaction; measurement of children (pres-
ence or absence vs. number); year of data collec-
tion (coded as 2 years prior to publication unless
noted otherwise in the article; longitudinal studies
were coded by subtracting 2 years plus the num-
ber of years in the longitudinal study); and birth
cohort (year minus the mean age of the sample).
Some of these variables (e.g., length of marriage,
racial group) were not significant moderators and
are thus not discussed further.
RESULTS
Comparing Parents to Nonparents
Parents had significantly lower marital satisfaction
than nonparents (d 5 2.19, r 5 2.10) across 90
studies (n of respondents 5 31,331). The 95%
confidence interval was 2.22 to 2.16; because
this interval does not include zero, the d is sig-
nificant. This is a small effect size (around .20;
Cohen, 1977), but it is significantly different from
zero. As Rosenthal (1994) explains, an r of .10
means that 55% of nonparents have higher than
average marital satisfaction, compared with 45%
of parents. HT was 221.40, p , .001, showing that
these samples demonstrate significant heteroge-
neity and suggesting that there are significant
moderators.
Women showed a slight but significantly larger
effect size for parenthood than men (see Table 1).
Thus parenthood had a stronger negative effect on
women’s marital satisfaction compared with
men’s.
Among those samples reporting the informa-
tion, we also examined how the age of a couple’s
child or their youngest child influenced the effect.
The effect size in studies comparing childless cou-
ples to those with an infant was significantly high-
er (d 5 2.38; p , .001) than in those comparing
childless couples to those with a child older than
2 years (d 5 2.20).
Does age of child interact with gender in its
effect on marital satisfaction? We found that it
does. Men’s marital satisfaction is relatively in-
variant across children’s age (d 5 2.25 for men
with infants, d 5 2.30 for men with older chil-
dren). In contrast, the marital satisfaction of wom-
en with infants, compared with that of childless
women, is very low (d 5 2.50), whereas the dif-
Parenthood and Marital Satisfaction 579

TABLE 1. VARIABLES MODERATING THE EFFECT SIZE OF PARENTS’ VERSUS NONPARENTS’ MARITAL SATISFACTION

Variable and Categories H Between k d 95% CI for d H Within

Gender 4.38*
Men 29 2.13 2.17 to 2.09 44.95**
Women 38 2.19 2.23 to 2.15 111.34***
Age of child 10.83***
Infant 33 2.38 2.44 to 2.32 41.25*
Older than 2 years 16 2.20 2.29 to 2.11 22.88
Gender by age of child 27.26***
Women with infants 16 2.50 2.60 to 2.40 19.20
Women with older children 10 2.14 2.24 to 2.04 9.90
Men with infants 13 2.25 2.25 to 2.03 9.23
Men with older children 5 2.30 2.52 to 2.08 6.45
Socioeconomic status 57.72***
Low 3 .05 2.19 to .29 1.59
Middle 46 2.14 2.17 to 2.11 89.70***
High 27 2.45 2.53 to 2.37 26.73
Measure 35.68***
Standardized measures 43 2.36 2.41 to 2.31 50.67***
One item and not standard 47 2.15 2.18 to 2.12 124.59***
Note: k 5 number of samples in each group; d 5 difference in terms of standard deviations; CI 5 confidence interval.
*p , .05. **p , .01. ***p , .001.

ference is smaller for women with older children
(d 5 2.14). Thus the largest difference in marital
satisfaction is between childless women and wom-
en with infants. Only 38% of women with infants
have higher than average marital satisfaction,
compared with 62% of childless women (using the
binomial display of Rosenthal, 1994).
SES was also a significant moderator. The
presence of children has a more negative effect on
marital satisfaction among high SES groups (see
Table 1).
We also found historical and birth cohort ef-
fects. Year of data collection was significantly cor-
related with the effect size, weighted r 5 2.21, p
, .001. More recent samples showed a more neg-
ative effect of children on marital satisfaction.
