Chakrabarti2018 PDF

EMPLOYEES’ EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE, MOTIVATION
& PRODUCTIVITY, AND
ORGANIZATIONAL EXCELLENCE
A Future Trend in HRD
Gagari Chakrabarti
Tapas Chatterjea
Employees’ Emotional Intelligence, Motivation
& Productivity, and Organizational Excellence
Gagari Chakrabarti · Tapas Chatterjea
Employees’
Emotional
Intelligence,
Motivation &
Productivity, and
Organizational
Excellence
A Future Trend in HRD
Gagari Chakrabarti Tapas Chatterjea
Department of Economics Cardio-vascular, Geriatric, Internal
Presidency University and Critical Care Medicine; Diabetology
Kolkata and Thyroidology, Mental Health-Stress
West Bengal, India and Institutional Management
Kolkata
West Bengal, India
ISBN 978-981-10-5758-8 ISBN 978-981-10-5759-5 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5759-5
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947723
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Foreword
The study of Emotional Intelligence could be traced back to the era

of Charles Darwin when the crucial role of emotional expression was
emphasized for survival. While ancient Greek literature prioritised cog-
nitive skills, the European Sentimentalist Movement and the Emotional
Movement emphasized the ‘emotional expression of arts’ and recog-
nized the presence and relevance of intrinsic, emotional knowledge.
Gradually, scientists came to accept the inadequate role of standard
cognitive intelligence to be used as a tool to account for individual
behaviour, to analyze their success, and to predict their failures. Rather,
they tend to emphasize more on a combination of skills that allow a
person to recognize, comprehend and to control personal emotions; to
appreciate the emotions of fellow beings and to use this competence to
promote positivity that would make a system better functioning by nur-
turing the success of all those who are part of it. Passion and intellect
hence are not indeed antithetical. Rather than being ‘a state of complete
loss of rational or analytical control’, emotions are taken to allow peo-
ple to thrive in a complex world through successful dealing with people
and the environment. These are deemed to have strengthened cerebral
control and facilitated analytical thinking and dealing with real-life
v
vi
Foreword
situations are being claimed to require a perfect blending of reasoning

with emotions. Such a mélange of emotion and intellect coins a novel
term: Emotional Intelligence. The initial quail on treating emotional
intelligence as intelligence in its true sense was subsequently defeated
by the development of models those treated it as hot intelligence: a mem-
ber of the class of intelligence that include the social, practical, and per-
sonal intelligences. Recent literature considers emotional intelligence as
a separate branch of intelligence that may be acquired rather than being
innate.
Ever since its inception, the theory of emotional intelligence has
come to emerge as a theory of superior on-the-job performances and
abilities to lead an effective life. It has been an empirically proven fact
that while increasing emotional intelligence makes individuals more
efficient, productive, and successful; organizations can become more
productive by hiring emotionally efficient people and by offering oppor-
tunities to enhance these skills in the workplace.
This study is an exploration in this area in the context of an emerging
economy like India in recent time. The study kicks off from the under-
lying note that organizations desire to ensure a working environment
that is vibrant with positive thoughts and interactions; in an attempt
to dent unconstructive or disruptive factors and to ensure improved
performances over time. Such environment must be characterized by
rational and value-based decisions taken by those who are part of it and
this is ensured by effective teamwork achieved through cooperation,
cohesion and sense of integrity among the fellow members. However,
while ensuring positivity is vital, the question remains: how? Better
work-environment results from effective social interaction between the
employer and the employee and, more crucially, among the employees
themselves. Thus, ensuring positivity essentially requires choosing indi-
viduals who would be skilled to rationalize and control personal emo-
tions; with an ability to recognize, appreciate and respect the emotions
of the fellow beings. Such expertise is likely to mould the system in a
positive way to ensure better productivity in future. In this backdrop,
the book explores whether people with cognitive skills coming from dif-
ferent social and demographic strata possess enough excellence in non-
cognitive competences so as to help the organization, to which they
Foreword
vii
belong, to attain certain specific goals. Do emotional intelligence skills

in employees indeed translate into superior on-the-job performances in
a country like India? An affirmative answer would emphasize the need
for an organization to look for such skills in potential employees and
the inevitability to nurture such skill in existing employees. Further,
it has attempted to inquire if hiring people on the basis of emotional
intelligence could help an organization avoid the problem of moral haz-
ards where hidden-actions on part of the employees, who are otherwise
skilled, might adversely affect the organization’s valuation of the transac-
tions in which they would be involved. Such exploration help explain
the urge of any success-oriented organization to look for the non-cog-
nitive skills (along with the pure cognitive efficiencies) in a potential
employee and the need to design incentive mechanism and/or to frame
policies to help existing employees develop such skills.
Kolkata, India Amitava Sarkar

May 2017 Professor and Director,
Indian Institute of Social Welfare
and Business Management and
former Vice Chancellor (Acting),
WB University of Technology
Preface
This book is an attempt to recognize the relevance and significance of

combining non-cognitive skills along with the cognitive ones to help
explain one’s ability to lead an effective and successful life. Based on
a primary survey that approached the academicians, administrators,
professionals and other service-holders from India, the book applies
technical and quantitative methods to analyze employees’ emotional
intelligence, its determinants and variation across gender, age, income,
education and occupation structures. It seeks to explore whether and
how a combination of cognitive and non-cognitive skills could motivate
individuals to improve their productivity that would ultimately lead to
organizational excellence without introducing the much knotty prob-
lem of workplace moral hazard. To improve the flow of the book, the
study has been organized in four chapters. While Chap. 2 is devoted
to portray the conceptual development of Emotional Intelligence as
a distinct branch of intelligence, Chaps. 3 and 4 involve use of a fair
amount of appropriate qualitative data analysis techniques to answer
the questions raised by the study. It indeed finds the theory of EI, not
only as a theory of superior performances, but also as means to reduce
possibilities of work-place moral hazard.
ix
x
Preface
While the book is an attempt to quench the thirst of the researchers,

students and analysts who are interested in this field of study, the find-
ings bear significant implications for designing of effective hiring
and staff development strategies on part of the corporate personnel.
Selecting a group of people who can recognize, comprehend and respect
others’ emotions and can nurture effective teamwork through coopera-
tion and cohesion is found to be essential for achieving organizational
excellence. The organizations can benefit further by offering opportu-
nities to enhance these skills in the workplace. Further, attempts must
be initiated by the organization to foster better work environment with
suitable incentive schemes; to provide employees with a motivating
peer group that is vibrant with positive thoughts; and to develop effec-
tive support systems so as to free the employees from their social and
family responsibilities to an extent that is feasible. While an EI based
valuation is vital at all stages of the life of an organization, the book in
its final note exclaims the necessity to target the incumbents at a much
earlier stage in their life; possibly by making value based education pro-
grammes a part of the curriculum.
We take this opportunity to express our appreciation to those who
have influenced this work. The number of respondents who have will-
fully taken their part in the survey; and that of the students and col-
leagues whose cooperation has helped us build on our ideas is too large
to allow us to thank them individually. However, a sincere word of
appreciation goes to Dr. Sarmita Guha Roy for helping us immensely
in data collection. We owe a lot to Prof. Amitava Sarkar, IISWBM,
Kolkata: Prof. Anjan Chakrabarti, University of Calcutta; Prof. Bivas
Chaudhury, All India Institute of Hygiene & Public Health; and Prof.
Gaurav Manohar Marathe, IIM Ranchi. While it is our pleasure to
appreciate the suggestions of the anonymous referees, the usual dis-
claimer remains.
Kolkata, India Dr. Gagari Chakrabarti

Dr. Tapas Chatterjea
Contents
1 Prologue 1
2 Intelligence? … Emotions? … or, the Emotional

Intelligence: Theories and Evidence in Global Context 11
3 Indicators of Emotional Intelligence: Determinants

and Interconnections 51
4 Benefit to an Organization: Intrinsic Skills

and (Or?) Psycho-social Factors 221
Author Index 291
Subject Index 295
xi
List of Graphs
Graph 3.1 Classification of respondents according to gender 62

Graph 3.2 Classification of respondents according
to monthly income 63
Graph 3.3 Classification of respondents according to age in years 64
Graph 3.4 Classification of respondents according to occupation 64
Graph 3.5 Classification of respondents according to education 65
Graph 3.6 percentage of respondents excelling in terms
of EI indicators 75
Graph 3.7 Predicted probability of having above average
self regulation 90
Graph 3.8 Predicted probability of having above-average
skills in terms of self regulation with change
in efficiency in emotional intelligence dimension 92
Graph 3.9 Predicted probability of showing high trustworthiness
(across age, income, gender, occupation and education) 95
Graph 3.10 Predicted probabilities of having high
trustworthiness for levels of other EI items (across EQ) 96
Graph 3.11 Predicted probabilities of having high trustworthiness
for different levels of age, gender, income,
occupation and education 97
xiii
xiv
List of Graphs

trustworthiness against EQ 98
Graph 3.13 Trustworthiness, service-orientation, and predicted
probability of having high conscientiousness
at different levels of EQ 100
Graph 3.14 Trustworthiness, service-orientation and predicted
probability of having high conscientiousness
(across age, income, gender, occupation and education) 101
Graph 3.15 Predicted probabilities of having high
conscientiousness for different levels of age,
gender, income, occupation and education 102
Graph 3.16 Predicted probability of having high
conscientiousness at different values of EQ 103
Graph 3.17 Emotional awareness, self confidence, conflict
management and high self control (across EQ) 104
Graph 3.18 Emotional awareness, self confidence, conflict
management and high self control
(across age, gender, income, occupation, education) 105
Graph 3.19 Predicted probability of attaining above-average self
control (across age, gender, income, occupation,
education) 106
Graph 3.20 Probability of obtaining above average self control
across EQ 106
adaptability given ability to act as change catalyst
(across EQ) 108
Graph 3.22 Predicted probability of showing high
adaptability with enhanced skills as change catalyst 108
Graph 3.23 Predicted probability of attaining above-average
adaptability (across age, gender, income,
occupation, education) 110
Graph 3.24 Predicted probability of having high adaptability
across EQ 110
Graph 3.25 Predicted probability of having high innovativeness
at all levels of EQ for different levels of selected EI items 112
Graph 3.26 Marginal effects on predicted probability of showing
above-average innovativeness (across age, income,
gender, occupation and education) 113
List of Graphs
xv

innovativeness (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.28 Probability of having above-average innovativeness
across EQ 114
self awareness against EQ 120
Graph 3.30 Predicted probability of showing high self awareness
with improvement in self regulation and EQ 120
Graph 3.31 Marginal effect of other EI items on predicted
probability of showing high self awareness 122
Graph 3.32 Predicted probabilities of having high emotional
awareness (across age, gender, income, occupation
and education) 123
Graph 3.33 Predicted probability of having strong emotional
awareness against EQ 124
Graph 3.34 Marginal effects on predicted probability
of above-average accurate self assessment
(across gender, age, income, education and occupation) 125
of high accurate self assessment (across EQ) 125
accurate self assessment (across age, gender,
income, occupation, education) 126
accurate self assessment against EQ 127
of above-average self confidence (across gender,
age, income, education and occupation) 128
of above-average self confidence (across EQ) 128
self confidence (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.41 Predicted probability of showing high
self confidence against EQ 130
self motivation 135
xvi
List of Graphs
Graph 3.43 Improvement in predicted probability of showing

strong self motivation with change in EQ 137
Graph 3.44 Innovativeness, commitment, EQ and probability
of high achievement drive (across gender, age,
income, occupation and education) 139
Graph 3.45 Predicted probabilities of having high achievement
drive for different levels of other EI items (across EQ) 140
Graph 3.46 Predicted probabilities of having high achievement
drive for different levels of age, gender, income,
achievement drive against EQ 141
Graph 3.48 Achievement drive, leadership and predicted probability
of having high commitment at different levels of EQ 143
Graph 3.49 Achievement drive, leadership and predicted
probability of having high commitment (across
age, income, ender, occupation and education) 144
Graph 3.50 Predicted probabilities of having high commitment
(across age, gender, income, occupation and education) 144
Graph 3.51 Predicted probability of having high commitment
across EQ 145
Graph 3.52 Optimism, commitment and high initiative (across EQ) 147
Graph 3.53 Optimism, commitment and high initiative
Graph 3.54 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average initiative
Graph 3.55 Probability of showing strong initiative (across EQ) 149
Graph 3.56 Initiative, empathy and predicted probability
of showing high optimism (across EQ) 150
Graph 3.57 Predicted probability of high optimism with
enhanced skills in empathy and initiative
(across age, gender, occupation, education, income) 150
Graph 3.58 Predicted probability of showing above-average
optimism (across age, gender, income,
optimism across EQ 152
social awareness 157
List of Graphs
xvii
Graph 3.61 Improvement in predicted probability of having

above-average social awareness with change in EQ 159
Graph 3.62 Optimism, conscientiousness, service orientation
and high empathy (across EQ) 162
Graph 3.63 Optimism, conscientiousness, service orientation
and high empathy (across age, gender, income,
occupation and education) 163
Graph 3.64 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average empathy
Graph 3.65 Probability of obtaining above average empathy
across EQ 164
Graph 3.66 Initiative, emotional awareness, trustworthiness,
empathy, developing others and high service orientation
(across EQ) 166
Graph 3.67 Initiative, emotional awareness, trustworthiness,
empathy, developing others and high service orientation
Graph 3.68 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average
service orientation (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.69 Probability of showing strong service orientation
across EQ 168
Graph 3.70 Relevant EI competences affecting skills
of developing others (across EQ) 170
Graph 3.71 Relevant EI competences and skills in developing
others (across age, gender, income, occupation
and education 170
Graph 3.72 Predicted probability of exhibiting strong skills
in developing others (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.73 Probability of demonstrating skills in developing
others across EQ 172
Graph 3.74 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leveraging
diversity (across EQ) 173
Graph 3.75 Relevant EI competences and skills in leveraging
diversity (across age, gender, income, occupation
and education) 174
xviii
List of Graphs
Graph 3.76 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence

in leveraging diversity (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.77 Probability of demonstrating skills in leveraging
diversity across EQ 175
Graph 3.78 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in political
awareness (across EQ) 177
Graph 3.79 Relevant EI competences and skills in political awareness
in political awareness (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.81 Probability of demonstrating skills in political
awareness across EQ 178
Graph 3.82 Predicted probability of having above average social skill 184
Graph 3.83 Improvement in predicted probability
of showing strong social skill with change in EQ 186
in influencing others (across EQ) 190
Graph 3.85 Relevant EI competences and skills
in influencing others (across age, gender, income,
in influencing others (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.87 Probability of demonstrating skills in influencing
others across EQ 192
in communication (across EQ) 193
Graph 3.89 Leadership and skills in communication (across age,
gender, income, occupation and education) 194
in communication (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.91 Probability of demonstrating skills in communication
across EQ 195
List of Graphs
xix
Graph 3.92 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leadership

(across EQ) 197
Graph 3.93 Leadership and relevant EI dimensions (across age,
gender, income, occupation and education) 197
in leadership (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.95 Probability of demonstrating skills in leadership
across EQ 198
in building bonds (across EQ) 200
Graph 3.97 Skills in building bonds and relevant EI dimensions
in building bonds (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.99 Probability of demonstrating skills in building
bonds across EQ 202
Graph 3.100 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in cooperation
(across EQ) 203
Graph 3.101 Skills in cooperation and relevant EI dimensions
in cooperation (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.103 Probability of demonstrating skills in cooperation
across EQ 205
in conflict management (across EQ) 207
Graph 3.105 Skills in conflict management and relevant
EI dimensions (across age, gender, income,
in conflict management (across age, gender,
income, occupation, education) 208
Graph 3.107 Probability of demonstrating skills in conflict
management across EQ 208
xx
List of Graphs
Graph 3.108 Relevant EI competences affecting team capabilities

(across EQ) 210
Graph 3.109 Skills in team capabilities and relevant EI dimensions
Graph 3.110 Predicted probability of exhibiting strong team
capabilities (across age, gender, income, occupation,
education) 211
Graph 3.111 Probability of demonstrating skills in team
capabilities across EQ 211
to act as change catalyst (across EQ) 213
Graph 3.113 Skills in acting as change catalyst and relevant
EI dimensions (across age, gender, income,
Graph 3.114 Predicted probability of acting as change catalyst
Graph 3.115 Probability of demonstrating skills in acting
as change catalyst across EQ 214
Graph 4.1 Bidirectional relationship among skills in terms
of EI indicators 225
Graph 4.2 Unidirectional relationship among skills in terms
of EI indicators 226
Graph 4.3 Differences in skills in terms of EI indicators
(across Education Category) 227
(across income brackets) 228
(across age groups) 229
(across occupation types) 230
(across gender) 231
Graph 4.8 Increase in predicted probability of showing improved
performance with an improvement in intrinsic skill
(across age, gender, income, education, occupation) 249
Graph 4.9 Increase in predicted probability of showing improved
performance with an improvement in EQ 250
List of Graphs
xxi
Graph 4.10 Increase in predicted probability of showing

improved performance with an improvement in EQ
Graph 4.11 Increase in predicted probability of showing ability
to manage situation with an improvement in intrinsic
skill (across age, gender, income, education, occupation) 253
improved performance with an improvement in EQ 254
Graph 4.13 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills
in managing situation with an improvement in EQ
in teamwork with an improvement in intrinsic skill
in teamwork with an improvement in psycho-social
skill (across age, gender, income, education, occupation) 257
Graph 4.16 Increase in predicted probability of showing higher
teamwork with an improvement in EQ 258
in teamwork with an improvement in EQ
in leadership with an improvement in Intrinsic Skills
in leadership with an improvement in Psycho-social
Skills (across age, gender, income, education,
occupation) 261
higher quality leadership with an improvement in EQ 261
in leadership with an improvement in EQ
skills in shaping the future with an improvement
in Intrinsic Skills (across age, gender, income,
education, occupation) 264
xxii
List of Graphs

in shaping the future with an improvement in
Psycho-social Skills (across age, gender, income,
education, occupation) 264
Graph 4.24 Increase in predicted probability of showing higher
leadership with an improvement in EQ 265
in shaping the future with an improvement in EQ
Graph 4.26 External factors and predicted probabilities
of exhibiting strong commitment and stronger ethics
given commitment 276
Graph 4.27 Predicted probabilities of exhibiting strong commitment
and stronger ethics given commitment (across age,
gender, income, education, occupation) 277
Graph 4.28 External factors and % improvement in predicted
probabilities of exhibiting strong commitment
(across age) 278
probabilities of exhibiting better ethics given strong
commitment (across age) 278
(across income) 279
commitment (across income) 279
(across gender, occupation, education) 280
commitment (across gender, occupation, education) 280
List of Tables
Table 3.1 Detailed educational structure 65

Table 3.2 Cross tabulation involving age and gender 66
Table 3.3 Cross tabulation involving gender and income 67
Table 3.4 Cross tabulation involving gender and occupation 67
Table 3.5 Cross tabulation of data involving gender and education 68
Table 3.6 Cross tabulation of data involving income and age-group 68
Table 3.7 Cross tabulation of data involving income
and education levels 69
Table 3.8 Cross tabulation of data involving income
and occupation structure 69
Table 3.9 Cross tabulation of data involving age
Table 3.10 Cross tabulation of data involving education
Table 3.11 Cross tabulation of data involving age and education 70
Table 3.12 Reliability analysis for EI items and scale 73
Table 3.13 Percentage of respondents excelling in terms
of EI indicators (in details) 76
Table 3.14 Spearman’s rank correlation among variables
in the original data set 79
xxiii
xxiv
List of Tables
Table 3.15 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient among

EI dimensions and EQ index 80
Table 3.16 Proficiency in terms of self regulation
Table 3.17 Cross tabulation among self regulation,
other EI dimensions and the EQ index 83
Table 3.18 Rank correlation among self regulation,
its constituents and other EI dimensions 84
Table 3.19 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient: self regulation
and EI items under it 93
Table 3.20 Predicted probability of showing above-average
conscientiousness with improvement in chosen EI items 99
conscientiousness with improvement in chosen EI items 104
adaptability with improvement in chosen EI items 107
innovativeness with improvement in chosen EI items 111
Table 3.24 Self-awareness across age, income, gender,
Table 3.25 Cross tabulation among self-awareness,
Table 3.26 Rank correlation among self awareness,
Table 3.27 Predicted probability of showing strong
self assessment with improvement in chosen EI items 124
Table 3.28 Predicted probability of showing strong self
confidence with improvement in chosen EI items 127
Table 3.29 Self Motivation across age, income, gender,
Table 3.30 Cross tabulation among self motivation,
Table 3.31 Rank correlation among self motivation,
Table 3.32 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient:
self motivation and EI items under it 138
achievement drive with improvement in relevant EI items 139
List of Tables
xxv

commitment with improvement in chosen EI items 142
initiative with improvement in chosen EI items 146
optimism with improvement in chosen EI items 149
Table 3.37 Social awareness across age, income, gender,
Table 3.38 Cross tabulation among social awareness,
Table 3.39 Rank correlation among social awareness,
Table 3.40 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient:
social awareness and EI items under it 160
Table 3.41 Predicted probability of showing strong empathy
with improvement in chosen EI items 161
service orientation with improvement in chosen EI items 165
skills in developing others with improvement
in chosen EI items 169
skills in leveraging diversity with improvement
skills in political awareness with improvement
Table 3.46 Social skill across age, income, gender, occupation
and education 181
Table 3.47 Cross tabulation among social skill,
Table 3.48 Rank correlation among social skill,
Table 3.49 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient: social awareness
and EI items under it 188
skills of influencing others with improvement
xxvi
List of Tables
Table 3.51 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills

of communication with improvement in chosen EI items 193
of leadership with improvement in chosen EI items 196
in building bonds with improvement in chosen EI items 199
in cooperation with improvement in chosen EI items 202
n managing conflict with improvement in chosen
EI items 206
in team capabilities with improvement in chosen EI items 209
Table 3.57 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills to
act as change catalyst with improvement in chosen
EI items 212
Table 4.1 Reliability analysis for the constructed indexes 243
Table 4.2 Tetrachoric correlation coefficients obtained
for outcome indexes 244
Table 4.3 Improvement in predicted probability of showing skills
in outcome index following improvement in skills
in terms of others 245
Table 4.4 Tetrachoric correlation obtained from estimations related
to improved performance index 247
to situation management index 251
to index of teamwork 255
to index of leadership 259
to index of shaping the future 263
Table 4.9 Summary of estimation results involving intrinsic skill,
psycho-social skill, EQ and outcome indexes 267
Table 4.10 Summary of estimation results involving intrinsic skill,
psycho-social skill, EQ and outcome indexes (across age,
gender, income, occupation and education groups) 268
List of Tables
xxvii
Table 4.11 Predicted probability of showing above-average proficiency

in outcome indexes following change in combination
of intrinsic and psycho-social skill 270
Table 4.12 External factors affecting commitment
(responses by all respondents) 275
1
Prologue
“Life is indeed colourful. We can feel in the pink one day, with our bank balances
comfortably in the black, and the grass seemingly no greener on the other side of the
fence. Then out of the blue, something tiresome happens that makes us see red, turn
ashen white, even purple with rage. Maybe controlling our varying emotions is just
‘colour managemen’ by another name.”
—Alex Morritt, Impromptu Scribe
Abstract   As a preamble to the issue of employees’ emotional

intelligence and its manifestation and significance for organiza-

tional benefits and productivity, this chapter introduces the concept
of Emotional Intelligence, as it has been conceived since the days in
ancient Greece. It segregates Emotional Intelligence from pure cogni-
tive intelligence or from disruptive emotions and introduces the term
as a perfect blend between cognitive and non-cognitive excellences. It
initiates a portrayal of the journey of Emotional Intelligence from being
described as a highly obfuscated term to gain appreciation as a member
of the class of intelligences including the social, practical, and personal
intelligences. The chapter then depicts the trajectory of the study by
introducing the research questions.
© The Author(s) 2018 1

G. Chakrabarti and T. Chatterjea, Employees’ Emotional Intelligence, Motivation &
Productivity, and Organizational Excellence, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5759-5_1
2
G. Chakrabarti and T. Chatterjea
Keywords  Emotional intelligence · Cognitive and Non-cognitive

excellence · Hot intelligences · Affect · Motivation
The 1997 classic paper by J.D. Mayer and P. Salovey on “What is

Emotional Intelligence” started by recapitulating the real-world story
of a little boy in his fourth grade who was found quivering in the
school playground, by his teacher. Realizing that the poor boy could
not actually afford to grant himself any warmer garment to combat
the chilly winter, his teacher and the school-nurse decided to offer him
one. Accordingly, they dropped in his place and the delighted mother
outfitted the boy next morning for his school. Incidentally, two of
his classmates, finding the boy in his new attire accused him of steal-
ing it with such malevolence that no other child dared to defend the
boy. Intervention by the concerned teacher and the nurse did not help
much; one of the two boys abused the nurse and she retaliated equally
harshly. Thus, the story of the kid that started with the goodness of a
caring teacher did not end up with that tenderness. The class teacher
was dumbfound to find her boys misbehaving; the school-nurse was
penitent that she had retaliated; and the concerned teacher was upset
to find her affection for the poor boy to have caused such agony to him.
As pointed out by Mayer and Salovey (1997), reasoning about such sit-
uations and taking measures to restrict those to crop-up further, require
a deliberate interaction between the heart and the brain. The school
administrators might put a ban on teachers to give gifts to their students
but such a ‘feeling-blind’ response would rule out emotions from deci-
sions, discourage being tender, and would embarrass those who receive
affection. Dealing with such situations must involve a perfect blending
of reasoning with emotions: the heart must have its brain and the brain
should have a heart. Such a blend between emotion and intellect coins a
novel term: Emotional Intelligence.
In ancient world of thinking, while Greece put reasoning on top of
emotions, European Sentimentalist Movement recognized and empha-
sized the presence of intrinsic, emotional knowledge. The Emotional
Movement emphasized the ‘emotional expression of arts’. The definition
of intelligence in fact differs across nations and some of them refuse to
1 Prologue
3
accept the notion of intelligence as all about the speed of mental pro-
cessing (Berry 1984; Sternberg and Kaufman 1998; Sternberg et al.
1981). Even the Western theorists, who took intelligence to be strongly
cognitive, could not deny the importance of depth along with the speed
of mental processing in making the learning process complete and effec-
tive (Craik and Lockhart 1972). The oriental conception of intelligence
added non-cognitive flavours to the concept of intelligence ever since
the days of Confucius (Yang and Sternberg 1997a). Unlike traditional
western conception of the notion, they emphasized freedom from con-
ventional line of thinking and a complete understanding of true self and
surroundings as integral part of one’s learning process: a notion simi-
lar to what later came to be known as Emotional Intelligence. Even the
present-day Taiwanese philosophy of intelligence encompasses inter
and intrapersonal intelligences, intellectual self assertion and self efface-
ment along with the traditional notion of cognitive intelligence (Yang
and Sternberg 1997b). Chen and Chen (1988) found similar results
for the Chinese economy. The Buddhist and the Hindu philosophers
have always blended emotional aspects with the traditional concepts of
intellect (Das 1994). A large body of literature has grown to converse
about the notion of intelligence in the African countries where intel-
ligence includes the ability to foster congruent inter and intra-group
relationships (Ruzgis and Grigorenko 1994). In countries like Zambia,
Zimbabwe and Kenya intellect is conceived to include social respon-
sibility and other favourable humane and positive emotional traits
(Serpell 1974; Super and Harkness 1986; Dasen 1984). Despite of the
presence of some degree of dissimilarity across the tribes, their notion
of intelligence incorporates some social aspects in one sense or other
(Wober 1974; Harkness and Super 1983; Putnam and Kilbride 1980;
Durojaiye 1993).
Ever since the eighteenth century, psychologists considered three
separate segments of human mind (Hilgard 1980). The first sphere of
cognitive excellence is concerned with the human-intellect; that is, with
the skills to recognize, distinguish, memorize, analyze and to think logi-
cally. The second sphere considers affect that includes emotions, moods,
humane feelings and considerations. The third aspect or motivation
refers to the natural or acquired human desire to pursue a definite goal.
4
In traditional line of thinking passions and reckoning were considered

to be antithetical. Waves of emotions were apprehended to lead to mud-
dled ideas, confused thoughts and irrational reactions. Traditional psy-
chology textbooks used to describe emotions as ‘disorganized responses’,
‘sheer disturbances’ or ‘a state of complete loss of rational or analytical
control’. Recent literature however deems emotions to have strength-
ened cerebral control and facilitated analytical thinking. This is specifi-
cally the area where the concept of Emotional Intelligence intervenes to
act as a bridge between the cognitive and the non-cognitive aspect of
human behaviour. A readily comprehensible definition of Emotional
Intelligence may be found in Mayer and Salovey (1997) who describe it
as the “ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so
as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge,
and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and
intellectual growth”.
With the opening up of new avenues, few considered the term
Emotional Intelligence to be a highly obfuscated one and alleged it to
have a tendency to overestimate the role of some human traits that
may be appreciable but is far from to be qualified as ‘intelligence’.
Matthew et al. (2002) considered Emotional Intelligence to be ‘more
myth than science’ while Hedlund and Sternberg (2000) raised doubt
about the possibility of having more than one type of intelligence.
Mayer and Salovey (1997) however opposed by emphasizing the pres-
ence of a mental skill that could be distinguished from ‘preferred ways
of behaving’ or ‘humane traits’ and may indeed be termed as ‘intelli-
gence’. They, along with Mayer and Mitchell (1998) viewed Emotional
Intelligence “as a member of class of intelligences including the social,
practical, and personal intelligences that we have come to call the hot
intelligences”.
This line of thought was subsequently enriched by the development
of models to establish Emotional Intelligence as a separate branch
of intelligence that may be acquired rather than being innate; and to
quantify it. The majority of such models, in their attempts to describe,
define and conceptualize Emotional Intelligence have incorporated
components such as the capability to recognize, comprehend and artic-
ulate emotions; the ability to appreciate and respect others’ feelings; the
1 Prologue
5
proficiency in dealing with, specially disruptive, emotions; the skills in

adapting to changing situations and needs; or the ability to generate an
environment vibrant with positive thoughts and cohesive interaction.
Ever since its inception, the theory of Emotional Intelligence has come
to emerge as a theory of superior on-the-job performances and abilities
to lead an effective life. It has been an empirically proven fact that while
increasing emotional intelligence makes individuals more efficient, pro-
ductive, and successful; organizations can become more productive by
hiring emotionally efficient people and by offering opportunities to
enhance these skills in the workplace.
The theory of Emotional Intelligence, however, brought in its train a
number of criticisms just like a silver lining hides a cloud behind it. The
critics often blame the concept of Emotional Intelligence to be far from
being a science in a true sense. Measurement of Emotional Intelligence
is indicted further to be based on unstable, time-varying and psycho-
metrically flawed instruments that failed to pass to relevant discriminant
and predictive validity tests. Subsequent studies, however, rescued the
concept to be consequently developed as separate branch of intelligence.
The present study is an exploration in this area in the context of an
emerging economy like India in recent time. The study initiates from
the underpinning note that organizations cherish to ensure a work-
ing environment, vibrant with positive thoughts and interactions, to
undermine all sorts of unconstructive or disruptive factors and reper-
cussions so that outstanding performances might be ensured over time.
Such an effervescent environment must be characterized by rational and
value-based decisions taken by those who are part of it. This may be
ensured by effective teamwork achieved through cooperation, cohesion
and sense of mutual respect and integrity among the fellow members.
Ensuring such positivity is likely to remove stumbling blocks and get
transformed into higher productivity and focussed service orientation.
However, while ensuring positivity is essential, the question remains:
how? Better work-environment is nothing but a manifestation of effec-
tive social interaction between the employer and the employee and,
more importantly, among the employees themselves as team-members.
Hence, the question of ensuring positivity essentially boils down to a
choice of hiring personnel who will be able to understand, rationalize
6
and control personal emotions; would recognize, appreciate and respect

the emotions of the fellow beings and would, through this expertise,
develop an environment where the system would function better by
nurturing success of all those who are part of it. It thus becomes crucial
to explore whether people, coming with cognitive skills from different
social and demographic strata possess enough excellence in non-cogni-
tive competences so as to help the organization, to which they belong,
to attain certain specific goals. With this at the back of our mind, the
study, based on a primary survey conducted during March 2016 to
September 2016 in Indian job market, seeks to answer the following set
of questions:
1. How competent a group of individuals, coming from different socio-

economic and demographic strata, is in term of their Emotional
Intelligence?
2. What are the factors determining such skills?
3. Do emotional intelligence competences of employees in certain areas
indeed translate into superior on-the-job performances in a country
like India? An affirmative answer would emphasize the need for an
organization to look for such skills in potential employees and the
inevitability to nurture such skill in existing employees.
4. Does hiring people on the basis of such non-cognitive skills help
an organization avoid the problem of moral hazards where hidden-
actions on part of the employees, who are otherwise skilled, might
adversely affect the organization’s valuation of the transactions in
which they would be involved?
Such an analysis would help explain the urge of any organization, aspir-
ant of success, to look for the non-cognitive skills (along with the pure
cognitive efficiencies) in potential employee and the need to design
incentive mechanism and/or to frame policies to help existing employ-
ees develop such skills.
Accordingly, after this introductory chapter the study is divided into
three more.
Chapter 2 describes the evolution of the theories of Emotional
Intelligence starting from that of Darwin. It recapitulates different
1 Prologue
7
models that are available in literature for analysing, measuring and

gauging the impact of Emotional Intelligence with their limitations.
Chapter 3 considers different broad Emotional Intelligence dimen-
sions, the Emotional Intelligence indicators under those, their deter-
minants and the possible interaction among them in Indian context. It
then seeks to explore whether and how people coming from different
socio-economic and demographic strata behave in terms of Emotional
Intelligence indicators.
Chapter 4 considers the organizational benefits of Emotional
Intelligence and seeks to establish the theory of Emotional Intelligence
as a theory of superior on-the-job performance in the context of Indian
job market. Specifically, it explores whether proficiencies in some
selected intrinsic skills translate into above-average proficiencies in
terms of some of the outcome parameters in which a firm aspiring for
success may be interested. The study delves deeper to explore whether
such proficiencies are specific to gender, age, income, occupation or
education structures. This would have significant bearing on the hir-
ing strategies and for designing suitable employee development activi-
ties. Further, realizing the difficulty in working with the unobservable
intrinsic skills, the study seeks to find out some ‘observable’, particularly
psycho-social factors that could proxy for such imponderable intrinsic
skills. The presence of such factor would imply boiling down of hir-
ing strategy to developing a suitable framework to hire people with soft
skills. In its final note, the study intervenes to explore whether hiring
people on the basis of non-cognitive, rather than cognitive competences
could ensure higher outcomes desired by the organizations without
introducing problem of moral hazard. In such cases cost of hiring and
managing personnel would not involve the costs for monitoring to con-
trol moral hazard.
The study thus, may be said to have acquired its motivation from the
writing of C.S. Lewis1: “Good philosophy must exist, if for no other
reason, because bad philosophy needs to be answered. The cool intellect
must work not only against cool intellect on the other side, but against
the muddy heathen mysticisms which deny intellect altogether.”
8
Note
1 Excerpt from the essay ‘Learning in War-Time’ from the book, The
Weight of Glory.
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2
Intelligence? … Emotions? … or,
the Emotional Intelligence: Theories
and Evidence in Global Context
Emotions can get in the way or get you on the way.

—Mavis Mazhura
Abstract   This chapter portrays the conceptual development of

Emotional Intelligence as a distinct branch of intelligence. The growing
branch of relevant literature has gradually shifted its focus from pure
cognitive abilities to concede the presence of non-cognitive skills allow-
ing one to comprehend and control personal emotions; to recognize and
appreciate that of others’ and to use such skills to make a system better
functioning by fostering success of those who belong to it. The chap-
ter reviews the attempts made to relate two apparently unrelated terms
namely, Emotions and Intelligence to explain the abilities to lead an effec-
tive life. It reviews the basic tenets of the Bar-On model, the Mayer-
Salovey model; Goleman’s Mixed model, and the Big-five and other
trait-based models with their applications in global context.
Keywords  Emotional intelligence · Bar-On model · Ability based

model of Mayer and Salovey · Mixed model of Goleman · Big-five
model · Trait based models
12
2.1 Introduction
The study of Emotional Intelligence dates back to the era of Charles
Darwin when he portrayed emotional expression to be essential for sur-
vival. With the passage of time, different schools of scientists came to
believe that standard cognitive intelligence does not always suffice as a
tool for explaining human behaviour, to analyze their success, and to
predict their failures. Rather, what should be emphasized more is a com-
bination of competencies that allows a person to be cognisant of, to
comprehend and to be able to control personal emotions; to recognize
and appreciate the emotions of fellow beings and use this acumen to
develop an environment that would make a system better functioning
by fostering success of all those who are part of it. Such competencies
that allow people to make their own way in a complex world by success-
fully dealing with people and the environment have come to be referred
to as Emotional Intelligence.
Historically, the analysis of intelligence was centred around person-
ality traits and particularly, on cognitive intelligence that led to the
development of Intelligence Quotient. Inclusion of emotional intel-
ligence in such analyses seemed to be difficult although the psycholo-
gists of the day recognized the theoretical presence of social intelligence
along with two other types of intelligence, namely, the verbal-proposi-
tional intelligence that includes stock of vocabulary, verbal communica-
tion skills, logical thinking and the proficiency in identifying similarities
or otherwise among objects; and the spatial performance intelligence or
the ability to assemble objects, and the skill to comprehend and con-
struct patterns. However, the social intelligence was perceived to be so
strongly associated with the two others that psychologists never felt the
urge to treat and analyse it as a special or even separate form of intel-
ligence. Hence, while analysing individual success stories and explain-
ing efficiencies in solving problems, scientists focused much on the
intellectual, logical, analytical, and rational abilities of the incumbents.
Success stories thus were all about how well one can acquire, organize
and implement new knowledge. Gradually, scientists came to concede
the presence of non-cognitive intelligence, or, precisely emotion, which
2 Intelligence? … Emotions? … or, the Emotional …
13
may be described as an unconscious state which is distinct from cogni-

tion, volition or motivation. It was perhaps since early eighteenth cen-
tury that psychologists were trying to effectively isolate three aspects of
human behaviour, namely, Cognition or thought, Affect or Emotion
and Motivation. And there has been a gradual shift in focus from pure
cognitive abilities to a combination of cognitive and non-cognitive
excellence in an attempt to relate two apparently non-related terms that
is Emotions and Intelligence to explain the abilities to lead an effective
life.
E.L. Thorndike (1920) perhaps was among the first few to recognize
the existence of a special type of social, rather than cognitive intelligence
that involves appreciation and management of emotions of one’s fellow
members. David Wechsler (1940, 1958) further emphasized the neces-
sity to incorporate non-cognitive aspects of intelligence along with the
traditional cognitive ones in defining intelligence properly. In his semi-
nal paper, Gardner (1983) argued that people often seem to have cer-
tain types of intelligence that standard cognitive tests, such as IQ tests,
fail to recognize. He thus introduced the concepts of intrapersonal and
interpersonal intelligence as ability to comprehend one’s own emotions
and the emotions of others respectively. Such non-cognitive, additional
types of intelligence were described as essential in explaining and pre-
dicting the performance and accomplishment of individuals. Gardner,
however, did not christen this non-cognitive intelligence as Emotional
Intelligence. The term was introduced, perhaps for the first time in 1985
in the doctoral thesis of Wayne Payne, who developed the concept in
his study of emotions.
All the literature that developed subsequently in the field emphasized
the need to assess Emotional Intelligence for different individuals at
different stratum of their behaviour and interaction. Such assessments
are absolutely essential in order to explore one’s ability to cope with
his immediate world, his emotional and social skills and to identify his
strengths and weaknesses to flourish as an individual, a team member or
an effective leader. It is now being widely believed that while enhanced
emotional intelligence makes individuals more efficient, productive, and
successful; organizations can become more productive by hiring people
14
with higher emotional and social skills and by offering opportunities to

enhance these skills in the workplace.
However, while defining Emotional Intelligence, one must keep
in consideration the fact that “Not everything that connects cogni-
tion to emotion, is Emotional Intelligence” (Mayer and Salovey 1997).
Over the past few years, a number of studies have been conducted in
the area where cognition is related to affect. As pointed out by Mayer
and Salovey (1997), emotions might alter thoughts in many different
manners, but not necessarily in a way to make one emotionally intel-
ligent. While Wechsler (1940, 1958) tried to relate intelligence not
only to cognition but the ability to adapt as well, Salovey et al. (1995)
emphasized that while ability to adapt is a part of intelligence, adap-
tation does not characterize intelligence. As pointed out by them,
many organisms that could hardly be described as intelligent adapt
themselves perfectly to changing environment. Another example may
be that of “mood-biasing effect” or “mood-congruent judgement”.
As pointed out by Mayer et al. (1990), the mood biasing effect takes
place when an “effective match between a person’s moods and ideas
increases the judged merit, broadly defined, of those ideas”. However,
the increased interaction between mood and cognition in mood-con-
gruent judgement has nothing to do with increased smartness. Some
studies prefer to incorporate emotional self control in the analysis of
Emotional Intelligence. Mayer and Salovey (1997), however, assert
that there are cases where emotional outburst, rather than self-control
would be more effective. Accordingly, they argue, a proper definition of
Emotional Intelligence must combine “the ideas that emotion makes
thinking more intelligent and that one thinks intelligently about emo-
tions.” Once, the term is defined, means are to be introduced for quan-
tifying and assessing it properly with further methodologies to explore
its independence or otherwise from cognitive intelligence. Moreover,
any such theory of Emotional Intelligence must be able to account for
real life phenomena.
Building up of a workable concept of Emotional Intelligence thus needs to
relate the term to the studies of intelligence and emotions. Traditionally, emo-
tions were taken to be irrational, erratic, idiosyncratic and unsettling behav-
iour: an adversary to intelligence (Schaffer et al. 1940; Young 1936, 1943).
15
Studies conducted later on (Mandler 1984; Mayer and Salovey 1997) recog-
nized emotions as “potentially contributing to thought rather than disturbing
it … they prioritize cognition”. The basic point to start from is then to rec-
ognize that emotions provide information about the relationship with one’s
surroundings.
2.2 Models for Analysing Emotional

Intelligence
The early attempts to define Emotional Intelligence and to relate it to
cognitive intelligence involved drawing in of the correlation method.
Under the method, two types of intelligences are treated as similar, or
even identical, if they are correlated or correspond to each other for a
chosen individual. The intensity and extent of such association must be
more than what could be explained by chance factors. However, psy-
chologists of those days felt that while presence of a high correlation
between cognitive and non-cognitive intelligence would render the
two types of intelligence non-distinguishable, incidence of a zero cor-
relation between them might make one too sceptical to label the newly
introduced emotional intelligence as “intelligence” in true sense: “The
new intelligence is so different that it is not intelligence at all”. Hence
the presence of a low to moderate correlation between the two types of
intelligences was thought to be ideal. Some studies worked on this asso-
ciation further. Spearman (1927) opined that such intelligences move
in tandem because these draw on a common mental resource which he
preferred to term as general common resource or general intelligence (g).
The possession of such resource in plenty explains the success stories of
an individual. Relevant literature offers alternative mathematical mod-
els for estimating g at individual level. There are studies, however, that
bypassed the correlation approach and adhered to theoretical analy-
sis to establish the presence of Emotional Intelligence. Guilford and
Hoepfner (1971) asserted the presence of near about 120 intelligences
based on combinations of basic human mental process. The model,
however found very little appreciation as the number of intelligence to
16
be tracked was too high and it failed to lend itself to correlation method
for empirical verification. Gardner (1983, 1995), in his thoery of mul-
tiple intelligence, too avoided the correlational approach and intended
to explain presence of muliple intelligences with cultural differences and
human brain structure. In empirical verification of the model, he found
all intelligences to be significantly interrelated. However, although the
theory is intuitively appealing and still has some acceptance among
the researchers, theorists including Gardner himself remained sceptical
about the empirical findings (Detterman 1982; Sternberg 1994). Apart
from such exceptions, the Emotional Intelligence models developed in
the twentieth century relied predominantly on the correlation method.
According to the Encyclopaedia of Applied Psychology (Spielberger
2004) there are currently three foremost approaches towards analy-
sis of Emotional Intelligence, namely, the Bar-On Model (1997), the
Goleman Model (1995) and the Mayer-Salovey Model (1997). This
study while focussing on these three would like to go for an academic
discussion of the trait based model of Emotional Intelligence intro-
duced by Konstantin Vasily Petrides in 2001.
The term Emotional Intelligence gained immense popularity after
Daniel Goleman came to publish his book Emotional Intelligence in
1995 where he posited emotional intelligence to be equally important
as IQ to explain one’s success in academic, professional, social, and
interpersonal aspects of life. According to him, emotional intelligence
is an array of skills and characteristics that can be taught and cultivated.
Goleman’s original model has now come to be considered as a mixed
model that combines what have subsequently been modelled sepa-
rately as ability EI and trait EI. The trait model “encompasses behav-
ioural dispositions and self perceived abilities and is measured through
self report” (Konstantin and Furnham 2001). The ability model as
developed by Peter Salovey and John Mayer in 1997 focuses on the
individual’s ability to process emotional information and to use it to
navigate the social environment. Bar-On, on the other hand, offered a
model based within the context of personality theory, emphasizing the
co-dependence of the ability aspects of emotional intelligence with per-
sonality traits and their application to personal well-being. This is in
contrast to the Goleman’s model, developed in terms of performance,
17
where individual abilities and traits are integrated to gauge their impact
in each sphere of life (Goleman 2001).
2.2.1 The Bar-On Model of Emotional Intelligence
The Bar-On model (1997) starts from a very basic premise by raising
a very basic question, namely, why do some people with a high IQ strug-
gle in life, while others with a moderate IQ succeed? With its emphasis
on non-cognitive intelligence, it has introduced a scientific and one of
the best normed measures of Emotional Intelligence that is adminis-
tered to over 42,000 individuals in thirty-six countries. This multifac-
eted measure with its multicultural applicability examines almost all the
aspects of emotional and social intelligence. While defining Emotional
Intelligence, the theory does not confuse it with IQ, aptitude, academic
achievement, vocational interest or personality. Rather, it has been
taken as the emotional, social, communicative, and relational abili-
ties of individuals to grasp their own as well as others’ wants and needs
so as to be able to cope with environmental demands and pressures.
As pointed out by Goleman, the most significant contribution of this
approach to the literature has been the effort to develop an Emotional
Quotient scale.
The Bar-On model involves 133 brief items answered on a five-point
scale from “Not true of me” to “True of me”. The EQ-i is suitable for
individuals who have attained an age of seventeen years of more and
it takes approximately 40 minutes to complete. The test involves few
scales namely, total EQ, five EQ Composite scales, fifteen EQ Content
Scales and four Validity scales. The model identifies the following com-
posite EQ scales with the associated content scales:
(i) Intra-Personal scale includes Emotional Self-Awareness,

Assertiveness, Self-Regard, Self-Actualization, and Independence as
content scale.
Among these content scales, Emotional Self-Awareness is described
as the ability to recognize and comprehend one’s diversified and
distinct emotions, along with the capability to identify the factors
18
causing those. Assertiveness is portrayed as the ability to put across

and defend one’s emotions, viewpoints, and opinions and rights in
a non-destructive way. Self regard is defined as the ability to rec-
ognize, accept and respect one’s own emotion; recognizing and
accepting one’s positive and negative aspects as well as one’s limita-
tions and possibilities. Independence is described as self-reliance and
the ability to self-direct one’s thinking and actions without any sig-
nificant emotional dependency on their fellow members. Further,
self-actualization is epitomized as the capacity to realize one’s poten-
tial and the endeavour to pursue one’s longing.
Such factors are responsible for development of better attitude
towards work, consistent behaviour and improved interaction with
fellow members. It is likely to help people to think and act on their
own and yet still incorporate others’ ideas whenever appropriate.
Ability for successful conflict resolution, to work in cohesion and to
share ideas effectively comes naturally with strengthening of intra-
personal factors leading ultimately to optimization of individual as
well as team performances.
(ii) Inter-Personal scale includes Interpersonal Relationship, Empathy,
and Social Responsibility as content scale.
Developing Interpersonal Relationship refers to one’s ability to estab-
lish and maintain mutually beneficial and gratifying relationships
with the fellow members. Empathy is recognized as the capability
to comprehend and appreciate the feelings of others. Further, Social
responsibility is defined as the ability to present oneself as a coopera-
tive, contributing, and constructive member of one’s social group.
Inter-Personal factors thus help in developing effective communica-
tion and cohesive functioning that facilitate action as team member
and leads ultimately to significant contribution to society as a whole.
(iii) Adaptability is the third EQ factor that includes Problem Solving,
Flexibility, and Reality Testing as content scale. The problem-solving
ability is defined as one’s proficiency in identifying problems and
to render and implement effective solutions. Flexibility refers to
the skill to adjust one’s emotions and their manifestation to shift-
ing situations and conditions. Finally, Reality Testing is portrayed
as the ability to recognize and analyse the association between the
19
perception and the reality. Alternatively, it relates the subjective

aspects with the objective ones.
Individuals high on adaptability are expected to cope with challeng-
ing and dynamic situations effectively with an ability to come out
with realistic and viable solutions to emerging issues.
(iv) The fourth EQ factor, namely, Stress Management includes Stress
Tolerance, and Impulse Control as content scale.
Among these content scales, stress tolerance is defined as the compe-
tence and confidence to handle and react in stressed situation effec-
tively. Impulse Control is explicated as the ability to control, or even
delay or resist, the manifestation of one’s emotions.
An individual with better ability to manage stress can meet the tar-
get and manage the workload without making much mistake..
(v) The fifth EQ scale or the General Mood involves Optimism and
Happiness as content scale.
Out of these content scales, Optimism is taken as the proficiency to
look at the brighter side of any event, even under adversity whereas
Happiness is described as the skill to remain satisfied with one’s
life under any circumstances. Such factors often create a positive
atmosphere that lifts spirit and improves the overall performance.
Using these factors, the Bar-On model calculates the EQ (EQ-i) for
each respondent and judges their ability to cope with the environmen-
tal demands. Assuming a normal distribution for the scores, with mean
100 and standard deviation of 15, any score in the range of 85–115 is
considered to be the average score. Any score greater (less) than 115
(85) is considered to be a high (low) score. Any respondent scoring in
the average range for a particular factor is considered to be functioning
efficiently in handling situations related to that factor. An above-average
score indicates the efficiency of the person in terms of the factor con-
cerned, while a low score identifies skills that necessitate improvement
for better functioning and higher probabilities of success. The Bar-On
test finds wide application in a variety of field including corporate, edu-
cational institutions, clinical, medical, and academics.
The model was estimated for near about four thousand respond-
ents from the United States and Canada. Seventy-nine percent of the
20
respondents were white and under the age of 30 years, with equal rep-
resentation of males and females (Bar-On 1997, 2002). Testing the
impact of age, gender and ethnicity revealed that the older groups
scored significantly higher than the younger groups on most of the
EQ-i scales; and respondents in their late 40s obtained the high-
est mean scores. An increase in emotional-social intelligence with age
is also observed in children (Bar-On and Parker 2000). While statisti-
cally significant gender differences exist for some of the factors meas-
ured by the EQ-i, there is hardly any gender bias on EQ-i as a whole.
Specifically, for the North American sample (Bar-On 1997), females
tend to have stronger interpersonal skills whereas the males outper-
form them in terms of intrapersonal capacity, managing emotions and
adaptability. Women are found to be more socially responsible and bet-
ter aware of emotions, demonstrating more empathy and relating better
interpersonally than men. On the other hand, men score better in terms
of possession of self-regard and self-reliance, coping with stress, flex-
ibility, problem solving capacity and optimism. Similar gender patterns
are observable in almost all studies that use EQ-i (American Psychiatric
Association, 1994). The test, however, did not reveal significant differ-
ences in Emotional Intelligence between the various ethnic groups that
were compared (Bar-On 1997, 2000, 2004; Bar-On and Parker 2000).
The finding is indeed significant as studies over the past years found
significant differences in cognitive intelligence between various ethnic
groups (Suzuki and Valencia 1997).
Stability estimates of the test were reported to be quite high. For
seven population samples, the value of Cronbach’s alpha measuring the
internal consistency ranged from 0.69 to 0.86 for the fifteen subscales
with an overall average internal consistency of 0.76 (Bar-On 2002).
Content validity is reported to be adequate and structural validity was
established through factor analysis to test the hierarchical structure of
the Bar-On model of emotional intelligence (Bar-On 2002). Construct
validity was established through measures of convergent and divergent
validity. Although the correlations were not so significant between the
EQ-i and the other available measures of standard intelligence (Bar-On
2002; Brackett and Mayer 2003), it was distinctly higher for some
measures of psychological and subjective well-being (r takes the value
21
of 0.54 and 0.35 respectively) and for the Big Five personality factors
(Brackett and Mayer 2003). Studies (Van Rooy and Viswesvaran 2004;
Van Rooy et al. 2005) suggest that no more than 4% of the variance
of the EQ-i can be explained by cognitive intelligence. Further, the
degree of overlap between the EQ-i and personality tests is found to be
no more than 15% based on eight studies in which more than 1700
individuals participated. This finding establishes the fact that EQ-i
measures something else other than personality traits. And, this must
be true because the skills that EQ-i attempts to measure are much dif-
ferent from the simple personality traits which unlike these skills do
not enhance continuously from childhood to adulthood and cannot be
improved upon through individual endeavour (Bar-On 2004). These
findings, along with the fact that EQ-i is fairly significantly correlated
with other measures of emotional social intelligence (ESI) establish
EQ-i to possess substantial construct validity. That is, the tool measures
exactly what it was designed to measure. Tests of incremental validity
of the Bar-On model assert that with personality and intelligence (IQ)
held constant, emotional intelligence as measured by the EQ-i can still
predict some of the human behaviour, particularly addictions, pretty
well (Brackett and Mayer 2003).
Further study results suggest that emotional intelligence as meas-
ured with the Bar-On model could accurately predict success in life
particularly in business and industry settings. It could also differenti-
ate between achievers and wash-outs in social interactions, military
schools, air force, work places and academia in different countries
(Bar-On 2002; Handley 1997; Swart 1996). It is pretty good in pre-
dicting impact of Emotional Intelligence on physical and psychological
health, self-actualization and subjective well-being (Bar-On 1997, 2004;
Bar-On et al. 2005; Krivoy et al. 2000).
2.2.2 The Ability-Based Model: Mayer and Salovey
Much of the development in the area of Emotional Intelligence was