Similarly, those from more recent birth cohorts
demonstrated a more negative effect size (the cor-
relation between birth cohort and d, weighted r 5
2.42, p , .001). Thus, more recent generations
of parents have experienced greater dissatisfaction
with their marriages after the birth of a child.
Compared with earlier generations, more recent
cohorts experienced a 42% greater drop in marital
satisfaction with the transition to parenthood (us-
ing the guidelines for r of Rosenthal, 1994).
The moderator variable results are best ex-
plained by the role conflict and restriction of free-
dom models. Both of these models predicted larg-
er effects for women, parents of infants, high SES
groups, and more recent birth cohorts. The sexual
dissatisfaction model, however, predicted a larger
effect for men and no effect for SES or birth co-
hort. The financial cost model predicted larger ef-
fects for men, parents of older children, and low
SES groups (exactly the opposite of the results we
found); however, this model did correctly predict
the larger effect size for more recent cohorts.
We also examined the measure of marital sat-
isfaction used. Standardized measures (the Locke-
Wallace, the Global Distress Scale, and the Dyadic
Adjustment Scale) yielded a significantly higher
effect size compared with single item and non-
standardized measures (see Table 1). It seems like-
ly that standardized measures are more valid and
reliable than single-item measures and thus have
more power to discriminate between parents and
nonparents. In addition, many single-item mea-
sures may not assess the specific areas of conflict
increased by parenthood. Overall, the moderator
variable results are best explained by the role con-
flict and restriction of freedom models.
Correlation Between Marital Satisfaction and
Number of Children
What is the correlation between the number of
children in a family and the parents’ marital sat-
isfaction? The relationship was negative, with a d
of 2.13 (z 5 2.06, r 5 2.06) across 58 samples
580
(n of respondents 5 16,361). Thus the more chil-
dren in the family, the lower the parents’ marital
satisfaction. For this analysis, each effect size was
converted to Fisher’s z and then weighted by n 2
3. We then converted the zs to ds in order to use
the same measure of effect size used in the other
analysis. The 95% confidence interval was 2.15
to 2.11; because this does not include zero, the
effect is significant. HT was 153.12, suggesting
significant heterogeneity.
Gender, age of youngest child, birth cohort,
and measurement of marital satisfaction were not
significant moderator variables in this analysis.
The effect size differed, however, with the SES of
the sample, HB 5 24.11, p , .001. In contrast to
the other analysis, the lower SES (d 5 2.26, k 5
7) and higher SES groups (d 5 2.28, k 5 13)
demonstrated similar, stronger effect sizes. In the
previous analyses, the high SES group had the
most negative effect size. Middle SES groups
showed a weaker effect (d 5 2.08, k 5 31). Be-
cause this analysis examines the correlation with
number of children, it could be that subsequent
children decrease marital satisfaction more signif-
icantly among those in the lower SES strata. Al-
ternatively, the high or low SES groups might
have a restriction of range problem in number of
children, which might have changed the effect
size in this analysis.
There was a significant correlation between the
effect size and year of data collection, r 5 2.31,
p , .01. Thus, children had a more negative effect
on marital satisfaction in recent years, compared
with past years, consistent with the results of the
previous analysis. Birth cohort was not signifi-
cantly correlated with effect size.
The theoretical models did not receive much
support from these results. None of the models
predicted a stronger effect size for middle SES
groups. The role conflict, restriction of freedom,
and financial cost models, however, predicted that
the effect of parenthood on marital satisfaction
would grow more negative over historical time.
None of the predictions of the sexual dissatisfac-
tion model were supported by these data.
DISCUSSION
The results of this meta-analysis show that parents
report lower marital satisfaction than nonparents.
In addition, people with more children report
greater marital dissatisfaction than people with
fewer children.