done by Mayer and Salovey (1997) where they defined Emotional
Intelligence as “the ability to perceive emotion, to access and generate
22
emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional

knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emo-
tional and intellectual growth”. The model starts from the premise that
emotion acts as an important piece of information that becomes impor-
tant when one interacts with others in social relationships and in differ-
ent social environment. However, people would have different ability to
recognize the importance of this information, to process it and to com-
bine this non-cognitive ability successfully with the cognitive ability for
an effective functioning of the system.
The Ability-based model considers four types of such abilities. The
proficiency to recognize and understand one’s own emotion and to
comprehend the emotions expressed by others fall under the ability to
perceive emotions or what they described as Emotional Perception. This
is followed by the expertise to use such emotional knowledge or non-
cognitive aspects of human behaviour to carry out cognitive functions:
a skill which is termed as Emotional Use. The third type of the non-cog-
nitive ability considered by the Solvey and Mayer model is labelled as
Emotional Understanding where people strive to understand shades and
layers of emotions, their origin, reciprocity and evolution over time. The
analysis is completed by introducing Emotional Management or the abil-
ity to manage or regulate emotions, own as well as of others, effectively.
With the model developed primarily with these four basic abilities,
Mayer and Salovey (1997) introduced sixteen other emotional skills,
four under each of these categories. Such an analysis covers the develop-
ment of emotional skills over one’s entire lifetime starting from child-
hood to adulthood and it seeks to combine the relatively simple skills
to recognize and demonstrate emotions with more sophisticated and
conscious skills of perceiving, demonstrating and controlling emotions.
Following Mayer and Salovey (1997), a detailed analysis of these catego-
ries and sub-categories may be presented as follows:
1. Perception, appraisal and expression of emotion: Mayer and Salovey

(1997) presented this category as the lowest branch of emotion that
is concerned with the accuracy with which one can identify his or
her emotion and its contents. During the journey from childhood to
adulthood, one gradually (and sequentially) develops emotional or
23
non-cognitive skills that Mayer and Salovey (1997) tried to categorize

under four subgroups namely,
(a) Ability to identify emotion in one’s physical states, feelings and
thoughts.
(b) Ability to identify emotions in other people through language,
sound appearance and behaviour.
(c) Ability to express emotions accurately and to express needs
related to those feelings.
(d) Ability to discriminate between accurate and inaccurate, or
honest versus dishonest expressions of feeling.
In order to describe how these skills develop sequentially, Mayer and
Salovey (1997) argued that infants respond initially to the expression
of their parents, but gradually, they come to identify and distinguish
among emotions and respond to incidents related to different social
surrounding. Progressively, with maturity, people learn to control
their own emotions, comprehend those of others and are eventually
able to manifest emotions appropriately.
2. Emotional facilitation of thinking: Mayer and Salovey (1997) consid-
ered this as the second higher branch of emotion where emotions
facilitate cognitive processing. Right from infancy, human emotion
and its expression signal the human needs, changes within them and
their surroundings. An infant yells when it desires its basic needs to
be fulfilled. With maturity, gradually, the interdependence and inter-
action between non-cognitive and cognitive skills become stronger. A
grown-up person uses emotion, anticipation, and its possible manifes-
tation to determine and to shape future courses in life. For example,
one might anticipate the possible hostility and empathy that might be
faced when he or she intends to enter professionally or otherwise, a
new arena of life. Such anticipation about future feelings and its effec-
tive processing often shapes one’s future course of action. This is what
Mayer and Salovey (1997) described as an “emotional theatre of the
mind”: a grown up mind offers a processing area where emotions are
spawn, comprehended, analysed, controlled and manifested so as to
determine one’s immediate or future courses in life. Further channels,
however, may be identified under this branch where non-cognitive
24
factors such as mood swing might effectively impinge on occupational

and non-occupational activities and reasoning.
While unfolding the role of emotion in facilitating reasoning Mayer
and Salovey (1997) identified four sub-phases of interaction between
non-cognitive and cognitive skills that develop gradually as an infant
transforms itself into a grown-up, emotionally mature human being.
These four sub-phases of interaction may be described sequentially as
follows (Mayer and Salovey 1997):
(a) Emotions prioritise thinking by directing attention to impor-
tant information.
(b) Emotions are sufficiently vivid and available that they can be
generated as aids to judgement and memory concerning feelings.
(c) Emotional mood swings change the individual’s perspective
from optimistic to pessimistic, encouraging consideration of
multiple points of view.
(d) Emotional states differentially encourage specific problems
approaches such as when happiness facilitates inductive reason-
ing and creativity.
The third branch of emotional skill is particularly concerned with
how individuals perceive their emotions and dissect those to use such
emotional knowledge to shape their attitude towards developing and
maintaining relationships in different spheres (professional or other-
wise) of life.
3. Understanding and analysing emotions; employing emotional knowl-
edge: in order to show how one accumulates emotional knowledge
and process those to reach effective solutions to real life problems,
Mayer and Salovey (1997) concede that such accumulation initiates
in one’s salad days and grows with maturity in life thereby unfold-
ing newer dimensions of emotions and leading to better understand-
ing of those. A child gradually learns to distinguish between “liking
and loving, annoyance and anger and so on” (Plutchik 1984) and the
sense of emotional reasoning develops gradually where feelings may
be related effectively to relationships at professional or personal level.
With maturity a person seems to recognize the presence of complex
and contradictory emotions and the sequence or chains in which
25
emotions gush in. Accordingly, Mayer and Salovey (1997) described

four sequential phases of accumulating emotional knowledge:
(a) Ability to label emotions and recognise relations among the
words and the emotions themselves, such as the relation
between liking and loving.
(b) Ability to interpret the meanings that emotions convey regard-
ing relationships, such as that sadness often accompanies a loss.
(c) Ability to understand complex feelings: simultaneous feelings of
love and hate, or blends such as awe as a combination of fear
and surprise.
(d) Ability to recognise likely transitions among emotions, such as the
transition from anger to satisfaction, or from anger to shame.
The highest branch of emotional development is concerned with the
ability to manipulate and control emotions so as to facilitate emo-
tional and intellectual growth. Hence, Mayer and Salovey (1997)
defined the most sophisticated emotional skill as the Reflective
Regulation of emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth.
4. Reflective Regulation of emotions to promote emotional and intellectual
growth: the branch starts from the requirement that one must be open
to emotions for effective controlling of those. Emotions are to be com-
prehended without aggrandizing or underrating their significance
and one must stand ready to accept or welcome even the worst form
of emotional upheavals. This is particularly because efficiency in con-
trolling emotions comes from its accurate comprehension which in
turn depends on the ability to put up with waves of emotions, pleas-
ing or otherwise. Ability to control and manipulate emotions affects
cognitive reasoning and ultimately helps one to get effective con-
trol over adverse situations. Moreover, such skills gradually mature
to form what Mayer and Salovey (1997) described as reflective or
meta-experience of mood and emotion. As pointed out by Mayer and
Gaschke (1988), emergence of feeling like “I don’t fully understand
the way I’m feeling” is direct and conscious reflections on emotional
responses. These are not to be understated as simple perception of
one’s feelings. Mayer and Salovey (1997) further decomposed meta-
experience of mood into meta-evaluation and meta-regulation. Meta-
evaluation is particularly related to how clearly one perceives the
26
nature and the effects of his or her mood and attends and entertains
those, while meta-regulation is concerned with whether such mood
swings are optimally controlled.
The sub-phases in development of reflective regulation of emotion
may be described as follows:
(a) Ability to stay open to feelings, both those that are pleasant and
those that are unpleasant.
(b) Ability to reflectively engage or detach from an emotion
depending upon its judged informativeness or utility.
(c) Ability to reflectively monitor emotions in relation to oneself
and others, such as recognising how clear, typical, influential or
reasonable they are.
(d) Ability to manage emotion in oneself and others by moderat-
ing negative emotions and enhancing pleasant ones, without
repressing or exaggerating information they may convey.
2.2.2.1 Measuring Emotional Intelligence in Mayer

and Salovey Model
Mayer and Salovey (1997) were indeed aware of the fact that develop-
ing a concept of Emotional Intelligence in terms of a set of skills or
proficiencies has nothing to do with the measurement of emotional
achievement or emotional competence. Anastasi (1988) was among
those who first raised the issue of whether Emotional Intelligence
could be compared to emotional achievement or emotional compe-
tence. While cognitive intelligence (e.g., academic intelligence) may
be compared to cognitive achievement (that is, academic achievement)
and cognitive competence (academic excellence, in this case), it is dif-
ficult to infer that a person, high on emotional intelligence would
always attain high levels of emotional achievement and competence.
Such processes of accomplishing and attaining competence depend
on a variety of factors including the family background, the societal
structure and the experiences in life that the incumbent has under-
gone. Therefore, given the possible lack of one to one correspondence
27
between emotional intelligence and emotional competence, analysts

often prefer to speak in terms of the latter (Saarni 1988). Mayer and
Salovey (1997), however, relied much on development of a measure
that would take into account the emotional intelligence, emotional
competence and emotional achievements simultaneously. A reliable
and workable measure of emotional intelligence, while establishing
it as a true form of intelligence, must be able to distinguish it from
other forms of cognitive and general intelligence. As asserted by them
any true measure of Emotional Intelligence has to fulfil three criteria.
Firstly, such measure must be able to capture the sub-phases of emo-
tional development. Secondly, it must directly measure and quantify a
skill without putting much emphasis on one’s self assessment regarding
his or her Emotional Intelligence. And, finally, such measure must be
able to connect different emotional skills. Mayer and Salovey (1997)
found very few studies to satisfy all these criteria. Mayer et al. (1990)
found factors or skill that might explain individual differences in rec-
ognizing and distinguishing emotions. Mayer and Geher (1996) found
emotional perception to be correlated with cognitive as well as other
emotional skills. Averill and Nunley (1982) found emotional intelli-
gence, or emotional creativity as they described it, to be able to pre-
dict individual success rates independent of cognitive intelligence.
Mayer et al. (2002) developed their own ability-based Emotional
Intelligence test (MSCEIT) designed to measure the four branches of
the Emotional Intelligence model of Mayer and Salovey. MSCEIT, that
takes 30–45 minutes to complete, consists of 141 items. MSCEIT pro-
vides fifteen main scores, namely, the total EI score, two Area scores,
four Branch scores, and eight Task scores. In addition to these fifteen
scores, there are three Supplemental scores. The test can be scored in
two ways, namely, the general consensus and expert consensus scoring.
However, ranking of the incumbents based on these two methods are
almost identical. The test passes the internal consistency reliability test
in terms of the split-half approach. The overall reliability (r) of the test
stands at 0.93 for general and at 0.91 for expert scoring. The reliability
(r) of the Perceiving Emotion branch scores stands at 0.91 and 0.90, for
general and expert scoring, respectively. In terms of general and expert
scoring, the reliability scores stand at 0.79 and 0.76 for Facilitating
28
Emotion branch; at 0.80 and 0.77 for Understanding Emotion branch

and at 0.83 and 0.81 for Managing Emotion branch respectively. The
tests are found to have content validity (Mayer et al. 2002). The test
found Emotional Intelligence to be a measurable, reliable and true
form of intelligence, which is significantly distinct from other forms
of intelligence. People who are high on Emotional Intelligence accord-
ing to MSCEIT are indeed found to require less cognitive effort in
solving real life problems (Jausovec et al. 2001). Correlations among
non-cognitive abilities, however, are found to be higher at lower level
of intelligence (Jensen 2003). Further, MSCEIT rarely correlate with
other self-reported Emotional Intelligence tests, such as BarOn EQ-i
(Bar-On 1997), Scale of Emotional Intelligence (Schutte et al. 1998)
or Occupational Personality Questionnaire (Collins 2001). This is par-
ticularly so because of two reasons: people’s perception usually does not
match with reality and the definition of EI used by MSCEIT is dif-
ferent from that employed by other tests. However, predictive ability
of Emotional Intelligence has been emphasized by a number of studies
that take Emotional Intelligence as the “best predictor of success in life”
(Gibbs 1995; Goleman 1995, 1998a). Goleman did, however, expand
the original concept of Emotional Intelligence put forward by Mayer
and Salovey, and this has caused some confusion and overstating of its
importance.
2.2.3 The Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence:

Goleman’s Model
In 1998, Goleman in his Working with Emotional Intelligence intro-

duced a framework of Emotional Intelligence to show how skills to
comprehend, manage and demonstrate emotions explain one’s success
stories in professional life. While presenting Emotional Intelligence
as a theory of explaining and predicting success, Goleman described
Emotional Intelligence is a wide array of skills that drives leader-
ship and emotional competence is “a learned capability based on
Emotional Intelligence that results in outstanding performance at
work”. Specifically, having emotional skills does not guarantee that one
29
has acquired emotional competence rather it asserts that an individual

has the potential to become competent. Gaining emotional competence
depends on the ability with which such potential would be realized and
intelligence would be transformed into capabilities: a practice that must
be learned. Having an innate Emotional Intelligence skill is thus abso-
lutely necessary, but not sufficient to demonstrate competence in any of
the Emotional Intelligence fields.
In his 1998 work, Goleman introduced a framework of five main
Emotional Intelligence domains or dimensions and twenty-five emo-
tional competences. These five main dimensions are described as
(a) Self-awareness or the ability to know one’s emotions, strengths,

weaknesses, values and goals; to comprehend their impact on oth-
ers and to use insights in taking decision.
(b) Self-regulation or the skill to control and/or manage one’s unset-
tling emotions and to adapt to shifting situations.
(c) Social skill or the proficiency in managing relationships to drive or
direct others in one’s desired direction.
(d) Empathy or the ability to take into account other’s feelings espe-
cially when making decision.
(e) Motivation or the urge to drive for achievement.
Of these skills, self-awareness, self-regulation and motivation were

described as personal competencies that are related to knowing and
controlling one’s own emotions. The remaining two depicted social
competence where individuals recognize, comprehend and manage oth-
er’s emotions. Later on, based on a study conducted by Boyatzis et al.
(2000) the five domains were collapsed to form four constructs namely,
Self-awareness, Self-management, Social-Awareness and Relationship
(or social) management. The number of emotional competencies was
reduced to twenty from twenty-five considered earlier.
A look into the following matrix might make the framework more
comprehensive.
30
Recognition Self awareness Emotional self awareness Personal

Accurate self assessment competence
Self confidence
Social awareness Empathy Social compe-
Service orientation tence
Organizational awareness
Regulation Self management Self control Personal
Trustworthiness competence
Conscientiousness
Adaptability
Achievement drive
Initiative
Relationship man- Developing others Social
agement Influence competence
Communication
Conflict management
Leadership
Change catalyst
Building bond
Team work and
cooperation
The first component of emotional intelligence, Self Awareness is

described as the ability to recognize and truly comprehend one’s feeling
at a particular moment that helps one take decisions with confidence.
As pointed out by Goleman (1998a, b) it is the same as what Mayer and
Stevens (1994) described as meta-mood which is the affective counter-
part of meta-cognition. Goleman defined three competencies under self
awareness to be portrayed as:
(a)
Emotional Self Awareness that emphasizes the ability to recognize,
distinguish and understand one’s own feeling in a true sense and to
gauge their impact on one’s ultimate performances.
(b)
Accurate Self assessment that are concerned with the ability to hon-
estly investigate and acknowledge one’s strengths and weaknesses.
Boyatzis (1982) described such competence as the “hallmark of
superior performance”. People with such competence are fully
aware of their strengths and weaknesses, welcome constructive (or
31
otherwise) comments and stand ready to concede their faults and

seek to learn from mistakes.
(c) Self confidence or the ability to feel that what one learns about their
strengths and weaknesses are not his or her true valuation. Rather,
people with such competence, are truly aware of their capabili-
ties, have strong self assurance and capability of decision making,
fight, even for the most unpopular thing, if they feel it is right, and
believe that they can manage their own lives effectively.
As pointed out by a study (Goleman 1998a, b) emotional self aware-

ness could explain and predict the performances of financial planners
in a financial company. As asserted by Kelley (1998), the competence
in accurate self assessment is found in almost every “star performer”
among knowledge workers in companies like AT&T and 3M. Further,
while average performers overestimate their ability, achievers consist-
ently underestimate their skills: a trait that shows competence in accu-
rate self assessment (Goleman 1998a, b). Boyatzis (1982) found self
confidence to be a unique factor while distinguishing “average perform-
ers” from the “best” ones among supervisors, managers and executives.
For a group of entry level accountants, Saks (1995) identified compe-
tence in terms of self confidence as a better predictor of performance
rather than their innate skill or previous training. Holahan and Sears
(1995) considered a sixty-year study involving 1000 man and women
with high IQ, where they were tracked from their childhood to retire-
ment. The people with competence in self confidence in their salad days
were found to be the achievers in their respective professions.
The second cluster in personal emotional intelligence that is, Self
Management or self regulation is described as the ability to take respon-
sibility of one’s emotions and to comprehend and manage the impact of
such emotions on decision making and responses. Goleman (1998a, b)
defined six competencies under this cluster defined as follows.
(a)
Emotional Self Control: a skill that is described as the efficiency in
managing one’s disruptive emotions and the ability to remain calm
and not to retort even under stress or in hostile situations.
32
(b) Trustworthiness: a skill portrayed as the ability to convey one’s val-

ues, principles, objectives and emotions to others and act accord-
ingly in a consistent manner.
(c) Conscientiousness: the ability to remain cautious, self-disciplined
and meticulous while pursuing responsibilities.
(d) Adaptability: the skill to be amicable to new information and the
ability to discard long-established but outmoded ideas without
being hesitant to muddle through shifting requirements.
(e) Achievement Drive: the competence that refers to the positive and
confident endeavour to enhance performance continually.
(f ) Initiative: the efficiency to be proactive instead of remaining reac-
tive. It is described as the skill to anticipate situations and to take
pre-emptive rather than remedial actions.
The competence in emotional self control is found to characterize

superior performer in fields such as counselling and psychotherapy,
and among flight attendants, managers, executives, store managers
in retail chains and many others (Rahim and Psenicka 1996; Boyatzis
and Burrus 1995; Spencer and Spencer 1993; Boyatzis 1982; Lusch
and Serkenci 1990). Barrick and Mount (1991) and Barrick et al.
(1993) found conscientiousness of executives and employees to have
significantly positive impact on job performances, particularly, on
sales. Spencer and Spencer (1993) identified the presence of adaptabil-
ity as a skill among all the best-performers in industries. McClelland
(1961) documented achievement drive, or achievement orientation
(as he intended to call it) to explain success of entrepreneurs. Spencer
and Spencer (1993) found such drive as an important factor that dis-
tinguishes among performances. Few studies (Crant 1995; Rosier
1996) identified initiative as the key explaining factor of above-average
performances in industries such as real estate, financial services and
consulting.
Goleman (1998a, b) defines the third cluster of emotional intelli-
gence, the Social Awareness as the skill to recognize and comprehend the
social relationships and the social structure in which one is operating.
Social Awareness manifests itself in three competencies, namely, empathy,
Service Orientation and Organizational Awareness.
33
(a) Empathy is described as the skill to comprehend others’ feelings,

worries and requirement. As emphasized by Goleman (1998a, b),
an empathetic person essentially possesses competence in self
awareness.
(b) Service Orientation is the efficiency to comprehend even the unde-
clared requirements and apprehensions of the customer group and
mould the services accordingly. It usually builds upon the other
social awareness skills.
(c) Organizational Awareness is portrayed as the ability to recognize the
emotions of a group that facilitates stronger networking and coali-
tion among the group members.
Skills to be sensitive and compassionate are often identified as the factor

explaining star-performance, particularly among physicians, managers
of product development teams, retailers, sales persons and personnel in
other industries (Friedman and DiMatteo 1982; Spencer and Spencer
1993; Pilling and Eroglu 1994). With a competence in service orien-
tation, people are found to flourish in the arena of sales (Spencer and
Spencer 1993; McBane 1995). Competence in organizational aware-
ness explains the above-average performance in almost every field. As
pointed out by Boyatzis (1982) people skilled in organizational aware-
ness can comprehend situations objectively and in an unbiased manner
that helps them respond to situations effectively.
The fourth cluster of Emotional Intelligence in the Goleman’s model
is described as relationship management or the social skills. Social skills
are those to which one gets access to while entering into relationship
with others. While social awareness helps to understand others, social
skills offer means of interacting with the fellow members in a way that
facilitates productivity by improving interpersonal relationships. Such
competencies involve developing others, influence, communication, conflict
management, leadership, change catalyst, building bond, and team work
and cooperation.
(a)
Developing others are concerned with the skills of intuiting the
developmental needs of fellow members and feeling the urge and
taking initiative to shore up their capabilities.
34
(b) Influence is described as the ability to have an impact on others

feelings and their decision making. The people with competence
in such aspects comprehend others’ emotions and tweak their own
to arrive at a perfect blend that enhances productivity. Effective
influencing includes persuasion and star-performers often use their
skill to persuade to move interactions in the desired direction.
However, such attempts must be honest and non-manipulative so
that self interest does not take over collective goals.
(c) Communication is described as a skill that involves exchanging emo-
tional information effectively, candid dealing of complicated issues,
complete sharing of information, encouraging open and frank dis-
cussion and remaining equally receptive to good and bad news.
(d) Conflict management involves the ability to predict possible chan-
nels of conflict, to identify potential troublemakers, to open up
channels for effective communication and to take diplomatic
and effective steps to resolve the problem before it could set on
its track. Effective conflict management essentially requires social
skills such as empathy and patient listening.
(e) Leadership is often portrayed as a skill where individuals draw
on their personal skills to motivate others to work in cohesion
to achieve a common goal. Influence and leadership are strongly
related because natural leaders can boost up zeal among team
members for attaining a shared vision and mission. They often
take the pioneering role, inspiring others while holding them
responsible at any stage of interaction.
(f ) The skill of being change catalyst is defined as the proficiency of a
leader to comprehend the need for change by removing obstacles
and challenging the set pattern of interaction in an ultimate drive
to set newer organizational goal to meet the demands of the day.
(g) Efficiency in building bond requires the ability to develop large
network of acquaintances, professional relationships and friends
at work places in an ultimate aim to establish mutually beneficial
relationship that would help the organization flourish.
(h) Skills in team work and cooperation requires viewing the team as
something that needs nurturing. A leader proficient in facilitat-
ing teamwork and cooperation tends to take collaboration as
35
essential for effective decision making. Hence, they focus on build-

ing relationships along with the tasks, share information to foster
a collaborating work environment, build a team-identity to foster
collective pride and take up opportunities to develop the capacity
of the team with an ultimate aim to improve productivity.
Empirical studies in the field have found such competencies to indeed

affect the productivity and distinguish among better and poor perform-
ers in any chosen field. Competence in developing others and Influence
are significant factors that distinguish star performers from the average
ones (Spencer and Spencer 1993). Studies involving managers and exec-
utives reveal that the more efficient people are to demonstrate the com-
municative skills, the more they are preferred to be dealt with (Goleman
1998a, b). Further, skills in conflict management often turn out to be
extremely effective in establishing and maintaining long-term relation-
ships in industries like manufacturing and retail (Ganesan 1993). As
pointed out by George and Bettenhausen (1990), a positive and ener-
getic role adopted by the leader help make other team members positive
and cooperating. The emotional energy generated by the optimism of
a leader often gushes outwards to inculcate positivity among the group
members (Bachman 1988). Moreover, the effectiveness of a leader to
act as a change catalyst encourages other team members to perform bet-
ter (House et al. 1995). Kelley (1998) conceded that skills in building
bonds are essentially required to perform better in fields like engineer-
ing, computer science, biotechnology and other knowledge-work fields.
Kaplan (1991), on the other hand, has shown that less effective manag-
ers fail to build bonds. Collaboration and teamwork are found to be the
essential ingredients of success in many organizations. As discussed in
the study by Goleman (1998a, b), teamwork may be taken as depend-
ent on the collective Emotional Intelligence of the group members
and the most effective and productive teams usually exhibit significant
Emotional Intelligence skills at the team level. Sweeny (1999) found the
causes of failure of managers as their inability to develop effective work-
able relationship with their peers. Further studies have revealed that
team members share the moods and positive mood of team members
36
as well as of the leader tends to improve performance (Totterdell et al.

1998; George and Bettenhausen 1990; Barsade and Gibson 1998).
Discussing the effects of such competencies in isolation may be rel-
evant for academic purposes, but one must concede that in reality peo-
ple tend to exhibit often a group of such competencies, even across
the clusters, such that skill in one aspect tend to be influenced or sup-
ported by skills in others. Factually, emotional skills are most effective
when they operate interdependently in a cluster (Nygren and Ukeritis
1993; Spencer and Spencer 1993). Further, as pointed out by Boyatzis
(2000) a “critical mass” of emotional skills and its effective manoeu-
vring is a prerequisite for the desired take-off. Goleman (1998a, b)
argued similarly when he introduced the concept of a tipping point—a
point at which emotional skills start influencing performance. Studies
by McClelland (1998) and Boyatzis (1999) supported the fact that the
emotional skills of the star performers in different fields usually surpass
the tipping points.
2.2.4 The Trait Based Model of Emotional Intelligence
Several trait theorists have proposed models of based on the personality

traits expressed through personal skills.
2.2.4.1 “Big Five” Personality Factor Model
A widely used and widely accepted trait model that deserves atten-
tion is the “Big Five” Personality Factor Model, which is better known
as the “Big Five” or the “Five Factor Model”. This model is based on
the empirical work on personality traits by Gordon Allport, Raymond
Cattell, and Hans and Sybil Eysenck. The model proposes five dimen-
sions of personality traits, namely, neuroticism, extraversion, openness,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness and posits that each individual falls
between the two extremes of each dimension. Neuroticism is referred to
as a negative aspect of emotion that shows lack of emotional stability.
Extraversion is a positive aspect that refers to an active, energetic and
outwardly approach to the world. Openness examines an individual’s
37
willingness to accept changes and happenings without undue hesitation

or reservation. Agreeableness explores whether one has a pro-social, co-
operative orientation towards fellow members without much antago-
nism. Finally, conscientiousness refers to the control of impulses which
facilitates tasks and other goal-directed behaviour (Hergenhahn and
Olson 1999). Myers (1998) discussed the “big five” personality model
with its trait dimensions and different facets as follows:
(a) Under Neuroticism, Myers (1998) described different facets such

as Calm vs. Anxious; Secure vs. Insecure; Self-satisfied vs. Self-pitying;
Even-tempered vs. Temperamental; Comfortable vs. Self-Conscious
and Emotional vs. Unemotional
(b) Under Extraversion Myers (1998) described facets as Sociable vs.
Retiring; Fun-loving vs. Sober; Affectionate vs. Reserved; Talkative vs.
Quiet; Active vs. Passive and Passionate vs. Unfeeling
(c) Under Openness, Myers (1998) incorporated facets as Imaginative
vs. Practical; Preference for Variety vs. Preference for Routine;
Independent vs. Conforming; Creative vs. Uncreative; Original vs.
Conventional and Curious vs. Uncurious
(d) Under Agreeableness Myers (1998) included facets as Soft-hearted vs.
Ruthless; Trusting vs. Suspicious; Helpful vs. Uncooperative; Generous vs.
Stingy; Lenient vs. Critical and Good-natured vs. Irritable
(e) Under Conscientiousness Myers (1998) portrayed facets such as
Organized vs. Disorganized; Careful vs. Careless; Disciplined vs.
Impulsive; Persevering vs. Quitting; Ambitious vs. Aimless and
Punctual vs. Late
The possible connection between emotional intelligence and person-

ality traits has been intensively analyzed in the available literature. As
discussed earlier, few important models of emotional intelligence par-
ticularly, the Bar-On and the Goleman model, make use of the per-
sonal trait theory. Few sub-components used in the Bar-On model,
particularly, assertiveness, interpersonal effectiveness, empathy, impulse
control, social responsibility, and reality testing are usually considered
parts of personality traits, and has consequently been measured by pop-
ular personality inventories (for example, the California Psychological
38
Inventory or which is better known as CPI). Similarly, competen-

cies used in the Goleman’s model, such as empathy, self-control, and
self-confidence, are areas which have been extensively researched in
personality psychology (Mayer et al. 2004). The overlap between com-
ponents of emotional intelligence models and personality trait the-
ory is particularly evident in empirical comparisons of the constructs.
While comparing BarOn measure of emotional intelligence (EQ-i)
to the NEO-PI-R, a measure of the Big Five personality factors, EQ-
i was found to be significantly correlated with each factor. Significant
correlations were evidenced between EQ-i and traits like neuroticism,
extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (r ranged from 0.27
to −0.57) and moderately significant correlations were found with the
openness factor (r stood at 0.16) (Brackett and Mayer 2003). Goleman’s
measure of emotional intelligence exhibits significant direct correla-
tion with three of the Big Five Personality factors, namely, extroversion,
openness, and conscientiousness (values of r range from 0.22 to 0.49; Sala
2002). Incidentally, the Mayer and Salovey measure or the MSEEIT
demonstrates significant correlations with measures of personality.
The comparison of MSCEIT and the NEO-PI-R measures reveal sig-
nificant correlations between openness (r stands at 0.25) and agreeable-
ness (r stands at 0.28) factors of personality and emotional intelligence
(Brackett and Mayer 2003).
2.2.4.2 Trait Model of Emotional Intelligence
The other model of Emotional Intelligence that deserves some dis-

cussion is the Trait Model of Emotional Intelligence as developed by
Konstantin Vasily Petrides in 2001. Petridis and others distinguished
between the ability based model of Emotional Intelligence and trait
based model of Emotional Intelligence to emphasize on the latter. The
trait EI model is general in nature and it subsumes the mixed model
of Goleman. In this formation, the proposed model takes into con-
sideration the behavioural characteristics of individuals and their self-
professed emotional abilities that are measured through self report. The
implicit assumption, however, remains that an individual can accurately
39
describe his or her own emotional traits. This is in opposition to the

ability based model that refers to actual, and not self-perceived, abili-
ties. Trait EI is defined as “a constellation of emotional self-perceptions
located at the lower levels of personality” (Pteridis et al. 2007) and has
to be explored within a personality framework (Petrides and Furnham
2001). The conceptualization of EI as a personality trait and the subse-
quent development of a construct go beyond the analysis of cognitive
proficiency. This has direct and significant bearing on the operationali-
zation of the construct and the academic theories that are formulated
about it (Petrides and Furnham 2000).
While measuring Emotional Intelligence the proponents of trait the-
ory opine that the available measures of trait EI based on self-report (for
example, EQ-i, the Swinburne University Emotional Intelligence Test
or SUEIT and the Schutte EI model) do not measure trait Emotional
Intelligence properly (Pérez et al. 2005). Accordingly, they designed the
Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue), which is avail-
able in many languages, to measure the construct comprehensively by
conceptualizing Emotional Intelligence in terms of personality. The test
considers fifteen subscales categorized under four factors, namely, well-
being, self-control, emotionality, and sociability.
The psychometric properties of the TEIQue were examined in a
study conducted on a French-speaking population, where TEIQue
scores were found to be globally normally distributed and reliable
(Mikolajczak and Leroy 2007). TEIQue scores are often found to be
non-correlated with nonverbal reasoning. This result has been used
to interpret Emotional Intelligence as a personality trait rather than a
form of intelligence. Further, TEIQue scores were found to be posi-
tively related with few Big Five personality traits, such as extraversion,
agreeableness, openness, and conscientiousness, and negatively related
to alexithymia and neuroticism. Some of the quantitative genetic studies
pursued in the field have shown significant genetic effects and heritabil-
ity for all trait EI scores (Vernon et al. 2008). Studies by Gardner and
Qualter (2010) and by Martins et al. (2010) considered and compared
different Emotional Intelligence tests to conclude favourably in support
of TEIQue.
40
2.2.5 Other Models and Measures of Emotional

Intelligence
Industries and organizations make use of few other models for meas-
uring Emotional Intelligence that cannot be classified under ability or
trait based models of Emotional Intelligence. The study considers two
of those for discussion, namely the Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale
(LEAS) and the Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT) .
2.2.5.1 The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS)
The LEAS is a widely used measure of emotional intelligence that

depends exclusively on self report of emotional skill that one pos-
sesses. Specifically, the study seeks to explore whether and how
intensively one is conscious about and responsive to the emotions in
himself or herself and in others. The theory and the measure consid-
ers Emotional Intelligence in hierarchy, specifically under five levels,
namely, physical sensations, action tendencies, single emotions, blends
of emotion, and blends of these blends of emotional experience (Lane
and Schwartz 1987). The LEAS includes twenty scenarios involving
two people and a situation or a state of affairs that educes emotion.
The respondent would then be asked to spell out about his or pos-
sible or natural responses to those and has to infer about the pos-
sible responses to be made by the other. As developed by Lane and
Schwartz (1987), each scenario is allotted a score from zero to five.
Each respondent is assessed according to his or her ability to pre-
dict own reaction and that of other and are given scores accordingly.
The total emotional intelligence score is assessed as the average of the
score received for envisaging own emotion and the score received for
predicting that of others (Lane et al. 1990). Several studies have used
the LEAS and one such used it on 385 individuals from Arizona
and Minnesota. Statistical evaluation of the LEAS suggested high
reliability and internal consistency of the test. No test of stability,
however, was conducted (Lane 2000). Although the content validity
41
was not estimated, the structural validity was found to be reliable.

Ciarrochi (2003) found the LEAS total alpha, self alpha and other
alpha to stand at 0.89, 0.85 and 0.80 respectively. Lane (2000),
while studying the criterion validity found the scores on the LEAS
to be significantly correlated with impulse control (r = 0.35) and
self-restraint (r = 0.30). Moreover, such scores were hardly related
to any available trait variable or to any EI composite scale such as
the Multi-branch Emotional Intelligence Scale, the earlier version of
the MSCEIT. The LEAS, however, were related to two scales of emo-
tional intelligence, namely, perceiving emotions in stories and estimat-
ing feelings of characters in conflict. Ciarrochi et al. (2003) concluded
subsequently that since the LEAS cannot be found to be strongly
related with Emotional Intelligence, it would be better and more
accurate to describe the scale as measuring processing style rather than
ability itself.
2.2.5.2 The Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT)
The Self Report Emotional Intelligence Test (Schutte et al. 1998) was
initially developed in line with the model of Emotional Intelligence
introduced by Mayer and Salovey (1997). However, later on, it
was criticized for not following the path originally set by Mayer
and Salovey (1997) and was being said to measure a different con-
cept of Emotional Intelligence. SREIT seeks to measure Emotional
Intelligence that is supposed to have consisted of thirty-three items
and the measurement is based on self reporting. The criticism against
the SREIT shoots from this particular point that the original ver-
sion of the SREIT took into consideration as many as sixty-two items
that closely resembled the Mayer and Salovey model of Emotional
Intelligence. However, Petrides and Furnham (2000) tried to defend
SREIT by emphasizing that factor analysis resulted in a single-factor,
thirty-three item measure of Emotional Intelligence. However, this
version has still been criticized as not capturing the true essence of the
concept of EI.
42
In SREIT, the respondents are solicited to reveal their responses to

items according to a five point scale, where people in strong agreement
responds with “1” and those with strong disagreement responds with
“5” (Schutte et al. 1998). Although normative data for such test is not
available, the stability estimates of SREIT was reported as r(27) = 0.78.
The authors reported a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.87 as a reflection of inter-
nal consistency (Schutte et al. 1998). However, the test may be, and
is indeed, criticized for the lack of adequate content validity, with the
thirty-three items representing all portions of the original concept of
emotional intelligence introduced by Mayer and Salovey. Factor analy-
sis of the original sixty-two items established a strong, stable and struc-
turally valid one-factor model consisting finally of thirty-three items.
Criterion validity was reported to be strong enough as the scores of the
SREIT could significantly predict end of the year grade point average
for a group of college students (r reported at 0.32). The test has been
able to distinguish among respondents on the basis of their Emotional
Intelligence. In their study, Schutte et al. (1998) found therapists to
score significantly higher on SREIT than prisoners and clients in a
substance abuse program. The study established evidence for construct
validity through convergent and discriminant validity. The SREIT was
found to correlate significantly with alexithymia (r reported at −0.65)
and several elements of the Trait Meta Mood Scale such as attention to
feelings (r reported at 0.63), clarity of feelings (r reported at 0.52), and
increased mood repair (r reported at 0.68). However, SREIT was found
to be uncorrelated to SAT scores for forty-two college students and was
related to only openness to experience (r reported at 0.54) of the Big Five
personality factors as measured by the NEO-PI (Schutte et al. 1998).
Recent studies have established further that SREIT is indeed unre-
lated to the Mayer and Salovey measure of emotional intelligence, or
the MSCEIT. This perhaps indicates the fact that SREIT measures an
altogether different concept of Emotional Intelligence (Brackett and
Mayer 2003).
In this background the study now proceeds to consider different
broad Emotional Intelligence dimensions, the Emotional Intelligence
indicators under those, their determinants and the possible interac-
tion among them in Indian context. It would then seek to explore
43
how people coming from different socio-economic and demographic

strata behave in terms of Emotional Intelligence indicators. Finally, it
would explore the organizational benefits of Emotional Intelligence and
would seek to establish the theory of Emotional Intelligence as a the-
ory of superior on-the-job performance and a possible means to avoid
the problem of moral hazard in the context of Indian job market. The
findings would have significant bearing on the hiring strategies and for
designing suitable staff development activities.
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49
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3
Indicators of Emotional Intelligence:
Determinants and Interconnections
It is with the heart that one sees rightly; what is essential is invisible to the eye
—Daniel Goleman1
Abstract  Redefining intelligence has changed the way in which indi-

vidual accomplishment could be explained and predicted. Since, the
“emotional” brain rather than the “thinking” one is believed to respond
more effectively to meet the needs of changing situations; it is Emotional
Intelligence that explains the abilities to lead an effective life. It is thus
crucial to explore whether people with cognitive skills and coming from
different social and demographic strata excel in non-cognitive skills so as
to help the organization, to which they belong, to attain certain specific
goals. This chapter intervenes here with reference to India. The explora-
tion on the basis of a primary survey includes a search for the presence,
or otherwise of such skills followed by an analysis of factors determining
those.
Keywords  EI competences · EI dimensions · Five-point Likert scale

Cronbach’s alpha · Bivariate probit · Probit model with sample selection

52
3.1 Introduction
The recent shift in academic focus from cognitive to non-cognitive
skills or at least recognizing the necessity to incorporate non-cognitive
aspects of intelligence along with the traditional cognitive ones in defin-
ing intelligence moulded the way in which performance and accomplish-
ment of individuals had been traditionally explained and predicted.
Success stories hardly remain all about how well one can acquire, organ-
ize and implement new knowledge. Rather it transpires from the emo-
tional, social, communicative, and relational abilities of individuals to
grasp their own as well as others’ desires and needs and to identify their
strengths and weaknesses to flourish as an individual, a team member or
an effective leader under critical situational demands and pressures. It is
no longer Emotions or Intelligence; neither is it Emotion and Intelligence;
rather it is Emotional Intelligence that could explain the abilities to lead
an effective life. The fact of the newfangled era that “an emotional brain
responds to an event more quickly than the thinking brain” (Goleman
1998) has tremendous implications for the organizations and the ben-
efits they seek to derive from hiring and managing their employees.
Every organization nurtures a dream to develop a work environ-
ment, vibrant with positive thoughts and interactions, which would
subdue or even negate all possible unconstructive or disruptive factors
and off-putting repercussions so as to ensure spectacular performances
in good time. A pulsating environment, where decisions are rational,
value-based and integrity is valued, would possibly be characterized
by effective teamwork achieved through cooperation, cohesion and
sense of mutual respect among the fellow members. Such positivity
while dominating diverse aspects of the organization’s life, are likely to
remove stumbling blocks and get transformed into higher productiv-
ity and focussed service orientation. However, while ensuring positiv-
ity is essential, the question remains: how? Better work-environment is
nothing but a manifestation of effective social interaction between the
employer and the employee and, more importantly, among the employ-
ees themselves as team-members. Hence, the question of ensuring posi-
tivity essentially boils down to a choice of hiring personnel who will be
able to understand, rationalize and control personal emotions; would
3 Indicators of Emotional Intelligence: Determinants …
53
recognize, appreciate and respect the emotions of the fellow beings and
would, through this expertise, develop an environment where the sys-
tem would function better by nurturing success of all those who are
part of it. It thus becomes crucial to explore whether people, coming
with cognitive skills from different social and demographic strata pos-
sess enough excellence in non-cognitive competences so as to help the
organization, to which they belong, to attain certain specific goals.
While the available literature on definition of intelligence has started
to incorporate non-cognitive skills with the cognitive ones, studies have
been conducted to assess the impact and relevance of such Emotional
Intelligence factors and their possible interdependence on individual
productivity (professional or otherwise). Such studies date back to
1940s when Ohio State Leadership studies found successful leaders
to possess consideration as one of intrinsic qualities (Hemphill 1959).
Fleishman and Harris (1962) identified effective leaders as those who
could foster mutual faith, respect and cohesion among the team mem-
bers and work on it. Subsequently, following the observations of Murray
(1938), organizations developed assessment processes to evaluate
incumbents on the basis of non-cognitive abilities along with the cogni-
tive skills. While AT&T introduced such evaluation methods in 1956
(Bray 1976), contemporary assessment processes involves evaluations on
the basis of social and interpersonal skills (Thornton and Byham 1982).
Salovey et al. (1999) found people high on Emotional Intelligence skills
to respond more effectively to meet needs of changing social environ-
ments and to establish strong interpersonal network. In fact, IQ failed
to predict the ability to lead a successful life (McClelland 1973; Hunter
and Hunter 1984; Sternberg 1996). Be it school boys in Massachusetts
(Snarey and Vaillant 1985) or the Ph.D. students at Berkeley (Feist and
Barron 1996), IQ does not matter much.
The individual Emotional Intelligence dimensions too have their roles
in explaining job market performances. As pointed out by Schulman
(1995), in a study carried out involving salesperson at Met Life,
optimistic new recruits were finally able to sell 37% more in the first
two years of their career than did their pessimistic counterparts. What
is more surprising is that a group of highly optimistic people, who failed
the initial screening but was hired subsequently, sold 21% more than
54
did the pessimists in the first year. This rose to 57% in the second year.
Subsequently, this group sold 27% more than the average agent. Similar
results were obtained in studies conducted for different facets of perfor-
mances. Students at University of Pennsylvania, who scored high on a
scale of optimism performed much better than those with higher SAT
scores (Schulman 1995). Lusch and Serpkenci (1990) found the retail
chain store managers with better ability to manage stress to have bet-
ter skills in ensuring organizational excellence. In an experiment per-
formed by Barsade (1998), team leaders were found to play the role of
the catalytic agent among the team members. They were found to be
highly motivated or affected by the attitudes of their leaders. An opti-
mistic, cheerful and cooperating leader happened to be more suc-
cessful in motivating his fellow members to improve organizational
performances. Literature on Emotional Intelligence dimensions identi-
fied empathy and the ability to recognize and respect others’ emotions as
one of the important ingredient of success (Rosenthal 1977; Pilling and
Eroglu 1994).
On the basis of analyses of company-level data for thirty organiza-
tions, McClelland (1998) identified a group of EI competences that
distinguishes star performers in any field from the average ones. Such
organizations varied from banking and financial management to min-
ing, sales, geology and healthcare. While analytical thinking was an
important cognitive ability to be possessed, McClelland identified a set
of EI skills that should characterize a successful leader. These include
achievement drive, developing others, adaptability, influence, self-confi-
dence, and effective leadership. Goleman (1998) isolated self awareness
and more specifically, emotional self awareness as crucial to the success
of the financial planners. Boyatzis (1982), on the other hand, picked up
another aspect of self awareness, namely, accurate self assessment as a
predictor of success at the managerial level at twelve different organiza-
tions. Kelley (1998) arrived at similar finding for workers at the knowl-
edge based companies including 3 M and AT&T. Boyatzis (1982),
Holahan and Sears (1995) and Saks (1995) identified self-confidence
as an ingredient of success among employees at different organizations.
This in fact outweighs the importance of IQ and technical skills as per-
formance predictor.
55
Self management, particularly the emotional self-control, turns

out to be an important skill for the small business owners (Rahim &
Psenicka 1996), for the physicians, counsellors and psychotherapists
(Boyatzis and Burrus 1995); for flight attendants (Spencer and Spencer
1993) and for the retail store managers (Lusch and Serpkenci 1990).
Trustworthiness (Goleman 1998), conscientiousness (Barrick and
Mount 1991; Barrick et al. 1993), adaptability (Spencer and Spencer
1993; Amabile 1988), achievement drive (Spencer and Spencer 1993),
optimism (Schulman 1995) and initiative (Crant 1995; Rosier 1996)
are equally emphasized as predictor of success and ability to lead an
effective life.
The EI dimension of Social Awareness and its constituents are
often described as good predictor of superior workplace performances
(Goleman 1998). Empathy and sensitivity to others’ emotion help phy-
sicians, salespersons, retailers, managers and other professionals better
treat their clients (Friedman and DiMatteo 1982; Spencer and Spencer
1993; Pilling and Eroglu 1994; Steele 1997). Boyatzis (1982) empha-
sized the skills in organizational excellence.
Social skill with its underlying dimensions is another area that has
been emphasized much in literature. Skills in developing others are cru-
cial for effective leadership and successful management (Spencer and
Spencer 1993; Goleman 2000). The other social skills that are deemed
crucial for leadership and effective management in diversified fields
of operation include ability to influence (Spencer and Spencer 1993),
skills in effective communication (Goleman 1998), skills in managing
conflict (Ganesan 1993), cooperation (Bachman 1988), ability to act
as change catalyst (House 1988), ability to build bonds (Kelley 1998;
Kaplan 1991) and ability to collaborate and act as a team (Sweeney
1999; Totterdell et al. 1998; George and Bettenhausen 1990; Barsade
and Gibson 1998).
With this at the back of the mind the present study intervenes delves
deeper in this area specifically with reference to India. The quest begins
by an exploration of how competent a selected group of individuals is in
term of their Emotional Intelligence followed by an analysis of factors
determining such skills. Such an analysis would help explain the urge of
any organization, aspirant of success, to look for the non-cognitive skills
56
(along with the pure cognitive efficiencies) in potential employee and

the need to design incentive mechanism and/or to frame policies to help
existing employees develop such skills.
3.2 The Survey and the Questionnaire