Journal of Marriage and Family
Size of the Effect
How large is a large effect? This is a subjective
judgment. Cohen (1977) would classify the effect
size comparing parents and nonparents (d 5
2.19) as small (under his guidelines, a d around
.20 is a small effect). Another way to understand
effect sizes is the binomial effect size display (Ro-
senthal, 1994). For example, the effect size com-
paring childless women and those with infants
was d 5 2.50, r 5 2.24. Converted to a binomial
display, 62% of childless women have high mar-
ital satisfaction compared with only 38% of wom-
en with infants. Understood this way, the effect is
substantial. For the overall effect (d 5 2.19, r 5
2.10), the comparison is as follows: 55% of peo-
ple without children have high marital satisfaction
compared with 45% of people with children. This
is a smaller, but still noticeable, effect.
Moderator Variables
The transition to parenthood. The effect size is
stronger when parents are compared with nonpar-
ents than when correlating marital satisfaction and
number of children. In addition, marital satisfac-
tion is lower among parents of infants, particularly
mothers. Taken together, these results suggest that
the transition to parenthood is crucial. Becoming
a parent has the largest effect on marital satisfac-
tion.
Gender. In studies comparing parents with non-
parents, women reported a slightly greater in-
crease in marital dissatisfaction with parenthood.
This effect was strengthened when the interaction
with the age of the child was introduced. Mothers
of infants are significantly more dissatisfied with
their marriages than any other group (e.g., men
with infants, men with older children, and women
with older children.) The large effect for mothers
of infants suggests that marital satisfaction de-
creases the most among the individuals who are
most responsible for the child. In the vast majority
of cases, this is the mother (e.g., Hochschild,
1989).
Socioeconomic status. In both analyses, high SES
groups showed more marital dissatisfaction with
parenthood when compared with middle-class in-
dividuals. In the analysis comparing parents and
nonparents, high SES individuals were also more
dissatisfied than low SES groups. Apparently par-
enthood has a greater effect on marital satisfaction
Parenthood and Marital Satisfaction
when one is particularly well educated or well-
off. As noted in the introduction, high SES indi-
viduals may experience more role conflict and
greater reduction in freedom with the birth of a
child (e.g., Jenkins et al., 2003).
Birth cohort. Both analyses demonstrated an ef-
fect for year of data collection, with more recent
studies finding more marital dissatisfaction with
parenthood. In addition, the analysis comparing
parents and nonparents found an effect for birth
cohort, with more recent generations showing
greater dissatisfaction (the number of children
analysis did not show a birth cohort difference).
In many ways, historical effects are cultural ef-
fects, with birth cohort a proxy for the culture of
the larger social environment (Twenge, 2001,
2002). The culture of previous generations valued
social conformity more and favored closer con-
nections with family and community (Fukuyama,
1999; Putnam, 2000; Yankelovich, 1981). Overall,
the 1950s and 1960s were more pronatalist, en-
couraging a social norm of childbearing; this at-
titude was also reflected in the high birth rates of
these eras. Couples in previous decades also mar-
ried and had children earlier in life. In contrast,
the culture of recent years appears to value indi-
vidual freedom and choice (Frum, 2000; Yanke-
lovich), which is also reflected in the lower birth
rate. Perhaps because of a focus on individual
goals, couples now, on average, marry later and
have children later. For many people today, the
preparenthood adult period is one of extraordinary
freedom and self-focus. Consequently, there may
be a greater contrast between young adult life and
the early years of parenthood, a contrast that may
make the transition more difficult and lead to
greater marital dissatisfaction.
Measurement. In the analysis comparing parents
and nonparents, standardized measures showed a
larger effect than nonstandard and single-item
measures. Standardized measures are more valid
and reliable, strengthening their utility. In addi-
tion, many of them include items that reflect the
models presented previously; for example, they
may ask specific questions about traditional values
and feelings of freedom. These results suggest that
single-item ratings of marital satisfaction may be
particularly unreliable and weak. More than likely,
participants answer defensively or holistically, so
the question does not capture the sources of con-
flict and interaction that standardized scales mea-
sure. If possible, future researchers should avoid
581
single-item questions about marital satisfaction
and instead administer multiple-item, standardized
scales.