The study is based on a primary survey that chose respondents ran-
domly irrespective of gender, age group, income category, occupa-
tion structure and levels of education who were then asked to fill in a
questionnaire that had been developed in line with the mixed model
approach of Goleman (1998). Five hundred and eighteen responses,
complete in every respect, have been used for further processing and
subsequent analysis.
The questionnaire, based on five-point Likert scale consisted of fifty
questions that attempted to cover the five broad dimensions of Emotional
Intelligence with the underlying individual EI competences2 as follows:
(i) Self Awareness or the ability to know one’s emotions, strengths, weak-
nesses, values and goals; to comprehend their impact on others and
to use insights in taking decision. This includes Emotional Awareness,
Accurate Self Assessment and Self Confidence as EI competences under it.
(ii) Self Regulation or the skill to control and/or manage one’s unset-
tling emotions and to adapt to shifting situations. This includes
Self Control, Trustworthiness, Conscientiousness, Adaptability and
Innovativeness as EI competences.
(iii) Self Motivation or the urge to drive for achievement which includes
Achievement Drive; Commitment; Initiative and Optimism.
(iv) Social skill or the proficiency in managing relationships to drive
or direct others in one’s desired direction. This has Influence,
Communication, Leadership, Change-catalyst, Conflict-management,
Building-bonds, Cooperation and Team-capabilities.
(v) Social Awareness or the skill to recognize and comprehend the
social relationships and the social structure in which one is operat-
ing. It has under it the EI dimension of Empathy, Service-orientation,
Developing-others, Leveraging-diversity and Political-awareness.
57
The respondents were asked to rate themselves with regard to observ-

able behaviours under each of these categories on a five point scale that
ranges from ‘strongly disagree’ (1) to ‘strongly agree’ (5). As the exercise
is related to ‘self-assessment’ respondents were requested to respond as
honestly as possible. The respondents, however, were not aware of the
categories under which they were responding.
The questionnaire is reproduced as below:
Name M F
Educational qualification
Occupation
Age group (Years) 20–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 60+
Monthly income (Rs) <25,000 25,001– 50,001– 75,001– >1Lakh
50,000 75,000 1,00,000
While filling up the questionnaire please note that
1: Strongly disagree 2: Disagree 3: neither agree nor disagree 4: Agree 5: Strongly Agree
1 2 3 4 5
1 I know the exact nature of
the emotion that I am feel-
ing and why
2 I realize the link between
my feelings and how do I
respond and perform
3 I am fully aware of my values
and goals
4 I am fully aware of my
strengths and weaknesses
5 I am open to candid feed-
back, new perspective,
continuous learning and
self-development
6 I can present myself with
self-assurance and can take
strong decisions despite
uncertainties
7 I fight for what is right even
if it is unpopular
8 I can manage my impulsive
feelings and distressing
emotions
9 I can think clearly and can
stay composed, positive and
focussed under pressure
58
Name M F
10 I can act ethically and con-
front unethical actions in
others irrespective of any
material incentive or fear of
punishment
11 I think building trust through
reliability and authenticity
is essential
12 I am organized, careful in
work, meet commitment
and keep promises
13 I hold myself accountable for
meeting my objectives
14 I am flexible to handle
changes and shifting priori-
ties
15 I adapt my responses and
strategies to fit changing
situations
16 I am comfortable with and
open to new ideas and new
information from a variety
of sources
17 I seek to generate new ideas
and am open to take calcu-
lated risks
18 I am result oriented with a
drive to meet objectives
19 I use to set challenging goals
and strive to improve per-
formances
20 I can readily make personal
or group sacrifices to meet
a larger organizational goal
21 I actively seek out opportu-
nities to fulfil the group’s
mission
22 I am ready to act on oppor-
tunities
23 I don’t mind bending rules if
it helps in facilitating works
in a constructive way
24 I can mobilize others through
enterprising efforts
25 I operate from hope of suc-
cess rather than fear of
failure
59
Name M F
26 I can see setbacks as due to
manageable circumstances
rather than personal flaw
27 I can sense other’s feelings
and perspective and take
an active interest in their
concern
28 I can anticipate and recog-
nize the needs of my target
group
29 I can gladly match the ser-
vices offered to the needs
of my target groups
30 As group leader I can appreci-
ate my fellow members’
strength and accomplish-
ment
31 I offer useful feedback in case
my fellow members fail and
mentor themaccordingly
32 I can respect and relate well
to people from varied back-
ground and can create an
environment where diverse
people can thrive
33 I can understand the forces
that shape views and
actions of my target group
and fellow members
34 I am skilled at persuasion,
even by using complex
strategies like indirect influ-
ence to build consensus and
support
35 I am a patient listener and
can send clear and convinc-
ing messages
36 I prefer open communication
and am equally receptive to
good and bad news
37 I prefer to raise enthusiasm
for a shared mission
38 I believe in mentoring my
team members while hold-
ing them accountable
60
Name M F
1 2 3 4 5
39 I recognize the need for
change and try to remove
barriers
40 I can handle difficult peo-
ple and situations with
diplomacy and tact and
can negotiate and resolve
disagreement
41 I cultivate and maintain
extensive informal network
among team members
42 I spot and look for mutually
beneficial collaborations
43 I encourage developing team
qualities like respect, help-
fulness and cooperation
44 I help in building team iden-
tity and commitment
45 I seek to protect the group
and its reputation
46 My work environment includ-
ing the incentive scheme
is restricting me to be fully
committed
47 Reaction of my peer group is
a motivating factor for me
48 Family responsibilities are
restricting me to be fully
committed
49 Association with different
social organizations and the
related responsibilities are
affecting my job-related
commitments (please don’t
respond if you are not
associated with any social
organization)
50 Other social responsibilities
are affecting my job-related
commitments
61
The first seven questions fall under the broad dimension of Self
Awareness of which first three come under Emotional Awareness, Q4
and Q5 come under Accurate Self Assessment and Q6, Q7 belong to
Self Confidence.
Q8–Q17 are categorized as coming under the broad dimension of Self
Regulation. Under the category, Q8 and Q9 fall under Self Control,
Q10 and Q11 come under Trustworthiness, Q12, Q13 come under
Conscientiousness, Q14 and Q15 come under Adaptability and the
remaining two falls under Innovativeness.
Q18–Q26 fall under the broad Emotional Intelligence domain of Self
Motivation, of which Q18 and Q19 come under Achievement Drive;
Q20 and Q21 come under Commitment; Q22 and Q24 come under
Initiative; and Q25 and Q26 come under Optimism.
Under the EI dimension of Social Awareness Q27 relates to Empathy;
Q28 and Q29 relate to Service Orientation; Q30 and Q31 belong to
Developing Others; Q32 is associated with Leveraging Diversity; and
Q33 relates to Political Awareness.
Q34–Q45 are categorized as coming under EI domain of Social
Skills. Q34 relates to Influence; Q35 and Q36 are related to
Communication; Q37 and Q38 come under Leadership; Q39 is
associated with Change catalyst; Q40 with Conflict Management;
Q41 with Building bonds; Q42 with Cooperation; and, finally,
Q43–Q45 are associated with Team capabilities.
The survey invites responses to five other questions concerning factors

that might affect job-related commitment. Q46 is concerned with the
possible adverse effect of work environment on one’s ability to become
fully committed to the assigned responsibilities. Q47 invites responses
about the effectiveness of the reaction of one’s peer group as a motivat-
ing factor for fulfilling commitment. Q48 seeks to gauge the impact
of family responsibilities and Q49 and Q50 are designed to explore
whether association with different social organizations and the related
responsibilities and/or other social responsibilities could affect one’s job-
related commitments. The results obtained may now be summarized as
follows.
62
3.3 Respondents Classified According

to Gender, Age, Income, Occupation
and Education
3.3.1 Classification According to Gender
Out of the total 518 respondents, 267 (52%) were female and 251
(48%) were male (Graph 3.1).
3.3.2 Classification According to Income
Respondents are classified into five categories in terms of their gross

monthly income, namely, (i) lower income group with a monthly income
of less than Rs. 25,000; (ii) lower-middle income group with monthly
income in the range of Rs. 25,001–50,000; (iii) middle income group
with a monthly income in the range of Rs. 50,001–75,000; (iv) higher-
middle income group with a monthly income in the range of Rs. 75,001–
1,00,000; and the (v) high income group with a monthly income of more
than Rs. 1,00,000. As per the survey, out of the total 518 respondents, 71
(14%) belong to the lower income group (income 1), 210 (40%) belong
to the lower-middle income group (income 2); 117 (23%) belong to the
middle income group (income 3); 78 (15%) belong to the higher-middle
income group (income 4) and remaining 42 (8%) belong to the higher
income group (income 5) (Graph 3.2).
Male
48%
female
52%
Graph 3.1 Classification of respondents according to gender

63
Income5
8%
Income1
14%
Income4
15%
Income2
40%
Income3
23%
Graph 3.2 Classification of respondents according to monthly income
3.3.3 Classification According to Age
Respondents are classified into five categories in terms of their age in

years, namely, (i) lower age group ranging from 20 to 30 years; (ii)
lower-middle age group ranging from 31 to 40 years; (iii) middle age
group ranging from 41 to 50 years; (iv) higher-middle age group rang-
ing from 51 to 60 years and (v) the senior group with an age of more
than 60 years. As per the survey, out of the total 518 respondents,
181 (35%) belong to the lower age group, 144 (28%) belong to the
lower-middle age group; 95 (18%) belong to the middle age group; 77
(15%) belong to the higher-middle age group and remaining 21 (4%)
belong to the senior age group (Graph 3.3).
3.3.4 Classification According to Occupation
The respondents are classified under three main categories, namely,

Academics, Service and Administration. Out of total 518 respondents,
150 (29%) belong to academics; 348 (67%) belong to service and 20
(4%) belong to the administrative service (Graph 3.4).
64
>60
4%
51-60
15%
20-30
35%
41-50
18%
31-40
28%
Graph 3.3 Classification of respondents according to age in years
Administrative
4%
Academics
29%
Service
67%
Graph 3.4 Classification of respondents according to occupation

65
3.3.5 Classification According to Educational

Qualification
The respondents were asked to report their educational degree obtained

last in their academic career. Initially, the survey recorded a detailed
educational structure as shown in Table 3.1.
However, to simplify the analytical work, data on different sub-cate-
gories were merged to construct two basic education structures, namely,
the General stream and the technical stream. Out of the total 518
respondents, 308 (59%) belong to the general stream, while 210 (41%)
belong to the technical stream (Graph 3.5).
Table 3.1 Detailed educational structure

Educational No. Educational No. Educational No. Educational No.
qualification qualification qualification qualification
Ph.D. 72 M.Phil 16 Postgraduate 143 Graduate 78
B.Com/MBA 38 BE/MBA 27 CA/CFA 7 B.Tech/BE 42
MD/MS 21 M.Com/MBA 44 MCA 7 M.Tech/ME 23
Technical
41%
General
59%
Graph 3.5 Classification of respondents according to education

66
3.3.6 Cross Tabulation According to Gender, Age,

Income, Occupation and Education
Cross tabulation is often helpful in primary analysis of the raw data.

Table 3.2 shows cross tabulation of data according to gender and age
group. Out of the total female population, 43% falls under the lower
age group of 20–30 years, followed by lower-middle age group of 31–40
(21%), higher-middle age group of 51–60 (roughly 17%) and middle
age group of 41–50 (16%). For the male category, the lower-middle age
group has the highest percentage of population in it, followed by the
lower age group, middle age group and the higher middle age group.
Both the categories have relatively few senior members under them.
While for the entire group proportion of female population exceeds that
of the male population, the trend is not maintained in each of five age-
groups, except for the lower and higher middle age group. Such differ-
ences in proportions across age-groups within gender and across gender
within age-groups are indeed significant as is revealed by the statistical
significance of the chi-square statistic at 1% level of significance.
Table 3.3 shows cross tabulation of data using gender and income.
For the lower and lower-middle income group, the proportion of female
population exceeds that of the male population; while for the higher
and higher-middle income the reverse is true. For the middle income
group, male and female proportions remain exactly equal to each other.
Within the male as well as the female category, proportion of people
belonging to the lower-middle income group is substantially higher
compared to the other groups. While very few female respondents have
their income in the highest group, very few male respondents have their
Table 3.2 Cross tabulation involving age and gender

Gender % within gender % within age
Age Female Male Total Female Male Female Male
20–30 115 66 181 43.1 26.3 64 36
31–40 57 87 144 21.3 34.7 40 60
41–50 43 52 95 16.1 20.7 45 55
51–60 44 33 77 16.5 13.1 57 43
60 and above 8 13 21 3.0 5.2 38 62
Chi-square significant at 1%
67
Table 3.3 Cross tabulation involving gender and income

Gender % within gender % within income
Income Female Male Total Female Male Female Male
<25 K 48 23 71 18 9 68 32
25–50 K 122 88 210 46 35 58 42
50–75 K 58 59 117 22 24 50 50
75 K–1L 28 50 78 10 20 36 64
>1Lakh 11 31 42 4 12 26 74
Table 3.4 Cross tabulation involving gender and occupation

Gender % within gender % within occupation
Occupation Female Male Total Female Male Female Male
Administration 10 10 20 04 04 50 50
Service 162 186 348 61 74 47 53
Academics 95 55 150 35 22 63 37
income in the lowest income group. Such differences in proportions

across income-groups within gender and across gender within income-
groups are indeed significant as is revealed by the statistical significance
of the chi-square statistic at 1% level of significance.
Table 3.4 shows cross tabulation of data using gender and occu-
pation. Within the Administration criterion, the male–female ratio
comes out to be 50:50; whereas, male population dominates in Service
and female dominates in Academics. However, within the gender cat-
egory, for male as well as female, largest proportion of the population
is engaged in service, followed by academics and administration. The
differences in proportions across occupation-groups within gender and
across gender within occupation-groups are indeed significant as is
revealed by the statistical significance of the chi-square statistic at 1%
level of significance.
Table 3.5 shows cross tabulation of data involving gender and edu-
cation. As is revealed from the survey data, both the male and female
respondents have a preference towards having a degree under general
stream. However, the female are relatively more geared towards attain-
ing a general degree, compared to their male counterpart. Moreover,
68
Table 3.5 Cross tabulation of data involving gender and education

Gender % within education % within gender
Education Female Male Total Female Male Female Male
Vocational 90 120 210 43 57 34 48
General 177 131 308 57 43 66 52
Total 267 251 518 52 48 100 100
Table 3.6 Cross tabulation of data involving income and age-group

% within age % within income
20–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 >60 20–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 >60
<25 K 17 9 8 18 29 42 18 11 20 8
25–50 K 61 40 32 13 10 52 28 14 5 1
50–75 K 18 28 26 22 10 27 35 21 15 2
75 K–1L 4 16 21 31 19 9 29 26 31 5
>1Lakh 1 6 13 16 33 5 21 29 29 17
within the general stream, proportion of female is higher and the reverse
is true for the vocational stream. The differences in proportions across
education-groups within gender and across gender within education-
groups are once again significant as is revealed by the statistical signifi-
cance of the chi-square statistic at 1% level of significance.
Table 3.6 shows cross tabulation of data involving income and age-
group. The respondents in the low age group have very little represen-
tation in the higher-middle and high income groups. The respondents
from the lower-middle and the middle age groups are more concen-
trated in the lower-middle, middle and higher middle income ranges.
The senior group however, has its representation mostly in the two
extreme income groups. On the other hand, the lowest and the lower-
middle income groups have mostly lower-age respondents as their
members. The high income groups are however containing more sen-
ior members in them. Such differences in proportions across age-groups
within income and across income-groups within age-groups are once
again significant as is revealed by the statistical significance of the chi-
square statistic at 1% level of significance.
69
Table 3.7 Cross tabulation of data involving income and education levels

% within education % within income
Income Vocational General Vocational General Total
<25 K 7 19 20 80 100
25–50 K 45 37 45 55 100
50–75 K 27 20 48 52 100
75 K–1L 13 17 35 65 100
>1Lakh 9 8 43 57 100
Total 100 100 – – –
Table 3.8 Cross tabulation of data involving income and occupation structure

% within income % within occupation
Income Administration Service Academics Administration Service Academics
<25 K 7 45 48 25 9 23
25–50 K 3 69 29 30 41 40
50–75 K 3 72 25 20 24 19
75 K–1L 4 71 26 15 16 13
>1Lakh 5 79 17 10 9 5
Table 3.7 shows cross tabulation of data involving income and edu-

cation levels. In all the income groups, proportion of respondents hav-
ing a degree in the general stream is much more than the proportion
of respondents having educational degrees in the technical stream.
Moreover, for all the income groups, the proportion of respondents hav-
ing degrees in general stream outweigh that of those having degrees in
technical stream. Within the low income group the distribution is more
tilted towards general group. The differences are significant as is revealed
by the statistical significance of chi-square statistic at 1% level.
Table 3.8 shows cross tabulation of data involving income and occu-
pation structure. Within each income group, representation of admin-
istration is negligible. In all income groups, except for the low–income
one, proportion of service holders exceed that of respondents from
academics. Within service, incomes are less concentrated in the lowest
and the highest income group. Within academics, income concentrates
mostly in the low and the lower-middle income group. Such differences,
however, are significant.
70
Table 3.9 shows the cross tabulation of data involving age and occu-
pation structure. Such differences, however, are not significant.
Table 3.10 shows the cross tabulation of data involving education
and occupation structure. Such differences, however, are not significant.
Table 3.11 shows the cross tabulation of data involving education
and age group. Such differences are significant at 1% level. Within
each age group, the proportion of respondents having a degree in
general stream is much higher than that of those having degrees in
technical stream. The difference is significantly higher for the middle-
aged, higher-middle aged and senior respondents. Within the tech-
nical stream, however, the proportion of people belonging to the low
and lower-middle age group is significantly higher. Within the general
Table 3.9 Cross tabulation of data involving age and occupation structure

% within occupation % within age
Occupation 20–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 >60 20–30 31–40 41–50 51–60 >60
Administration 25 40 15 20 0 3 6 3 5 0
Service 36 27 20 13 3 70 66 75 58 48
Academics 33 27 14 19 7 27 28 22 36 52
Table 3.10 Cross tabulation of data involving education and occupation

structure
% within occupation % within education
Occupation Vocational General Vocational General
Administration 30 70 3 5
Service 55 45 92 50
Academics 7 93 5 45
Table 3.11 Cross tabulation of data involving age and education

% within age % within education
Age Vocational General Vocational General
20–30 41 59 36 34
31–40 47 53 32 25
41–50 36 64 16 20
51–60 35 65 13 16
60 and above 29 71 3 5
71
stream, proportion of people belonging to the low-age group is higher

than that in other age groups.
A summary based on initial introspection of data may be useful for
further analyses. As is revealed by the study:
• The sample has more female than male.

• In the income distribution there are relatively fewer people in the two
extreme income groups, with intense concentration at the lower-mid-
dle income group. Incidentally, men earn relatively more than women.
Majority of the male population belong to the higher income group,
and outnumber their female counterpart within those groups.
• The proportion of respondents decreases as we move from the low to
the high age group. The concentration has been highest in the groups
of 20–30 (years) and 31–40 (years). Within these two groups, propor-
tion of female is higher, while the reverse is true for other age-groups.
• The respondents (even if the gender groups are concerned) have come
mostly from Service, followed by Academics and Administration. In
Administration, the male–female ratio comes out to be 50:50; whereas,
male dominates in Service and female dominates in Academics.
• Relatively more respondents have their final degree in General stream and
the study finds relatively more female respondents in the General stream.
• Respondents belonging to the relatively lower age groups are earn-
ing in the lower to lower-middle income range, whereas, the senior
members belong to the high income groups.
• In all the income groups, proportion of respondents having a degree
in the general stream is higher.
• Within each income group, representation of administration is negli-
gible. In all income groups, except for the low-income one, propor-
tion of service holders dominate.
• There is no significant relationship between education and occupation
structure.
• There is no significant relationship between age and occupation structure.
• Within each age group, the respondents with a degree in general-
stream dominate. This is more so for the middle-aged, higher-middle
aged and senior respondents. Within each education structure, how-
ever, the low-age group dominates.
72
3.4 Respondents Classified According to Their

Responses Towards EI Dimensions
The survey is based on a five-point Likert Scale, where responses are
ordered so that one response is preferred to another. The study involves
questions that require responding on a 1–5 scale, where 1 means strongly
disagree and 5 implies strongly disagree with the neutral point being nei-
ther agree nor disagree. Such an ordinal, psychometric scale developed
by Likert (1932) seeks to measure the attitudes of the respondents to a
series of statements about a topic in an ultimate aim to explore the cog-
nitive and affective components of attitudes. A Likert scales assumes that
the intensity of experience is linear and that attitudes can be measured.
Under each EI Competence Scale (such as Emotional Awareness,
Accurate Self Assessment or Self Confidence. etc.) there are several Likert
questions (or, theoretically, items) that use the same Likert scale. Hence,
such Likert questions may be grouped and the responses may be summed
to calculate the total score for each of the EI Competence Scale. This scale
may be treated as a defendable approximation to an interval scale, where
the series may be treated as an interval data series measuring a latent vari-
able. The scores for each broad EI dimension (for example, Self Awareness)
are calculated by averaging scores for each Likert item under it (that is,
Emotional Awareness, Accurate Self Assessment and Self Confidence in this
case). All the scores are converted into a ten point scale, by taking the
maximum score that could be attained to be equivalent to 10. The emo-
tional quotient is calculated as an equally weighted average of the five
broad EI dimensions considered in the study.
The study has conducted a reliability analysis to check the inter-
nal consistency of responses using the Cronbach’s alpha. Cronbach’s
alpha is used as a (lower-bound) estimate of the reliability of a psy-
chometric test. Alpha can be viewed as the expected correlation of
two tests that measure the same construct. If we measure a quantity
X = Y1 + Y2 + ··· + YK then alpha is defined as
K c̄
α=
v̄ + (k − 1)c̄
73
where v̄ is the average variance of each component (item), and c̄ is the

average of all covariances between the components across the current
sample of persons. Cronbach’s alpha will increase as the inter-correla-
tions among test items increase, and is thus known as an internal con-
sistency estimate of reliability of test scores. Any value of alpha lying
between 0.7 and 0.8 is acceptable. The results are summarized in
Table 3.12.
The values of the reliability statistic are sufficiently high for all the
constructs. The items within each scale are to be treated as significant
members of the scale in the sense that deletion of the item reduces the
value of the Cronbach’s alpha in each case.
Table 3.12 Reliability analysis for EI items and scale

Category Items Cronbach’s Cronbach’s
alpha if item alpha
deleted
Self awareness Emotional awareness 0.618 0.746
Accurate self assessment 0.395
Self confidence 0.630
Self regulation Self control 0.678 0.784
Trustworthiness 0.584
Conscientiousness 0.601
Adaptability 0.606
Innovativeness 0.669
Self motivation Achievement drive 0.593 0.756
Commitment 0.540
Initiative 0.499
Optimism 0.626
Social awareness Empathy 0.608 0.797
Service orientation 0.648
Developing others 0.582
Leveraging diversity 0.619
Political awareness 0.675
Social Skill Influence 0.703 0.813
Communication 0.691
Leadership 0.682
Change catalyst 0.676
Conflict management 0.689
Building bonds 0.688
Cooperation 0.677
Team capabilities 0.672
74
For each category, the study calculated the number of respondents

having above average and below average competence in terms of the vari-
able considered. For a continuous variable, a respondent is assigned a
value 1 (and zero otherwise) if the score attained is more than the
average of all values that the variable takes. For an ordinal variable
a respondent is assigned a value 1 (and zero otherwise), if his or her
response is either agree or strongly agree.
Before moving onto any formal quantitative analysis it may be of
interest to present some findings revealed by the data.
3.4.1 Respondents Excelling in Terms of EI Dimensions

and EQ
The study considers Emotional Quotient and five broad dimensions of

EI, namely, Self Awareness, Self Regulation, Self Motivation, Social Skill
and Social Awareness. Out of the 518 respondents, few people excel in
terms of some dimensions where as the rest excel in terms of others. The
study calculated the number of respondents having above average skill
in terms of all these indicators separately using the valuation scheme
mentioned earlier.
Seventy-seven respondents out of total five-hundred and eighteen
(15%) excel in terms of none of these criteria. Hence, this 15% may
be treated as those who lag significantly in terms of overall Emotional
Intelligence. On the contrary, 58 out of total 518 (11%) excel in terms
of all of these criteria. Hence, this 11% stands out to form the topmost
category in terms of Emotional Intelligence. The others excel in terms
of different combinations of the Emotional Intelligence indicators. The
results are shown in Graph 3.6.
The detailed results are shown in Table 3.13.
Number of respondents excelling in any five Emotional Intelligence
dimension, is maximum for the combination that excludes Social
Awareness. No such combination however excludes EQ. Number
of respondents doing better in terms of any four of these criteria is
75
Excels in all six (11%)
Excels in any five (19%)
Excels in any four (12%)
Excels in any three (9%)
Excels in any two

(17%)
Excels in any
one (16%)
Excels in
none (15%)
Graph 3.6 Percentage of respondents excelling in terms of EI indicators
at its highest for the combination that excludes self awareness and
social awareness. Number of respondents excelling in a combination
of any three EI dimensions is maximum for the Self awareness, Self
Regulation and Social Skill combination and for the Self Regulation,
Self Motivation and EQ combination. Similarly, the self awareness and
self regulation combination has the highest number of respondents in
it who excel in any two of the EI dimensions. The number of respond-
ents having proficiency in a single dimension is maximum in case of self
awareness, followed by social awareness. Among the respondents there is
no such who is proficient exclusively in terms of EQ.
76
Table 3.13 Percentage of respondents excelling in terms of EI indicators

(in details)
All six 58
Any five 101
Self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, social skill, EQ 33
Self regulation, self motivation, social skill, social awareness, EQ 27
Self awareness, self regulation, social skill, social awareness, EQ 23
Self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, social awareness, EQ 13
Self awareness, self motivation, social skill, social awareness, EQ 05
Self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, social awareness, social skill 0
Any four 62
Self regulation, self motivation, social skill, EQ 13
Self regulation, self motivation, social awareness, EQ 10
Self awareness, self regulation, social awareness, EQ 08
Self awareness, Self regulation, Self motivation, EQ 08
Self motivation, social skill, social awareness, EQ 07
Self regulation, social skill, social awareness, EQ 06
Self awareness, social skill, social awareness, EQ 06
Self awareness, self regulation, social skill, EQ 02
Self awareness, self motivation, social awareness, EQ 02
Self regulation, self motivation, social skill, social awareness 00
Self awareness, self regulation, social skill, social awareness, 00
Self awareness, self motivation, social skill, EQ 00
Self awareness, self motivation, social skill, social awareness 00
Self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, social awareness 00
Self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, social skill 00
Any three 49
Self awareness, self regulation, social skill 06
Self regulation, self motivation, EQ 06
Self regulation, self motivation, social skill 05
Self motivation, social awareness, EQ 05
Self awareness, social skill, social awareness 04
Self awareness, self regulation, self motivation 03
Self awareness, social awareness, EQ 03
Self regulation, social awareness, EQ 03
Self awareness, self regulation, social awareness 02
Self awareness, self regulation, EQ 02
Self awareness, self motivation, social skill 02
Self regulation, social skill, social awareness 02
Social skill, social awareness, EQ 02
Self awareness, self motivation, social awareness 01
Self awareness, social skill, EQ 01
Self motivation, social skill, social awareness 01
Self motivation, social skill, EQ 01
Self awareness, self motivation, EQ 00
Self regulation, self motivation, social awareness 00
(continued)
77
Table 3.13 (continued)
Self regulation, social skill, EQ 00

Any two 90
Self awareness, self regulation 17
Self regulation, self motivation 13
Self awareness, self motivation 11
Social skill, social awareness 9
Self awareness, social awareness 8
Self motivation, social skill 7
Self regulation, social skill 6
Self motivation, social awareness 6
Self awareness, social skill 5
Self regulation, social awareness 5
Social awareness, EQ 03
Self awareness, EQ 0
Self regulation, EQ 0
Self motivation, EQ 0
Social skill, EQ 0
Any one 81
Self awareness 20
Social awareness 19
Self motivation 16
Social skill 15
Self regulation 11
EQ 0
3.4.2 Rank Correlation Among the Emotional

Intelligence Dimensions
The study considers the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for assess-
ing the interrelation among different EI dimensions. The Spearman’s
rank-order correlation is the nonparametric version of the Pearson
product-moment correlation and it measures the strength and direction
of possible monotonic (but not necessarily linear) relationship between
two ranked variables. For a Likert scale, such as that used in this study,
Spearman’s rank correlation is better suited because of the ordinal nature
of the data. Intuitively, the Spearman’s correlation between two variables
will be high when the observations have a similar (or even identical) rank
between the two variables, and low when observations have a dissimilar
rank between the two variables. The sign of the Spearman’s rank corre-
lation indicates the direction of association between the two variables.
78
Spearman’s rank correlation would tend to be positive (negative) with

the two chosen variables moving in the same (opposite) direction. An
increase in the magnitude of the coefficient would hint towards the fact
that the chosen variables, say x and y, are increasingly moving closer to
become perfectly monotonic functions of each other. That is, for any
two pairs of observation (xi, yi) and (xj, yj), (xi − xj) and (yi − yj) would
always have the same sign. A perfectly monotonic decreasing relationship
would imply the differences to have opposite signs.
Table 3.14 shows the rank correlation coefficients among the broad
EI dimensions and among the broad dimensions and the competences
falling under it.
The observations summarized in the table suggest few points that
may be useful for further analyses.
• All the correlations are positive and significant at 1% level of significance.