Examining the Four Theoretical Models
The analysis of the moderator variables made it
possible to test the theoretical perspectives out-
lined in the discussion. For the data on presence
versus absence of children, the moderator variable
results strongly favor the role conflict model and
the restricted freedom model, with almost all of
their predictions supported by the data. For ex-
ample, both models predicted a stronger negative
effect for women, parents of infants, high SES
individuals, and more recent years and birth co-
horts. The sexual dissatisfaction model and the fi-
nancial cost model received less support. Al-
though some of the predictions of these models
were supported, several others were not (e.g., both
predicted a stronger effect for men, and neither
predicted the SES results).
Strengths and Limitations
One of the most significant strengths of this meta-
analysis is its summary of a very large body of
research. We located and analyzed data from 148
samples and 47,692 individuals. This represents
the largest analysis to date of the effect of children
on marital satisfaction. With so many data points
to analyze, we were able to address many ques-
tions that individual studies cannot. For example,
we were able to compare samples from many dif-
ferent historical periods and with different ages of
children, as well as studies using different mea-
sures of marital satisfaction.
This analysis also has limitations. Although we
found an overall effect size for parents versus
nonparents and for parents with fewer versus more
children, there were not enough data points to
compare couples with one child versus those with
two versus three or more children. Thus we were
unable to determine the effect of additional chil-
dren on marital satisfaction. From the correlation-
al analysis it appears that every additional child
has a small detrimental effect on marital satisfac-
tion, but this correlation could be driven primarily
by the contrast between parents and nonparents.
We do not know to what extent second, third, and
subsequent children affect marital satisfaction.
In addition, the studies reviewed here are pri-
marily correlational, and thus we cannot prove
that having children causes marital dissatisfaction.
582
Having children might, for example, create a high-
er barrier for divorce, so that unhappy couples
who might have ended their marriages if they
were childless instead stay in them for the sake of
the children (Hetherington, 1999). This might
lower the average marital satisfaction for parents
compared with those who are not parents. There
may be other plausible alternative explanations as
well.
Implications and Conclusions
Our results are not intended to imply that married
couples should avoid having children. The nega-
tive effects on marital satisfaction are relatively
small and primarily affect certain groups and in-
dividuals in certain life stages (e.g., women with
high SES and parents of infants). This knowledge
might help couples set reasonable expectations or
make structural changes that will help diminish
the burden of child care. For example, a more eq-
uitable sharing of responsibilities between spouses
might improve women’s satisfaction with their
marriages. This would not only reduce the burden
on women as caregivers, but might also decrease
women’s resentment and dissatisfaction in their
marriages. For example, Gjerdingen and Chaloner
(1994) found that mothers whose husbands partic-
ipated more in childcare enjoyed better mental
health and higher marital satisfaction. The use of
reliable day care might also help lessen the burden
on parents and could increase marital satisfaction.
We are hopeful that researchers can identify these
mitigating factors.
It is also important to stress that marital satis-
faction is not everything. A drop in marital sat-
isfaction may be more than offset by other gains.
For example, couples with children may find more
meaning in life (cf. Baumeister, 1991). They may
feel increased satisfaction and joy as they raise
their children, teach them, and learn from them in
turn. Nevertheless, we do caution individuals not
to decide to have children in order to strengthen
their marriage. On average, this tactic will back-
fire, and all parties will suffer.
Becoming a parent is likely to be the biggest
and most permanent decision in an individual’s
life. Although the practical significance of the
children–marital satisfaction effect may be small
on average (10%), the consequences of its dele-
terious effect may be severe for partners already
in unstable relationships. Partners in both healthy
and unhealthy romantic relationships should be
prepared to realize the potential joys and difficul-
Journal of Marriage and Family
ties that children will bring. Belsky (1988) dem-
onstrated that awareness of parenthood’s pitfalls
decreases, if not eliminates, the negative influence
of children on marital satisfaction. Accordingly,
the research reviewed and quantified here should
not be viewed as an indictment of parenthood, but
rather as a reminder that relationship stressors are
minimized through awareness, planning, and com-
munication.
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