• Each EI competence is significantly correlated with the broad EI
dimension under which it falls. In each of these cases the coefficients
are greater than or equal to 0.50. In all the other cases the coeffi-
cients are positive but less than 0.50. These cases are not reported in
Table 3.14 but may be found in Annexure.
• Within each broad EI dimension, all the EI competences are not
strongly associated with each other (correlation coefficients are posi-
tive but less than 0.50).
• All the EI competences (except for Emotional Awareness, Accurate
Self assessment, Self confidence, Self control, Change catalyst,
Conflict Management, Building bonds and Cooperation) are
strongly (correlation coefficients greater than 0.50) and positively
related to the index of EQ. In the exceptional cases, the correlation
coefficients are significantly positive, but less than 0.50.
• Few EI competences are strongly and directly correlated with other
broad EI dimensions. Others are weakly related.
• Strong, direct correlation exists between a few pairs. These are
Emotional awareness and Accurate Self assessment; Trustworthiness and
Conscientiousness; Empathy and Service orientation; Developing Others
and Leveraging diversity, Leveraging diversity and Political Awareness
and finally, Communication and Leadership. For the other pairs, the
correlations are significant, direct but less than 0.5.
79
Table 3.14 Spearman’s rank correlation among variables in the original data set
EI competence EI dimension EQ
EI competence With own group With other Own Others
members group
members
≥0.5 ≥0.5 ≥0.5 ≥0.5 ≥0.5
Emotional Accurate self – Self aware- – –
awareness assessment ness
Accurate self Emotional – – –
assessment awareness
Self confidence – Self control – –
Self control – – Self regula- – –
Trustworthiness Conscientiousness – tion – Y
Conscientiousness Trustworthiness – – Y
Adaptability – – – Y
Innovativeness – – – Y
Achievement drive – – Self – Y
Commitment – – motiva- – Y
Initiative – – tion – Y
Optimism – – – Y
Empathy Service – Social – Y
orientation aware-
Service orientation Empathy – ness – Y
Developing others Leveraging – Social Y
diversity, skill
Leveraging Developing – – Y
diversity others, political
awareness
Political Leveraging – – Y
awareness diversity
Influence – – Social skill – Y
Communication Leadership – Self moti- Y
vation
Leadership Communication – Self moti- Y
vation
Change catalyst – – – –
Conflict – – – –
management
Building bonds – – – –
Cooperation – – – –
Team capabilities – – – Y
80
Table 3.15 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient among EI dimensions

and EQ index
Self Self Self Social Social
Awareness Regulation Motivation Awareness Skills
Self awareness 1.00
Self regulation 0.50 1.00
Self motivation 0.32 0.52 1.00
Social awareness 0.35 0.51 0.45 1.00
Social skills 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.53 1.00
EQ 0.52 0.78 0.74 0.77 0.80
Table 3.15 shows the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient among the

broad EI dimensions and EQ index.
All the EI dimensions are significantly and strongly related to the EQ
index. They are positively interconnected among themselves, where the
relationship is stronger in cases of Self Regulation and Self Awareness;
Self Regulation and Self Motivation; Self Regulation and Social Awareness;
Self Regulation and Social Skills; Self Motivation and Social Skills; and for
Social Awareness and Social Skills.
The study now proceeds to consider each of the broad Emotional
Intelligence dimensions along with their component Emotional
Intelligence competences to explore their possible determinants.
3.5 EI Dimensions, EI Competences and Their

Determinants: Self Regulation
3.5.1 Self Regulation Across Age, Income, Gender,
Occupation and Education
The broad EI dimension of Self Regulation has (i) Self control, (ii)
Trustworthiness (iii) Conscientiousness, (iv) Adaptability, and (v)
Innovativeness as EI competences under it. The study has computed the
number of respondents with above average proficiency in terms of Self
Regulation across age, income, gender, occupation and education. The
results are summarized in Table 3.16.
Table 3.16 Proficiency in terms of self regulation (across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
% of people within the Representation of each group
gender/Income/Age/Education/ in the EI dimension of
Occupation category having
Category Groups below average above average below average above average chi-square (p)
self regulation self regulation self regulation self regulation
Gender Female 48 52 59 47 0.007
Male 36 64 41 53
Monthly <25,000 45 55 15 13 0.02
income (Rs) 25,000–50,000 49 51 47 36
50,001–75,000 38 62 20 24
75,001–1Lakh 37 63 13 16
>1Lakh 24 76 5 11
Education General 41 59 58 61 0.47
Vocational 44 56 42 39
Age (Yrs) 20–30 51 49 42 30 0.01
31–40 34 66 23 32
41–50 35 65 15 21
51–60 48 52 17 12
60 and above 29 71 3 5
Occupation Academics 39 61 27 31 0.001
Service 45 55 72 63
Administrative 10 90 1 6
81
82
Out of the 518 respondents, 42% have below-average Self

Regulation, whereas the remaining 58% have above-average Self
Regulation. Within the different age, gender, income, occupation and
education groups, the proportion of people with above-average Self
Regulation is significantly higher than those with below-average Self
Regulation. Such differences are wider for males, middle to high income
earners, academicians and administrators. General and technical degree
holders, however, cannot be distinguished on the basis of such differ-
ences. The low-age group has relatively more people with below-aver-
age Self Regulation, whereas the reverse is true for all other age groups.
Such difference increases with age and is significantly higher for the sen-
ior members. Similarly, the group with below-average Self Regulation
has relatively more female, less high income people, proportionately less
from technical stream, prominently lower proportion of senior mem-
bers, and significantly more from the service sector. The reverse is true
for the group exhibiting above-average Self Regulation.
3.5.2 Cross Tabulation Among Self Regulation,

Other EI Dimensions and the EQ Index
Cross tabulation between proportions of respondents having above-

average (below-average) Self Regulation and the proportions of respond-
ents having above-average (below-average) proficiency in terms of other
Emotional Intelligence dimensions and the EQ index may be helpful
for further analyses (Table 3.17).
The proportion of people with above-average EQ is marginally higher
than those having below-average EQ. For the Self Regulation and the
EQ index pair, the proportion of people with above-average competence
in each is 45% which is the maximum of all possible combinations
involving these two. Within the below-average Self Regulation category,
proportion of respondents having below-average EQ is more than that
of respondents having above-average EQ. Within the above-average Self
Regulation category, proportion of respondents having above-average
EQ is at maximum. However, the proportion of respondents having
83
Table 3.17 Cross tabulation among self regulation, other EI dimensions and the
EQ index
Self regulation
Below Above Total Below Above Total
average average average average (%)
(%) (%)
EQ Below 185 68 253 36 13 49
average
Above 32 233 265 6 45 51
average
Total 217 301 518 42 58 100
Self Below 154 93 247 30 18 48
motivation average
Above 63 208 271 12 40 52
average
Total 217 301 518 42 58 100
Social skill Below 152 101 253 29 19 49
average
Above 65 200 265 13 39 51
average
Total 217 301 518 42 58 100
Social Below 114 129 243 22 25 47
awareness average
Above 103 172 275 20 33 53
average
Total 217 301 518 42 58 100
Self Below 125 66 191 24 13 37
awareness average
Above 92 235 327 18 45 63
average
Total 217 301 518 42 58 100
above-average Self Regulation and below-average EQ is significantly

lower than the proportion of respondents having BA Self Regulation
and above-average EQ. Hence, for the group of higher EQ (Self
Regulation), incident of getting higher Self Regulation (EQ) is more
likely. The reverse, moreover, is also true. Similar results are obtained for
the combinations obtained from different pairs such as Self Regulation/
Self Motivation, Self Regulation/Social Skill, Self Regulation/Social
Awareness and Self Regulation/Self Awareness. Hence, people with
84
above-average skills in terms of any EI competence (except for Self

Regulation) or EQ index, might have higher probability of exhibiting
above-average Self Regulation. Similarly, the respondents with above-
average proficiency in Self Regulation are more likely to have above-
average proficiency in terms of other EI competences or EQ index.
3.5.3 Rank Correlation Among Self Regulation, Its

Constituents, Other EI Dimensions and EQ
The relationship among the EI dimension of Self Regulation, its

constituting competences (namely, Self control, Trustworthiness,
Conscientiousness, Adaptability and Innovativeness), the EQ index and
other broad EI dimensions may be analysed using the Spearman’s rank
correlation coefficient (Table 3.18).
All the constituents are directly and positively related to Self
Regulation, the correlation being the strongest with trustworthiness
followed by Conscientiousness, Adaptability, Innovativeness and Self
control. The correlation with EQ index is significantly higher com-
pared to those obtained for other EI dimensions. Correlation with Self
Awareness is the highest followed by Social Skills, Social Awareness and
Self Motivation.
To explore whether such correlations are transformed into any
possible association and causality among the chosen variables, the
study makes use of suitable Probit model that could handle ordinal
data well.
Table 3.18 Rank correlation among self regulation, its constituents and other EI
dimensions
Competences Self regulation Dimensions
Trustworthiness 0.70 EQ 0.63
Conscientiousness 0.68 Self awareness 0.50
Adaptability 0.67 Social skills 0.39
Innovativeness 0.57 Social awareness 0.31
Self control 0.54 Self motivation 0.30
85
3.5.4 Relationship Between Broad Emotional

Intelligence Dimensions and Self Regulation
The model uses all the 518 observations with the following variables:
Gender = 1 if the respondent is male, 0 otherwise

Age = 1, if respondent falls within 20–30 years group
= 2, if respondent falls within 31–40 years group
= 5, if respondent falls within above 60 years group
Income = 1, if income is <Rs. 25,000 per month
= 2, if income lies in the group of Rs. 25,001–50,000
per month
= 3, if income lies in the group of Rs. 50,001–75,000 per
month
= 4, if income lies in the group of Rs. 75,001–1 Lakh per
month
= 5, if income is more than Rs. 1 Lakh per month
Education = 0 if the respondent has a degree in technical field,
1 otherwise
Service = 0, if the respondent is engaged in Administrative job
= 1, if the respondent is engaged in Service
= 2, if the respondent is engaged in Academics
Under all the other categories, the number of respondents having

above-average and below-average competence in terms of a chosen vari-
able is counted. For a continuous variable, a respondent is assigned the
value 1 (and zero otherwise) if the score attained is more than the aver-
age of all values that the variable takes. For ordinal variable, a respond-
ent is assigned the value 1 (and zero otherwise), if the response is either
agree or strongly agree.
The study uses three types of models, namely, the simple Probit
model where the dependent variable would depend on the chosen
independent variables. Secondly, a bivariate Probit model where the
relationship between two endogenous variables may be estimated, and
86
thirdly, a Probit model with sample selection where one endogenous

variable may be expected to move first.
Probit Model
The Probit model deals with an unobservable latent variable y* which
can take any values in (−∞, +∞) and is described as:
1 if y∗ > 0

y=
0 if y∗ ≤ 0
′
yi∗ = xi β + εi
Now, P yi = 1 | x = P(yi∗ > 0 | x)

′
= P(xi β + εi > 0 | x)
′
= P(εi > −xi β | x)
′
= 1 − F(xi β)
On the assumption that the error terms are independent and normally
distributed,
′
xβ
P yi = 1| x = 1 − ∅ − i

,σ ≡ 1
σ
′
= ∅ xi β because of symmetry
The model is estimated using the Maximum Likelihood method.

Bivariate Probit Model
In a Bivariate Probit model, the unobserved latent variables are
presented as:
′
y1∗ = x1 β1 + e1 and
′
y2∗ = x2 β2 + e2
87
The outcomes are specified as:

1 if y1∗ > 0

y1 =
0 if y1∗ ≤ 0
1 if y2∗ > 0

y2 =
0 if y2∗ ≤ 0
If ρ is the
Tetrachoric
Correlation between y1 and
e1 0 1ρ
y2 , ∼N ,
e2 0 ρ 1
The explanatory variables in x1 and x2 may or may not be different.

The log-likelihood function is defined as follows:
 ′ 
�n (2yi1 − 1)β1 xi1
′
Log L = log∅2  (2yi2 − 1)β1 xi2 
i=1 (2yi1 − 1)(2yi2 − 1)ρ
n � �
� ′ ′
= log∅2 qi1 β1 xi1 , qi2 β2 xi2 , qi1 qi2 ρ
i=1
Where qi1 = (2yi1 − 1) = −1 if yi1 = 0 and + 1 if yi1 = 1. ∅2 is
the bivariate normal CDF. Log L is maximized with respect to β1, β2
and ρ. Marginal effects and predicted values can be estimated for the
′ ′
binary Probit models as ∅2 β1 xi1 , β2 xi2 , ρ (derivatives of joint prob-
ability), and P(yi1, yi2 = 1)/Prob(yi2 = 1) (partial effects)
Probit Model with Sample Selection
Heckman (1979) introduced the Probit Model with sample selection
in the context of a wage equation that was described as:
Wi = βXi + εi
where, Wi is wage, Xi’s are observed variables relating to the i’th person’s
productivity and εi is an error term. W is observed only for workers.
A second equation related to unemployment was introduced as:
E∗i = Zi γ + ui
88
′
Where E∗i = Wi − Ei is the difference between the wage and the reser-
′
vation wage Ei. The reservation wage is defined as the minimum wage
at which an individual is willing to work. An indicator variable for
employment is observed as E = 1 if E∗i  > 0 and E = 0 otherwise.
The Heckman model assumes that
(i) (ε, u) ∼ N 0, 0, σ2 ε , σ2 u , ρε u that is error terms are nor-

mally distributed and are correlated with ρεu as the correlation
coefficient.
(ii) (ε, u) is independent of X and Z and
(iii) Var(u) = σ2u = 1
Now, E(Wi | Ei = 1, Xi ) = E(Wi | Xi Zi ui )

Since, Wi = β Xi + εi ; E(Wi | Ei = 1, Xi ) = E(Wi | Xi Zi ui ) = β Xi + E(εi | Xi Zi ui )
Or, E(Wi | Ei = 1, Xi ) = β Xi + E(εi | Ei = 1) = β Xi + E(εi |ui > −Zi γ)
Since, Ei = 1 iff E∗i > 0 i.e. if Zi γ+ ui > 0, i.e. if ui > −Zi γ
However, there would be a sample selection bias while regressing
wages on characteristics for those in employment because the equation
for the population is not observed as a whole. This crops up from the
fact that the error term u is restricted to be above a certain value, i.e. it
is bounded from below. This would be problematic because the error
terms are assumed to be correlated.
Heckman (1979) approached the problem as an omitted variables
problem with (εi| ui > −Ziγ) as the omitted variable. The omitted vari-
able is modeled as:
E[(εi |ui > −Zi γ)] = ρε u σε i (−Zi γ) = β i (−Zi γ)
where λi(−Ziγ) is the inverse Mill’s ratio evaluated at the indicated
value and βλ is an unknown parameter (=ρεuσε).
The use of the inverse Mills ratio is often motivated by a specific
property of the truncated normal distribution. If x is a random variable
distributed normally with mean μ and variance σ2, then E(x|x > α) = 
μ + σ[{ϕ((α − μ)/σ)}/{1 − Φ((α − μ)/σ)}]; where α is a constant, ϕ
denotes the standard normal density function, and Φ denotes the stand-
ard normal cumulative distribution function. The expression within the
third bracket describes the Inverse Mill’s ratio.
89
Further manipulation shows: E[(εi| ui > −Ziγ)] = ρεuσε λi(−

Ziγ) = βλ λi(−Ziγ)
Or, E(ui | ui > −Ziγ) = [{ϕ(−Ziγ)}/{1 − Φ(−Ziγ)}]
Now ρεu = σεu/(σε σu); hence ρεuσε σu = σεu; σu = 1 by definition;
hence ρεuσε = σεu
And, E[(εi| ui > −Ziγ)] = ρεuσε. [{ϕ(−Ziγ)}/{1−Φ(−Ziγ)}]
If we compare this with E[(εi| ui > −Ziγ)] = ρεuσε λi(−Ziγ) = βλ
λi(−Ziγ) then these two are the same where λi(−Ziγ) = [{ϕ(−Ziγ)}/
{1−Φ(−Ziγ)}]
The presence of significant rank-correlation among the Emotional
Intelligence dimensions might hint towards suitability of using bivari-
ate Probit or a Probit model with sample selection that could capture
the incidents of endogenous determination of variables. The study esti-
mated all the three models, but in all cases, the relationships between
Self Regulation and other Emotional Intelligence dimensions were
better modelled by a Bivariate Probit. In these models, possibilities of
having above-average Self Regulation and in Self Awareness are taken
as the first variable and second variable respectively. Age, income, gen-
der, occupation, education, EQ index and the possibilities of having
above-average efficiency in EQ are Emotional Intelligence dimensions
as independent variables. While modelling the relationship between Self
Regulation and EQ, set of explanatory variables excluded EQ related
variable form the second equation. The results are summarized as fol-
lows:
3.5.4.1 EQ and Self Regulation
The Bivariate Probit model takes levels of Self Regulation as the first
variable with age, gender, income, education, occupation; and EQ index
itself as dependent variable, whereas levels of EQ comes as second vari-
able that depends on age, gender, income, education, and occupation.
The probability of attaining above-average Self Regulation is significantly
correlated with probability of attaining above-average EQ, the tetrachoric
correlation coefficient being 0.84. Although these two probabilities are
simultaneously determined, there is, yet, no prerequisite that to have
90
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
EQ
Graph 3.7 Predicted probability of having above average self regulation
above-average Self Regulation, one must first have above-average profi-

ciency in terms of EQ. Further, EQ has a significantly positive impact
on the predicted probability of attaining above-average Self Regulation.
It increases steadily with EQ as the value of the latter exceeds 6.5. For
higher values of EQ, particularly, after 9, such probability reaches the
value of 1, which is the maximum in its range (Graph 3.7).
3.5.4.2 Self Regulation and Self Awareness
The results of estimating Bivariate Probit model shows the Tetrachoric

Correlation Coefficient to stand at 0.38 which is significant at 1%
level of significance. While probabilities of having above-average Self
Regulation and that of Self Awareness are simultaneously determined,
one should not necessarily have above-average proficiency in Self
Awareness as a pre-condition of having above-average Self Regulation.
3.5.4.3 Self Regulation and Self Motivation
The best-fit relationship between Self Regulation and Self Motivation

finds the Tetrachoric correlation coefficient to be insignificant. This sug-
gests that the probability of attaining above-average Self Regulation is in
91
no way being simultaneously determined with the probability of attaining

above-average Self Motivation. Further, there is no prerequisite that to have
above-average Self Regulation, one must initially have above-average profi-
ciency in Self Motivation.
3.5.4.4 Self Regulation and Social Awareness
Estimation of the Bivariate Probit model finds no relationship between

probabilities of having above-average Self Regulation and that in Social
Awareness. This is suggested by the insignificant Tetrachoric correlation
coefficient obtained by the model. Hence, probability of attaining AA
self regulation is in no way being simultaneously determined with the
probability of attaining AA Social Awareness.
3.5.4.5 Self Regulation and Social Skills
Estimation of the Bivariate Probit model finds the probability of attain-

ing above-average self regulation to be significantly but negatively cor-
related with the probability of attaining above-average Social Skill, the
correlation coefficient being −0.31. Hence, probabilities of attain-
ing above-average Self Regulation are simultaneously determined with
probabilities of attaining below-average Social Skill.
3.5.4.6 Relationship Between Self Regulation and Other EI

Dimensions Across Gender, Age, Income, Occupation
and Education Structures
For all gender, income, age, occupation and education groups, an

improvement in Self Awareness or in EQ raises the predicted prob-
ability of having above-average Self Regulation. However, the trend is
reverse as we consider an improvement in Social Skill (Graph 3.8).
Males, rather than females, exhibit higher predicted probability of
competence in Self Regulation with an increase in their proficiencies in
Self Awareness. However, with increase in EQ, females are more prone
92
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Low
Low
Low
Technical
Middle
Middle
High
Service
Male
General
Upper-middle
High
Upper-middle
High
Female
Academics
Administration
Lower-middle
Lower-middle
-0.20
-0.40
EQ Gender Occupation Education Income Age

-0.60
Move from low to high self awareness Move from low to high social skill Move from low to high EQ
Graph 3.8 Predicted probability of having above-average skills in terms of self

regulation with change in efficiency in emotional intelligence dimension
to exhibit above-average Self Regulation. An improvement in Social

Skill imparts greater Self Regulation in males, rather than females.
Academicians, followed by service-holders and administrators, dem-
onstrate better Self Regulation with an increase in their Self Awareness.
However, with an increase in EQ, service-holders have better chances
to emerge with higher skills in Self Regulation. Improvement in Social
Skills hardly leads to improvement in Self Regulation for these groups.
High income earners exhibit greater skills in Self Regulation with an
increase in their EQ; while people in the low income category are pre-
dicted to exhibit greater Self Regulation with an improvement in their
Self Awareness. Improvement in Social Skill has hardly any impact on
such predicted probabilities.
Middle aged people, show up with higher predicted probabilities
of having Self Regulation with increase in EQ, whereas senior citi-
zens demonstrate that with an increase in their skills of Self Awareness.
Improvement in Social Skill, however, has negligible impact.
As EQ increases, respondents with their respective academic degrees
in general or in technical field have the same predicted probabilities of
showing above-average Self Regulation. Technical degree holders how-
ever, demonstrate better predicted probabilities of having above-average
Self Regulation with an improvement in their Self Awareness skills.
93
Such analysis has significant bearing on designing of hiring and staff

development strategies. As is revealed by the findings, people with
above-average skills in Self Awareness and EQ are, in general, more
likely to exhibit high Self Regulation. With an improvement in their
EQ, females, service-holders, high-income earners, and middle-aged
people tend to demonstrate above-average efficiency in terms of Self
Regulation. An improvement in Self Awareness increases skills in Self
Regulation among males, academicians, low-income earners, senior citi-
zens and among people who acquired their academic degrees in techni-
cal fields. Social Skills, in no way, however, facilitate progress in terms of
Self Regulation.
The study is extended now to consider the relationship between Self
Regulation and the Emotional Intelligence items under it, namely, trust-
worthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, innovativeness and self-control.
3.5.5 Self Regulation, the Emotional Intelligence Items

Under It and Their Determinants
Bivariate Probit models are best-fit for exploration of the nature of rela-
tionship between Self Regulation and the EI items under it. The values
of the tetrachoric correlation coefficients are shown in Table 3.19.
Probability of attaining above-average Self Regulation is significantly
and positively correlated with the probability of attaining above-average
skills in terms of trustworthiness, conscientiousness, adaptability, inno-
vativeness and self control. There is, however no prerequisite that to
have above-average Self Regulation, one must first have above-average
proficiency in terms of these Emotional Intelligence items.
Table 3.19 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient: self regulation and EI items

under it
Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Adaptability Innovativeness Self-
control
Self regulation 0.70* 0.67* 0.68* 0.37* 1*
Wald chi2 1101.98* 313.25* 211.94* 257.98* 163.32*
*Implies significance at 1% level
94
Determinants of the EI Competences Under Self Regulation

To explore the Emotional Intelligence factors affecting each of the
EI items under Self Regulation, the study considers all the remaining
Emotional Intelligence factors under Self Regulation as well as those
coming under other broad Emotional Intelligence dimensions. A suit-
able Probit model is estimated with the following variables:
Independent variable:
The relevant EI item: A dummy variable that takes the value 1 if the
respondent possesses AA skills in terms of the EI item and 0 otherwise.
Dependent variables:
Gender = 1 if the respondent is male, 0 otherwise

Age  
= 0, if respondent falls within 20–30 years
group
= 1, if respondent falls within 31–40 years group
= 4, if respondent falls within above 60 years group
Income = 1, if income is <Rs. 25,000 per month
= 2, if income lies in the group of Rs. 25,001–
50,000 per month
= 3, if income lies in the group of Rs. 50,001–
75,000 per month
= 4, if income lies in the group of Rs. 75,001–1
Lakh per month
= 5, if income is more than Rs. 1 Lakh per month
Education = 1 if the respondent has a degree in general stream,
0 otherwise
Service = 0, if the respondent is engaged in Administrative
job
= 1, if the respondent is engaged in Service
= 2, if the respondent is engaged in Academics
Any EI competence = 1 if the respondent possesses AA proficiency
in that area and 0 otherwise
EQ = the EQ index value
95
3.5.5.1 Trustworthiness and Its Determinants
The estimated Probit model has a Pseudo R2 of 0.5276 and the LR Chi-
square stands at 249.09 which is significant at 1% level. The probabil-
ity of attaining above-average trustworthiness increases as one moves
from below-average to above-average proficiency in Self-confidence,
Conscientiousness, Initiative, Optimism and EQ. The values of EQ
index itself have a positive impact on the probability of attaining AA
trustworthiness.
The marginal effects show, however, that out of all the EI skills,
Conscientiousness has the most significant impact on the probability
of attaining above-average trustworthiness across age, income, gender,
occupation and education structures (Graph 3.9).
The graph shows the predicted probability of having above-average
Self Regulation when a chosen EI item is set at its above-average level
with all others being set at their below-average levels respectively. For
all the age groups, the predicted probability of exhibiting above-aver-
age Self Regulation is at its highest when conscientiousness is set at its
above-average level, while self-confidence, initiative, optimism and EQ
are set at their below-average levels. Hence, even with other Emotional
Intelligence factors plummeting at a low level, having above-average con-
scientiousness is sufficient to guarantee above-average trustworthiness.
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Technical
25K-50K
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
General
Male
Service
75K-1Lakh
Above 60
Female
Academics
>1Lakh
Administratin
Age Education Income Gender Occupation
Conscientiousness Selfconfidence Initiative Optimism EQ
Graph 3.9 Predicted probability of showing high trustworthiness (across age,

income, gender, occupation and education)
96
Such prominent impact of conscientiousness is followed by that in self-

confidence, initiative, EQ and optimism. All such marginal effects are at
their maximum for the respondents in their middle-age.
Similar results are obtained for different income, occupation, educa-
tion and gender groups considered in the study. Such marginal effects
are at maximum for the lower income group. The predicted probabili-
ties of having above-average Self Regulation then decline consistently
over the next three income classes, and increase subsequently for the
highest income group.
Marginal effects are most pronounced for the service-holders (fol-
lowed by academicians and administrators); for females and for techni-
cal degree holders.
Similar results are obtained for different levels of EQ with the fact
that for a lower (and higher) level of EQ (<5 (and >9.5) on a ten point
scale), there is hardly any evidence of having greater impact of having
above-average skills in any of the Emotional Intelligence items on the
predicted probability of attaining above-average proficiency in trust-
worthiness. For the intermediate range, impact of having high consci-
entiousness on the predicted probability of exhibiting above-average
trustworthiness is most prominent, followed by that of self-confidence,
initiative and optimism (Graph 3.10).
1.00
0.90 all_low_but_conscientiousness
0.80 all_low_but_selfconf
0.70
all_low_but_initiative
0.60
all_low_but_optimism
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00 EQ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.10 Predicted probabilities of having high trustworthiness for levels of

other EI items (across EQ)
97
Hence, among the EI competences those have significant influences

on the probability of attaining AA proficiency in trustworthiness; con-
scientiousness turns out to be the most significant one. While to have
above-average trustworthiness it is sufficient to have above-average pro-
ficiency in any of the five indicators namely, conscientiousness, self-con-
fidence, initiative, optimism and EQ, the impact is most prominent for
conscientiousness. The results are more significant for the females; over
the lower income group; for the middle-aged respondents and for those
who are in services.
Apart from the impact of different EI skills on trustworthiness, the
study considers the marginal effects of age, gender, occupation, educa-
tion and income on the predicted probability of attaining above-average
trustworthiness. The study finds the predicted probability of attaining
above-average trustworthiness to be the highest for the females and for
those respondents who belong to the middle and higher-middle age
groups. It is at maximum for the low-income group and then declines
consistently until it increases for the high-income group. The prob-
ability of attaining above-average trustworthiness is found to be higher
for those in service followed by the academicians and administrators.
The probabilities are more or less equal across the education groups
(Graph 3.11).
1.00 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.98

0.97 0.96
0.94 0.94 0.94 0.94
0.95 0.92 0.93
0.90
0.90
0.86
0.85 0.83
0.80
0.75
50K-75K
Technical
25K-50K
Service
51-60
20-30
31-40
41-50
<25K
General
Male
75K-1Lakh
Female
Academics
Above 60
>1Lakh
Administratin
Age Education Income Gender Occupation
Graph 3.11 Predicted probabilities of having high trustworthiness for different

levels of age, gender, income, occupation and education
98
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
EQ
Graph 3.12 Predicted probability of having above-average trustworthiness

against EQ
Further, the probability of attaining AA proficiency in trustworthi-

ness depends significantly on the EQ of the respondents. For a lower
value of EQ (≤3 on a ten-point scale) such probabilities are almost neg-
ligible. For higher values (≥7 on a ten-point scale) probability of attain-
ing AA trustworthiness reaches the value 1. In the intermediate range,
an increase in EQ is associated with an increase in the probability of AA
trustworthiness. Hence, a threshold EQ is necessary for ensuring AA
proficiency in trustworthiness. A saturation point, however, is reached,
once the EQ level of 7 is reached. Any increase in EQ beyond this point
cannot increase the probability of attaining AA trustworthiness further
(Graph 3.12).
3.5.5.2 Conscientiousness and Its Determinants
The study while exploring the Emotional Intelligence factors affect-

ing Conscientiousness uses the same model as before with the only
exception that now probability of attaining above average conscien-
tiousness would appear as the dependent variable. The independent var-
iables include Emotional Intelligence factors under all broad Emotional
Intelligence dimensions and other factors such as age, income, gender,
occupation and education.
The LR chi2 stands at 269.74 and is significant at 1% level. Pseudo
2
R is estimated as 0.6194. The probability of attaining above-average
99
Table 3.20 Predicted probability of showing above-average conscientiousness

with improvement in chosen EI items
Probability that a respondent Probability that a
having below-average skill in respondent having
terms of a given EI item would above-average skill in
have AA conscientiousness terms of a given EI item
would have AA conscien-
tiousness
Self control 0.998 0.979
Innovativeness 0.998 0.982
Change catalyst 0.997 0.982
Trustworthiness 0.78 0.96
Service orientation 0.79 0.94
conscientiousness increases as one moves from below-average to above-

average proficiency in trustworthiness, service-orientation and EQ. The
values of EQ index itself have a positive impact on the probability of
attaining above-average conscientiousness. The results show further that
as efficiency in terms of self control, innovativeness and change-catalyst
improves, people demonstrate lower predicted probability of being con-
scientious.
The marginal effects of these relevant EI competences on the prob-
ability of attaining above-average conscientiousness are shown in
Table 3.20:
For the first three EI skills, respondents having a below average profi-
ciency are more likely (probability reaches almost one) to exhibit above-
average conscientiousness. However, having above-average proficiency
in terms of these indicators reduces the probability of having above
average conscientiousness only slightly. Having above-average trustwor-
thiness or service-orientation, on the other hand significantly increases
the probability of being highly conscientious. Hence, these two factors
may be treated as significant determinant of conscientiousness and the
study explores further the relative importance of these two factors on
conscientiousness.
In Graph 3.13, the curve high trustworthiness shows the predicted
probability of having above-average conscientiousness at all levels of EQ
while trustworthiness is maintained at its above-average level with all
others fixed at their mean values, except for service-orientation, which is
100
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
EQ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
high Trustworthiness high_service_orientation
Graph 3.13 Trustworthiness, service-orientation, and predicted probability of

having high conscientiousness at different levels of EQ
fixed at its below-average level. The curve titled high_service_orientation

may be similarly explained. The graph shows that for any given level of
EQ, choosing a person, who is otherwise ‘average’ but is highly trust-
worthy over another who is highly service-oriented, does not guarantee
selection of a highly conscientious person. Hence, for a given level of
EQ, having above-average trustworthiness or above-average service-ori-
entation should not be taken as a sole criterion for selecting conscien-
tious people.
Graph 3.13 shows the relative effect of having high trustworthiness
and high service-orientation on predicted probability of having above-
average conscientiousness at different age, income, occupation, educa-
tion, and gender groups.
For the low-age group and for the senior citizens, people who are
only highly trustworthy or high service-oriented demonstrate the same
predicted probability of being highly conscientious. Hence, for these
groups, being trustworthy or being service-oriented does not have any
differential impact on the probability of having above-average conscien-
tiousness. For the three other age-groups, however, keeping other pro-
ficiencies at a fixed level, people with high trustworthiness have higher
predicted probability of demonstrating above-average conscientiousness
compared to those who have strong service-orientation. This differential
impact is significantly high for the higher-middle age group.
101
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
25K-50K
Technical
50K-75K
Service
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
above60
General
Male
Academics
Female
75K-1Lakh
>1Lakh
Administration
Education Gender Occupation Income Age
high trustworthiness high service orientation
Graph 3.14 Trustworthiness, service-orientation and predicted probability

of having high conscientiousness (across age, income, gender, occupation and
education)
Graph 3.14 shows that for all income levels except for the higher-
middle group, people with high trustworthiness have slightly higher
probability of demonstrating above-average conscientiousness than
those with high service-orientation. The differential impact, however, is
indeed significant for the higher-middle income group.
Such differential impacts are hardly significant across occupational
structures, for females and for the respondents who have their degrees
in the general stream. The differential impact is marginally significant
for people with degrees in technical stream and is indeed significant for
male respondents.
Apart from the impact of different EI skills on conscientiousness, the
study considers the marginal effects of age, gender, occupation, educa-
tion and income on the probability of having above-average proficiency
in conscientiousness.
The study finds the predicted probability of attaining above-average
proficiency in conscientiousness to be the higher for the females and for
the respondents belonging to the high age group followed by those in
the lower, lower-middle, middle and higher-middle age groups. Such
probabilities are higher for the academicians followed by the adminis-
trators and the service-holders. The probability is higher for respondents
102
1.000
0.950
0.900
0.850
25K-50K
50K-75K
75K-1Lakh
Technical
Male
<25K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
above60
Service
General
>1Lakh
Female
Academics
Administration
Gender Income Age Occupation Education
Graph 3.15 Predicted Probabilities of having high conscientiousness for differ-

ent levels of age, gender, income, occupation and education
with academic degrees under general stream and for those in the lower-
middle income group. It is however very close for the three other groups
(Graph 3.15).
Lastly, the predicted probability of attaining above-average profi-
ciency in conscientiousness depends significantly on the EQ of the
respondents. For a lower value of EQ (≤3 on a ten-point scale) such
predicted probabilities are almost negligible. For higher values (≥7
on a ten-point scale) it reaches the value 1. In the intermediate range,
an increase in EQ is associated with an increase in the probability of
above-average conscientiousness. Hence, a threshold EQ is necessary
for ensuring above-average proficiency in conscientiousness. A satura-
tion point, however, is reached, once the EQ level of 7 is reached. Any
increase in EQ beyond this point cannot increase the probability of
attaining above-average conscientiousness further (Graph 3.16).
3.5.5.3 Self Control and Its Determinants
The study now explores the Emotional Intelligence factors affecting

Self-control using the same model as before considering the probability
of attaining above-average Self-control as the dependent variable. The
103
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 EQ
Graph 3.16 Predicted probability of having high conscientiousness at different

values of EQ
independent variables include Emotional Intelligence factors under all

broad EI dimensions and factors such as age, income, gender, occupa-
tion and education.
The LR chi2 stands at 289.74, which is significant at 1% level.
Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.7134. The probabilities of attaining above-
average self-control are found to increase as one moves from below-aver-
age to above-average proficiency in emotional awareness, self confidence,
conflict management and EQ. However, such probabilities are inversely
related to the probabilities of attaining above-average competencies in
terms of conscientiousness, innovativeness, change-catalyst and Social Skill.
Hence, highly conscientious and innovative people who have improved
Social Skills and can act as change catalyst should not be expected to
demonstrate strong self control.
ability of attaining above-average self-control are shown in Table 3.21.
The study now explores the relative importance of factors that could
affect the probabilities of having above-average self-control positively.
Specifically it inquires whether choosing people on the basis of a sin-
gle factor would guarantee selection of people with strong self control.
Hence, it considers the predicted probabilities of exhibiting strong self
control where any of the traits with positive impact would be set at its
above-average level with other such traits set at below-average levels and
remaining fixed at their averages.
104
Table 3.21 Predicted probability of showing above-average conscientiousness

Probability that a Probability that a
respondent having below- respondent having above-
average skill in terms of a average skill in terms of a
given EI indicator would given EI indicator would
have AA self-control have AA self-control
Emotional awareness 0.74 0.84
Self confidence 0.47 0.83
Conflict management 0.63 0.74
Conscientiousness 0.79 0.66
Social skill 0.73 0.64
1.0000
0.9000
0.8000
0.7000
0.6000
0.5000
0.4000
0.3000
0.2000
0.1000
0.0000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EQ
Emotional_Awareness Self_confidence Conflict_management
Graph 3.17 Emotional awareness, self confidence, conflict management and

high self control (across EQ)
For all levels of EQ, impact of self confidence on the probability of

attaining AA self-control has been maximum compared to conflict man-
agement and emotional awareness (Graph #). Hence, at any level of
EQ, choosing people with high self confidence is sufficient to guarantee
selection of people with strong self control (Graph 3.17).
The study shows further that for all the age-groups, having high
self confidence has maximum impact on the probability of attaining
105
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Technical
25K-50K
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
75K-1Lakh
60 +
<25K
Admin
Service
Male
General
Female
>1Lakh
Academics
Age Income Occupation Education Gender
Emotional Awareness Self Confidence Conflict Management
Graph 3.18 Emotional awareness, self confidence, conflict management and

high self control (across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
above-average self-control, followed by proficiencies in conflict manage-

ment and emotional awareness respectively. Similar results are obtained
across all gender, income, education and occupational structures.
The impact is most pronounced for the low and the senior age groups
and least prominent for those belonging to the lower-middle age group.
Such impacts are slightly less pronounced for the middle and higher-
middle age groups, for whom the effects are equally manifested. Similar
results are obtained for the middle to high income groups; and for
administrators and academicians. The differential impacts are signifi-
cantly lower for the service-holders. There are however, no differential
impacts across education and gender groups (Graph 3.18).
The study reveals significant marginal effects of age, gender, occupa-
tion, education and income on the predicted probability of attaining
above-average self-control. Such probabilities are marginally higher for
the females and for those with their academic degrees under general
stream. It is higher for the administrators followed by the academicians
and the service-holders. The probabilities are higher, but very close to
each other, for the middle to high income groups, and lower for the low
and lower-middle income groups. The respondents belonging to the low
and high-age groups demonstrate higher (and, almost equal) probabili-
ties of attaining self-control (Graph 3.19).
106
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Technical
25K-50K
50K-75K
75K-1Lakh
41-50
20-30
31-40
51-60
<25K
60 +
Admin
Male
Service
General
Academics
>1Lakh
Female
Graph 3.19 Predicted probability of attaining above-average self control

(across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 EQ
Graph 3.20 Probability of obtaining above average self control across EQ
Further, the probability of having high self-control depends

significantly on the EQ of the respondents. For a lower value of EQ
(≤5 on a ten-point scale) such probabilities are almost negligible. As
the EQ value reaches 5, such probabilities increase steadily with fur-
ther increases in EQ. The probability reaches the maximum value in
its range when EQ reaches its maximum value of ten. There is, hence,
no saturation point. Once the threshold is reached and surpassed, an
increase in EQ would always be associated with higher probabilities of
attaining above-average proficiency in self-control (Graph 3.20).
107
3.5.5.4 Adaptability and Its Determinants
The analysis of the Emotional Intelligence factors affecting Adaptability

uses a Probit model with the probability of attaining above-average
Adaptability as the dependent variable. The independent variables
include Emotional Intelligence factors under all broad EI dimensions
and factors such as age, income, gender, occupation and education.
average adaptability are found to increase with improvement in skills to
act as change-catalyst. However, such probability decreases as we move
from below-average to above-average proficiency in terms of initiative,
social awareness and building bonds. EQ has a direct impact on the prob-
ability of attaining above-average proficiency in adaptability.
The following table shows the marginal effects of EI dimensions and
EI competencies on probability of attaining above-average adaptability
(Table 3.22).
People with above-average proficiency in Social Awareness, Initiative
and Building bonds have more than 70% of chance to demonstrate
above-average adaptability. However, the probability increases to more
than 80% if the respondents possess below-average proficiency in terms
of these indicators.
The impacts of having above-average skills in change catalyst on prob-
ability of having above-average skills in adaptability across age, income,
Table 3.22 Predicted probability of showing above-average adaptability with

improvement in chosen EI items
Probability that a respond- Probability that a respond-
ent having below-average ent having above-average
skill in terms of a given EI skill in terms of a given EI
indicator would have AA indicator would have AA
adaptability adaptability
Social awareness 0.82 0.71
Initiative 0.83 0.74
Building bonds 0.85 0.75
108
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.21 Predicted probability of having above-average adaptability given

ability to act as change catalyst (across EQ)
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
25K-50K
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
Male
<25K
General
Service
above60
Technical
Female
Academics
75K-1Lakh
>1Lakh
Administration
Above-average change catalyst Below-average change catalyst
Graph 3.22 Predicted probability of showing high adaptability with enhanced

skills as change catalyst
gender, occupation, education and EQ are shown in the following

graphs (Graph 3.21).
The curve shows, at all levels of EQ, the probability of demonstrat-
ing above-average adaptability by those who already have above-average
proficiency in acting as change catalyst. Hence, choosing people with
above average EQ and above-average skills in acting as change catalyst
would lead to a choice of people with above-average adaptability.
Graph 3.22 shows the differential impact of having above-average
skills to act as change-catalyst on the predicted probability of exhibiting
109
above-average adaptability across all gender, age, income, education and

occupation groups.
Given that one has above-average skill in acting as change catalyst, the
probability of him/her having above-average adaptability is at maximum
for the lower-middle age group followed by the higher-middle and the
high age group. For all the age groups, it indeed matters whether a per-
son possesses above-average proficiency in change catalyst or not.
Similar results are obtained for other groups.
It matters, for all levels of income, whether a person possesses below-
average or above-average skills to act as change catalyst. People, with
such skills in the low to middle income group have higher probabilities
of demonstrating above-average adaptability than those belonging to
relatively higher income groups.
Such predicted probabilities are at their maximum for the administra-
tors (followed by the service holders and the academicians); for females
and for those who have acquired their academic degrees in technical field.
The study further hints towards significant marginal effects of age,
gender, occupation, education and income on the predicted probabil-
ity of attaining above-average proficiency in adaptability. It finds such
probability to be marginally higher for females and for those who have
obtained their degrees in technical stream. It is higher for the adminis-
trators followed by the service-holders and the academicians. The prob-
abilities are higher and equal for the lower and middle income group,
followed by those in the lower-middle income group. Probabilities
are relatively lower for the two high income groups. The respondents
belonging to the lower middle age group demonstrate higher probabili-
ties of attaining above-average adaptability, whereas such probabilities
differ only marginally for the rest (Graph 3.23).
Lastly, the probability of attaining above-average proficiency in adapt-
ability depends significantly on the EQ of the respondents. For a lower
value of EQ (≤5 on a ten-point scale) such probabilities are almost negli-
gible. Once the EQ value reaches 5, probability of attaining AA adaptabil-
ity starts increasing steadily with further increases in EQ. The probability
reaches the maximum value in its range when EQ reaches the value of
nine. There is, hence, a saturation point (EQ = 9) beyond which increases
in the value of EQ would not be able to pull up the probabilities of
110
1.00 0.87
0.81 0.77 0.81 0.84 0.84
0.76 0.80 0.72 0.75 0.76 0.79 0.80 0.75 0.76 0.79 0.80
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
Technical
25K-50K
50K-75K
<25K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
Male
Service
above60
General
Female
Academics
75K-1Lakh
>1Lakh
Administration
Graph 3.23 Predicted probability of attaining above-average adaptability

1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.24 Predicted probability of having high adaptability across EQ
attaining AA adaptability However, in between the threshold and the satu-

ration point, an increase in EQ is always associated with higher probabili-
ties of attaining AA proficiency in adaptability (Graph 3.24).
3.5.5.5 Innovativeness and Its Determinants
The estimation of a Probit model with probability of having above-aver-

age innovativeness yields a LR chi2 of 240.44, which is significant at 1%
level. The pseudo R2 stands at 0.427.
111
The probability of attaining above-average proficiency in innova-

tiveness increases as one moves from below-average to above-average
proficiency in Accurate Self Assessment, Self confidence, Adaptability
and Achievement Drive. Such probability, however decreases as we
move from below-average to above-average proficiency in terms of
Commitment, Social Awareness, Conflict Management, Conscientiousness
and Self control. EQ has a direct impact on the probability of attaining
above-average proficiency in innovativeness. The following table shows
the marginal effects of EI dimensions and EI competencies on probabil-
ity of attaining above-average innovativeness (Table 3.23).
For the EI competences such as Commitment, Social Awareness,
Conflict Management, Conscientiousness and Self control, having
higher skills would imply at least 70% chance to demonstrate above-
average efficiency in terms of innovativeness. However, this chance
increases to at least 80% when the respondents possess BA skills in
terms of these indicators. Hence, an inverse relationship exists among
such probabilities and the probability of having AA innovativeness.
The study now explores the relative importance of EI skills across
gender, education, occupation, income and age groups. For all those
groups, marginal impact of accurate self assessment has been the
Table 3.23 Predicted probability of showing above-average innovativeness with

respondent having respondent having
below-average skill above-average skill
in terms of a given EI in terms of a given EI
indicator would have AA indicator would have AA
innovativeness innovativeness
Accurate self assessment 0.75 0.90
Adaptability 0.68 0.80
Achievement drive 0.70 0.81
Commitment 0.81 0.73
Social awareness 0.81 0.70
112
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
all_low_but_Accurate Self assessment all_low_but_Self confidence

all_low_but_Adaptability all_low_but_Achievement drive
Graph 3.25 Predicted probability of having high innovativeness at all levels of

EQ for different levels of selected EI items
maximum followed by that of adaptability, achievement drive and self

confidence. Hence, all other things remaining unchanged and/or fixed
at even their lowest possible values, choosing people with above-average
skills in accurate self assessment would be enough to have a pool with
above-average efficiency in innovativeness.
However, such differential impacts are negligible for different levels of
EQ. Hence, increase in probabilities in terms of these indicators would
imply enhanced probabilities of getting higher innovativeness, but it is not
possible to make decision on the basis of a single criterion (Graph 3.25).
Further, compared to their female counterpart, the male respond-
ents would demonstrate higher probabilities of having high innovative-
ness, if they are already endowed with enhanced skills in accurate self
assessment, adaptability, achievement drive and self confidence. Similar
results are obtained for administrators and academicians; for those who
have degrees in technical stream; for the younger people and the lower
income earners (Graph 3.26).
The study reveals significant marginal effects of age, gender, occu-
pation, education and income on the predicted probability of attain-
ing above-average proficiency in innovativeness. Such probabilities
are marginally higher for males and for those who have obtained their
degrees in technical field. It is higher for the administrators and the
113
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
Technical
25K-50K
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
75K-1Lakh
60 +
Service
Male
General
Admin
Female
>1Lakh
Academics
Accurate Self assessment Self confidence Adaptability Achievement drive
Graph 3.26 Marginal effects on predicted probability of showing above-

average innovativeness (across age, income, gender, occupation and education)
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
25K-50K
50K-75K
Technical
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
60 +
<25K
Service
General
75K-1Lakh
Admin
Male
>1Lakh
Female
Academics
Graph 3.27 Predicted probability of attaining above-average innovativeness

academicians followed by the service-holders. The probabilities are

higher for the lower and lower-middle income group, followed by those
in the upper–middle and high income group. The respondents belong-
ing to the lower age group demonstrate highest probabilities of attaining
above-average innovativeness, followed by middle and high age groups
(where probabilities are equal) and the lower-middle and higher-middle
age groups (where probabilities are once again equal) (Graph 3.27).
114
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.28 Probability of having above-average Innovativeness across EQ
Further, the probability of attaining above-average proficiency in

innovativeness depends significantly on the EQ of the respondents.
For a lower value of EQ (≤5 on a ten-point scale) such probabili-
ties are almost negligible. Once the EQ value reaches 5, probability
of attaining above-average innovativeness starts increasing steadily
with further increases in EQ. The probability reaches the maximum
value in its range when EQ reaches the value of nine. There is, hence,
a saturation point (EQ = 9) beyond which increases in the value of
EQ would not be able to pull up the probabilities of attaining above-
average innovativeness. However, in between the threshold and the
saturation point, an increase in EQ is always associated with higher
probabilities of attaining above-average proficiency in innovativeness
(Graph 3.28).
After exploring the determinants of Self Regulation and its con-
stituent components, it would be now of interest to summarize the
findings.
115
A summary:
Self Awareness (+) Social Skill (-) EQ (+) High Age
Middle to high
income
Self Regulation Administrators
Technical degree
holders
Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Innovativeness Adaptability Self control
(+) (+) (+) (+) (+)

Conscientiousness Trustworthiness Self Assessment Change catalyst Self confidence
Self control Service Orientation Adaptability EQ Conflict management
Initiative EQ Achievement Drive (-) Emotional awareness
Optimism (-) Self confidence Initiative EQ
EQ Social awareness EQ Social Awareness (-)
Self control (-) Building bonds Conscientiousness
Innovativeness Conscientiousness Innovativeness
Change catalyst Self control Change catalyst
Commitment Social skill
Social Awareness
Conflict Management
Female Female Female Female

Service holders Academician Male Administrators Administrators
Technical degree Technical degree Administrators Technical degree Technical degree
Age group 2,3 Age group 4 Technical degree Age group 2 Age group 1,5
Income group 1 Income group 4 Age group 1 Income group 1,3 Income group 3-5
Income group 1,2

Determinants: Self-Awareness
3.6.1 Self-Awareness Across Age, Income, Gender,
The broad EI dimension of Self Awareness has (i) Emotional awareness,

(ii) Accurate Self assessment and (iii) Self confidence EI competences under
it. Out of the 518 respondents, 63 and 37% possess above-average and
below-average Self Awareness respectively. Table 3.24 shows the cross
Table 3.24 Self-awareness across age, income, gender, occupation and education
% of people with % of people Distribution of Distribution of Chi-squre (p)
116
below average with above aver- people with people with

self awareness in age self aware- below average above average
subgroup ‘i’ ness in subgroup self awareness in self awareness in
‘i’ subgroups under subgroups under
group ‘j’ group ‘j’
Gender Female 54 46 56 47 0.03
Male 45 55 44 53
Income <25 K 51 49 14 13 0.27
25–50 K 54 46 44 37
50–75 K 50 50 23 23
75 K–1L 41 59 13 18
>1Lakh 40 60 7 10
Technical 45 55 37 44
Age 20–30 54 46 38 32 0.27
31–40 51 49 29 27
41–50 42 58 16 21
51–60 47 53 14 16
60 and above 38 62 3 5
Service 53 47 71 63
117
tabulation of Self Awareness across age, income, gender, occupation and

education. The differences are significant in all cases.
Females exhibit below-average Self Awareness more and have more
representatives in the group of below-average Self Awareness. People in
the lower, rather than those in the higher income brackets show below-
average Self Awareness, whereas lower and lower-middle income group
dominate in both the groups of below-average and above-average Self
Awareness. General degree holders dominate similarly but have more
people with below-average Self Awareness among them. Technical
degree holders mostly exhibit above-average Self Awareness. While
people in lower age group, rather than the highly-aged ones, exhibit
below-average Self Awareness, they dominate in the two groups of Self
Awareness. Service-holders behave similarly but, compared to the acad-
emicians or administrators, they have more people with below-average
Self Awareness among them.
3.6.2 Cross Tabulation Among Self-Awareness,

Other EI Dimensions and the EQ Index

average or below-average Self Awareness and those proportions in terms
of other Emotional Intelligence dimensions and the EQ index may be
helpful for further analyses (Table 3.25).
In all the cases the group consisted of above-average Self Awareness
and above-average proficiency in any EI dimension or EQ has more
people in it compared to the groups where above-average or below-
average Self Awareness is combined with below-average skills in EI
dimensions or EQ. Hence, given above-average proficiency in any EI
indicator or EQ, it is more likely to get respondents with above-aver-
age Self Awareness. Similarly, given above-average Self Awareness, it is
more likely to get people with above-average skills in terms of other EI
dimension. This however, has to be established through further rigorous
analysis.
118
Table 3.25 Cross tabulation among self-awareness, other EI dimensions and the

EQ index
Self awareness
Below Above Total Below Above Total
average average average average (%)
(%) (%)
EQ Below 119 91 210 23 18 41
average
above 71 237 308 14 46 59
average
Total 190 328 518 37 63 100
Self Below 108 118 226 21 23 44
motivation average
above 82 210 292 16 41 56
average
Total 190 328 518 37 63 100
Social skill Below 103 98 201 20 19 39
average
Above 87 230 317 17 44 61
average
Total 190 328 518 37 63 100
Social Below 104 99 203 20 19 39
awareness average
Above 86 229 315 17 44 61
average
Total 190 328 518 37 63 100
Self Below 122 83 205 24 16 40
regulation average
Above 68 245 313 13 47 60
average
Total 190 328 518 37 63 100
3.6.3 Rank Correlation Among Self-Awareness,

Its Constituents, Other EI Dimensions and EQ
The relationship among the broad EI dimension of Self Awareness,

its constituting competences (namely, Emotional Awareness, Accurate
Self assessment and Self confidence), the EQ index and other EI dimen-
sions may be analysed using the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
(Table 3.26).
119
Table 3.26 Rank correlation among self awareness, its constituents and other EI
dimensions
Competences Self awareness Dimensions Self awareness
Emotional awareness 0.76 EQ 0.63
Accurate self assessment 0.78 Self regulation 0.50
Self confidence 0.69 Social skills 0.39
Social awareness 0.31
Self motivation 0.30
All the constituents are found to be directly and positively related to

Self Awareness, the correlation being the strongest with accurate self-
assessment followed by emotional awareness and self confidence. The
correlation with EQ index is higher than those obtained for other EI
dimensions. Correlation with Self Regulation is the highest followed by
Social Skills, Social Awareness and Self Motivation.
To explore whether such correlations are transformed into any
possible association and causality among the chosen variables, the
study makes use of suitable Probit model that could handle ordinal
data well.

Intelligence Dimensions and Self-Awareness
Estimation of Seemingly Unrelated Bivariate model reveals significant

tetrachoric correlation coefficient between EQ and Self Awareness and
between Self Regulation and Self Awareness. The tetrachoric correlation
coefficients stand at 0.33 and 0.37 respectively. Both are significant at
1% level.
The study finds no significant tetrachoric correlation between Self
Awareness and the three other broad Emotional Intelligence dimensions
namely, Self Motivation, Social Awareness and Social Skills.
Values of the EQ index have direct impact on the probability of dem-
onstrating above-average Self Awareness (Graph 3.29).
The predicted probability of demonstrating above-average Self
Awareness remains close to zero for lower levels of EQ. As EQ level sur-
passes the value of 5 on a ten-point scale, such probability starts rising
120
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.29 Predicted probability of having above-average self awareness

against EQ
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
75K-1L
50K-75K
Service
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
25k-50K
Male
General
Technical
Academics
Female
>1Lakh
Administration
Age Income Occupation Gender Education
Move from low to high Self Regulation Move from low to high EQ
Graph 3.30 Predicted probability of showing high self awareness with improve-

ment in self regulation and EQ
with further increase in EQ to reach the maximum value in its range

at EQ = 10. There is, hence, a threshold but no saturation point so far
EQ is concerned.
Graph 3.30 shows the predicted probability of showing above-aver-
age Self Awareness as one moves from below-average to above-average
proficiency in terms of Self Regulation and EQ. Other EI dimen-
sions, with no direct impact on Self Awareness are not considered here.
121
People belonging to middle to high age groups, have higher predicted

probability of exhibiting above-average Self Awareness with an improve-
ment in their skills in Self Regulation and in EQ. Similar is the case for
lower to middle income groups, academicians and general degree holders.
3.6.5 Self-Awareness, the Emotional Intelligence Items

The Bivariate Probit model is best fit for exploring the nature of inter-
relationship between Self-Awareness and the Emotional Intelligence
items (namely, Emotional Awareness, Accurate Self Assessment and Self
Confidence) under it. The results of the estimated model shows that
the probability of attaining above-average Self-awareness is significantly
and positively correlated with the probability of attaining above-average
skills in terms of Emotional Awareness, Accurate Self Assessment and
Self Confidence. The tetrachoric correlations take up the values 0.80,
0.76 and 0.75 respectively. All these are significant at 1% level of sig-
nificance. There is, however no prerequisite that to have above-average
Self Awareness, one must first have above-average proficiency in terms
of these Emotional Intelligence items.
Determinants of the EI competences under Self-Awareness
3.6.5.1 Emotional Awareness and Its Determinants
square stands at 141.56 which is significant at 1% level. The probability
of attaining above-average Emotional Awareness increases as one moves
from below-average proficiency to above-average proficiency in terms of
Accurate Self assessment and EQ. The values of EQ index itself have a
positive impact on the probability of attaining above-average Emotional
Awareness.
The marginal effects show that an improvement in Accurate Self
Assessment increases the predicted probability of attaining above-
average Self Awareness from 0.67 to 0.80 whereas such probabilities
increase from 0.45 to 0.56 with an improvement in their EQ.
122
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
25k-50K
Technical
50K-75K
75K-1L
31-40
20-30
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
female
Service
General
male
>1Lakh
Academics
Administration
Age Income Education Gender Occupation
EQ Accurate Self Assessment
Graph 3.31 Marginal effect of other EI items on predicted probability of

showing high self awareness
The marginal effects reveal further that Accurate Self Assessment has
relatively more prominent impact on the probability of attaining above-
average Emotional Awareness across age, income, gender, occupation
and education structures (Graph 3.31).
In the graph the bars for Accurate Self assessment shows the pre-
dicted probability of attaining above-average Self Awareness when
Accurate Self assessment is set at its above-average level, with all other
relevant EI dimensions (EQ here) set at their below-average level and
the remaining factors fixed at their average levels. Hence, even with
other Emotional Intelligence factors plummeting to a low level, having
above-average skills in Accurate Self Assessment is sufficient to guaran-
tee above-average Emotional Awareness. This is true for all age, gender,
income, education and occupation categories. All such marginal effects
are more prominent for males, service-holders and people in high-age
group. No significant differential impacts are visible across income and
education groups.
The study considers further the marginal effects of age, gender, occu-
pation, education and income on the predicted probability of attain-
ing above-average Emotional Awareness. The predicted probability of
attaining above-average Emotional Awareness is higher for the males,
123
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
75K-1L
50K-75K
51-60
20-30
31-40
41-50
<25K
>60
25k-50K
General
Technical
Service
female
male
Academics
>1Lakh
Administration
Graph 3.32 Predicted probabilities of having high emotional awareness (across

age, gender, income, occupation and education)
for service-holders, and for the people belonging to the high age group.
Differential impacts are hardly visible for the income and education
groups (Graph 3.32).
The predicted probability of attaining above-average Emotional
Awareness depends significantly on the values of EQ index for respond-
ents. For a lower value of EQ (≤3 on a ten-point scale) such probabili-
ties are almost negligible. As EQ surpasses that level and starts rising,
predicted probability of showing above-average Emotional Awareness
starts increasing and reaches the value 1 as EQ reaches its maximum
value of 10. Hence, a threshold EQ is necessary for ensuring above-
average proficiency in Emotional Awareness, but there is no saturation
point (Graph 3.33).
3.6.5.2 Accurate Self Assessment and Its Determinants
square stands at 175.03 which is significant at 1% level. The probability of
attaining above-average Accurate Self Assessment increases as one moves
from below-average proficiency to above-average proficiency in terms
of Self confidence, Achievement Drive, Commitment, Leadership and EQ.
124
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.33 Predicted probability of having strong emotional awareness

against EQ
Table 3.27 Predicted probability of showing strong self assessment with

Probability of having Probability of having
below-average skill in a above-average skill in a
given EI indicator to have given EI indicator to have
AA accurate self assessment AA accurate self assessment
Leadership 0.84 0.94
EQ 0.44 0.50
The values of EQ index itself have a positive impact on the probability

of attaining above-average Emotional Awareness. This is emphasized in
Table 3.27, which shows the marginal effects.
The marginal effects reveal further that Self confidence, Achievement
drive, Commitment, and Leadership has equally significant impact on
the predicted probability of having Accurate Self Assessment across age,
income, gender, occupation and education structures. Impact of EQ,
however, is relatively less prominent (Graph 3.34).
The result, however, changes when marginal effects are considered
across EQ. For lower levels of EQ (EQ < 4 on a ten-point scale) the
four factors are equally important. But, as EQ crosses the value of 4
and increases thereafter, respondents with above-average self confidence
125
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
25k-50K
Technical
75K-1L
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
>60
General
male
Service
>1Lakh
Academics
Administration
female
Self confidence Achievement drive Commitment Leadership EQ
Graph 3.34 Marginal effects on predicted probability of above-average accu-

rate self assessment (across gender, age, income, education and occupation)
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Self Confidence Achievement Drive

Commitment Leadership
Graph 3.35 Marginal effects on predicted probability of high accurate self

assessment (across EQ)
are predicted to demonstrate much higher probability of above-average

Accurate Self assessment compared to those with above-average skills in
Leadership, Achievement drive and Commitment (Graph 3.35).
The study reveals significant marginal effect of gender, age, income,
education and occupation on the predicted probability of showing
126
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
25k-50K
75K-1L
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
Service
General
Technical
female
Academics
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Graph 3.36 Predicted probability of attaining above-average accurate self

assessment (across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
above-average Accurate Self assessment (Graph 3.36). The predicted

probability declines consistently as we move from low to high age
groups and increases with a move from lower to higher income bracket.
It is considerably higher for the academicians and for those with degrees
in technical field. There is, however, no gender bias.
Finally, predicted probability of attaining above-average Accurate Self
assessment depends on the level of EQ of the respondents. There is a
threshold level of EQ (EQ = 4) beyond which increase in EQ is associated
with increase predicted probability of showing above-average Accurate Self
assessment. There is, however, no saturation point (Graph 3.37).
3.6.5.3 Self Confidence and Its Determinants
square stands at 239.21 which is significant at 1% level. The probabil-
ity of attaining above-average Self confidence increases as one moves
from below-average proficiency to above-average proficiency in terms
of Accurate Self Assessment, Conscientiousness, Self control, Leadership and
EQ. The values of EQ index itself have a positive impact on the prob-
ability of attaining above-average Emotional Awareness. This is empha-
sized in Table 3.28, which shows the marginal effects.
127
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.37 Predicted probability of having above-average accurate self assess-

ment against EQ
Table 3.28 Predicted probability of showing strong self confidence with

Probability of having Probability of having
below-average skill in a above-average skill in
given EI indicator to have a given EI indicator to
AA accurate self have AA accurate self
confidence confidence
EQ 0.59 0.63
The marginal effects reveal further that Self control and Accurate
Self assessment have equal and more prominent impact, followed by
EQ. Conscientiousness and Leadership have equal but less prominent
impact on the predicted probability of having Self Confidence across
age, income, gender, occupation and education structures. Such impacts
are more prominent for the middle to high age group, lower levels of
income, general degree holders, males and academicians (Graph 3.38).
The result, however, does not change when marginal effects are consid-
ered across EQ. For lower levels of EQ (EQ < 4 on a ten-point scale) the
factors do not exert any impact on predicted probability of having strong
Self confidence. However, as EQ crosses the value of 4 and increases
thereafter, people skilled in Accurate Self assessment and Self control are
128
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0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
75K-1L
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Technical
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
>60
Service
25k-50K
General
female
male
Academics
>1Lakh
Administration
Accurate Self Assessment Conscientiousness Self control Leadership EQ
Graph 3.38 Marginal effects on predicted probability of above-average self

confidence (across gender, age, income, education and occupation)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 EQ
Accurate Self Assessment Conscientiousness
Self control Leadership
Graph 3.39 Marginal effects on predicted probability of above-average self

confidence (across EQ)
more likely to demonstrate above-average self confidence than those who

are proficient in Conscientiousness and Leadership (Graph 3.39).
The study reveals significant marginal effect of gender, age, income,
education and occupation on the predicted probability of showing
129
above-average Self confidence (Graph 3.40). The predicted probabilities

are higher for the lower income brackets, administrators and for peo-
ple belonging to the lower-middle and high age group. Probabilities are
marginally higher for females and general degree holders.
Further, predicted probability of attaining above-average Self confi-
dence depends on the level of EQ of the respondents. There is a thresh-
old level of EQ (EQ = 4) beyond which increase in EQ is associated
with increase predicted probability of showing above-average Self confi-
dence. There is, however, no saturation point (Graph 3.41).
Before we move further, a summary of the results may be useful.
A Summary
Self Regulation (+) EQ (+)
Middle to High Age

Middle income
Self Awareness Academicians
General degree holders
Emotional Accurate Self Self Confidence

Awareness Assessment
(+) (+) (+)

Accurate Self Self confidence Self control
Assessment Achievement Accurate Self
EQ Drive Assessment
Commitment Conscientiousness
Leadership Leadership
EQ EQ
Males Academician Females

Service holders Lower age Administrator
High Age Higher Income Lower-middle
Technical to high age
degree holders Lower Income
General degree
holders
130
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
25k-50K
75K-1L
50K-75K
Technical
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
Service
>60
female
General
male
>1Lakh
Academics
Administration
Graph 3.40 Predicted probability of attaining above-average self confidence

1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.41 Predicted probability of showing high self confidence against EQ
3.7 EI Dimensions, EI Competences

and Their Determinants: Self Motivation
3.7.1 Self Motivation Across Age, Income,
Gender, Occupation and Education
Self Motivation has (i) Achievement Drive, (ii) Commitment

(iii) Initiative, and (iv) Optimism as EI competences under it. The
number of respondents with above average Self Motivation across age,
income, gender, occupation and education are shown in Table 3.29.
Table 3.29 Self Motivation across age, income, gender, occupation and education
Groups Subgroups % of people % of people Distribution of Distribution of Chi-square (p)
with below aver- with above aver- people with people with
age self motiva- age self motiva- below average above average
tion in subgroup tion in subgroup self motivation self motivation
‘i’ ‘i’ in subgroups in subgroups
under group ‘j’ under group ‘j’
Gender Female 51 49 55 48 0.07
Male 43 57 45 52
Income <25 K 44 56 13 15 0.002
25–50 K 53 47 45 37
50–75 K 50 50 23 22
75 K–1L 49 51 15 15
>1Lakh 19 81 3 13
Age 20–30 47 53 34 35 0.27
31–40 49 51 29 27
41–50 41 59 16 21
51–60 43 57 18 12
60 and above 33 67 3 5
Service 49 51 69 66
131
132
Of all the respondents 48 and 52% exhibit below-average and above-

average Self Motivation respectively. Females and technical degree hold-
ers have more people with below-average Self Motivation in their group
compared to their respective counterparts. People in the lower-income
bracket are relatively less motivated compared to the high income earn-
ers, while middle-income earners maintain a balance. Majority of the
people belonging to different age groups and occupation structures
shows above-average skills in Self Motivation.
The group with below-average Self Motivation has relatively more
female and service-holders but relatively less from high income bracket,
technical stream, and high-age group. The same is true for the group
exhibiting above-average Self Motivation except for the fact that it has
more male in it.
3.7.2 Cross Tabulation Among Self Motivation, Other EI

Dimensions and the EQ Index

average (below-average) Self Motivation and the proportions of
respondents having above-average (below-average) proficiency in terms
Table 3.30 Cross tabulation among self motivation, other EI dimensions and the
EQ index
EI dimensions Proficiency Self motivation
Below-average Above-average
EQ Below-average 0.77 0.23
Above-average 0.20 0.80
Social skill Below-average 0.63 0.37
Social awareness Below-average 0.66 0.34
Self regulation Below-average 0.71 0.29
Self awareness Below-average 0.61 0.39
133
Given below-average (above-average) skills in any of the EI dimen-

sion, incidence of people showing below-average (above-average) Self
Motivation is more than the incidence of people exhibiting above-
average (below-average) Self Motivation. Similarly, a person with
below-average skills in Self Motivation is more likely show up with
below-average proficiency in terms of each of the broad EI dimen-
sions. Hence, incidence of above-average Self Motivation is likely
to be highly associated with the incidences of showing above-aver-
age proficiency in terms of other Emotional Intelligence indicators
and vice versa. The proposition may be strengthened with an analy-
sis of rank-correlation among Self Motivation, other EI dimensions
and EQ.
3.7.3 Rank Correlation Among Self Motivation, Its

The relationship among the broad EI dimension of Self Motivation, its

constituting competences (namely, Achievement Drive, Commitment,
Initiative and Optimism) and the EQ index and other EI dimensions
may be analysed using the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
(Table 3.31).
Self Motivation, the correlation being strongest with Initiative followed
by Optimism, Commitment and Achievement Drive. The correlation with
EQ index is significantly higher compared to those obtained for other
EI dimensions. Correlation with Self Regulation is the highest followed
by those with Social Skills, Social Awareness and Self Awareness.
Table 3.31 Rank correlation among self motivation, its constituents and other
EI dimensions
Competences Self motivation Dimensions
Achievement drive 0.59 EQ 0.74
Commitment 0.62 Self awareness 0.32
Initiative 0.83 Social skills 0.50
Optimism 0.63 Social awareness 0.45
Self regulation 0.52
134
To explore whether such correlations are transformed into any possi-

ble association and causality among the chosen variables, the study once
again makes use of a suitable Probit model.

Intelligence Dimensions and Self Motivation

Intelligence dimensions once again hint towards suitability of using
bivariate Probit or a Probit model with sample selection that could cap-
ture the incidents of endogenous determination of variables. Incidentally,
the relationships between Self Motivation and other Emotional
Intelligence dimensions are better modelled by a Bivariate Probit. The
study considers incidences of exhibiting above-average and below-aver-
age Self Motivation and those in terms of Self Awareness as the first and
the second dependent variable respectively. Age, income, gender, occu-
pation, education, EQ index and the incidence of having above-average
and below-average efficiency in EQ are taken as independent variables.
While modelling the relationship between Self Motivation and EQ, set
of explanatory variables excluded EQ related variable form the second
equation. The results are summarized as follows:
3.7.4.1 EQ and Self Motivation
As is suggested by the high value of the tetrachoric correlation coeffi-

cient (0.98) obtained from the estimated Bivariate Probit model, the
probability of attaining above-average Self Motivation is significantly
correlated with probability of attaining above-average EQ. There is,
however, no prerequisite that to have above-average Self Motivation,
one must first have above-average proficiency in terms of EQ. Further,
EQ has a significantly positive impact on the predicted probability of
attaining above-average Self Motivation. It increases steadily with EQ as
the value of the latter exceeds 6.5. For higher values of EQ, particularly,
after 9, such probability reaches the value of 1, which is the maximum
in its range (Graph 3.42).
135
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9 9.5 10
EQ
Graph 3.42 Predicted probability of having above average self motivation
3.7.4.2 Self Motivation and Self Awareness
The best-fit relationship between Self Awareness and Self Motivation

finds the Tetrachoric correlation coefficient to be insignificant. This sug-
gests that the probability of attaining above-average Self Motivation
is in no way being simultaneously determined with the probability of
attaining above-average Self Awareness.
3.7.4.3 Self Motivation and Self Regulation
The best-fit relationship between Self Regulation and Self Motivation

finds the Tetrachoric correlation coefficient to be insignificant. Hence,
the probability of attaining above-average Self Motivation is not being
simultaneously determined with the probability of attaining above-aver-
age Self Regulation.
3.7.4.4 Self Motivation and Social Awareness
Estimation of the Bivariate Probit model finds inverse relationship

between probabilities of exhibiting above-average skills in term of Self
Motivation and that in Social Awareness. This is suggested by the nega-
tively significant Tetrachoric correlation coefficient (–0.22) obtained by
136
the model. Hence, improvement in Social Awareness is more likely to

be associated with a decrease in Self Motivation.
3.7.4.5 Self Motivation and Social Skills
The significantly negative value of tetrachoric correlation coefficient

(–0.32) obtained from the Bivariate Probit Estimation suggests presence
of inverse relationship between probability of attaining above-average
Self Motivation and that of attaining above-average Social Skill. Hence,
an improvement in Social Skill is likely to be associated with weaker Self
Motivation.
3.7.4.6 Relationship Between Self Motivation and Other EI

For designing of effective hiring strategy and staff development pro-

grammes, the analysis of factors affecting Self Motivation positively
would be of much relevance than those affecting it inversely. Since, pre-
dicted probability of having above-average Self Motivation is directly
related to movement in EQ only, the study calculates the extent of
improvement in such probabilities with a movement from lower EQ
to higher EQ across age, income, gender, occupation and education
groups. However, one must keep in mind that selecting people on the
basis of skills in Social Awareness or Social Skills would not generate a
pool of highly Self Motivated persons.
improvement in EQ increases the predicted probability of exhibiting
above-average Self Motivation (Graph 3.43).
Improvement in Self Motivation following an improvement in EQ is
higher for the middle-aged people and for the middle-income earners.
In the occupation category, such improvements are more for the ser-
vice-holders and academicians. Male and female respondents, however,
137
0.150
0.145
0.140
0.135
0.130
0.125
0.120
0.115
75K-1L
50K-75K
Service
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
General
25k-50K
Technical
male
Academics
>1Lakh
Administration
female
Move from low to high EQ
Graph 3.43 Improvement in predicted probability of showing strong self

motivation with change in EQ
demonstrate equal improvements in such probabilities with improvement

in EQ. Same is true for the general and the technical degree holders.
The study is extended now to consider the relationship between Self
Motivation and the Emotional Intelligence items under it, namely,
Achievement Drive, Initiative, Commitment and Optimism.
3.7.5 Self Motivation, the Emotional Intelligence Items

tionship between Self Motivation and the EI items under it. The values
Probability of attaining above-average Self Motivation is significantly
and positively correlated with the probability of attaining above-aver-
age skills in terms of Achievement Drive, Initiative, Commitment and
Optimism. There is, however no prerequisite that to have above-average
Self Motivation, one must first have above-average proficiency in terms
of these Emotional Intelligence items. Further analysis of determinants
of EI competences under Self Motivation may be useful to comment on
designing of effective hiring strategy.
138
Table 3.32 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient: self motivation and EI items

under it
Achievement drive Initiative Commitment Optimism
Self motivation 0.32* 0.76* 0.48* 0.45*
Wald chi2 234.74* 207.82* 238.42* 220.72*
Determinants of the EI competences under Self Motivation

EI items under Self Motivation, the study considers all the remaining
Emotional Intelligence factors under Self Motivation as well as those
able Probit model similar to that used earlier has been estimated yield-
ing the results as reported below.
3.7.5.1 Achievement Drive and Its Determinants
The estimated Probit model has a Pseudo R2 of 0.2314 and the LR

Chi-square stands at 165.80 which is significant at 1% level. The prob-
ability of attaining above-average Achievement Drive increases with an
improvement in Innovativeness, Commitment and EQ. Improvement
in Conscientiousness, Trustworthiness and Empathy, however, reduces
probabilities of having above-average Self Motivation.
ability of attaining above-average Achievement Drive are shown in
Table 3.33.
The values of EQ index itself have a positive impact on the probabil-
ity of attaining AA trustworthiness.
The marginal effects show, however, that out of all the EI skills that
affect probability of high Self Motivation positively, Innovativeness and
Commitment have slightly higher impact on the probability of attain-
ing above-average achievement drive across age, income, gender, occu-
pation and education structures (Graph 3.44).
The predicted probability of demonstrating high Achievement Drive
is depicted in Graph#, when a chosen EI item is set at its above-average
139
Table 3.33 Predicted probability of showing above-average achievement drive

with improvement in relevant EI items
skill in terms of a given skill in terms of a given
EI item would have high EI item would have high
achievement drive achievement drive
Empathy 0.60 0.49
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
25k-50K
75K-1L
Technical
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
female
<25K
male
Service
General
>1Lakh
Academics
Administration
Innovativeness Commitment EQ
Graph 3.44 Innovativeness, commitment, EQ and probability of high achieve-

ment drive (across gender, age, income, occupation and education)
level with all others being set at their below-average levels respectively.
The graph suggests that even with other relevant Emotional Intelligence
factors plummeting at a low level, having above-average commitment is
sufficient to guarantee above-average Achievement Drive. Such promi-
nent impact of commitment is followed by that in Initiative and in EQ.
All such marginal effects are higher at the low to middle age
group and for high income earners. While males and service-holders
show slightly higher predicted probability of having above-average
140
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0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Innovativeness Commitment
Graph 3.45 Predicted probabilities of having high achievement drive for

different levels of other EI items (across EQ)
Achievement Drive given high commitment and other EI skills, general

and technical degree holders cannot be significantly differentiated on
the basis of this.
For all levels of EQ, however, higher Innovativeness and higher com-
mitment (with all others set either at their low or average level) have
similar impact on the predicted probability of having above-average
Achievement Drive (Graph 3.45).
Apart from the impact of different EI skills on Achievement Drive,
the study considers the marginal effects of age, gender, occupation, edu-
cation and income on the predicted probability of attaining above-aver-
age Achievement Drive.
The study finds the predicted probability of attaining above-average
Achievement Drive to be marginally higher for males and service-hold-
ers in their respective groups. While such probabilities are higher for
respondents belonging to the low to middle age groups and for the high
income earners; general and technical degree holders cannot be distin-
guished on the basis of this (Graph 3.46).
Further, the predicted probability of having above-average
Achievement Drive depends significantly on the EQ of the respond-
ents. There is a threshold level of EQ (EQ = 6) below which predicted
probability of exhibiting above-average Achievement Drive is negligi-
ble. As soon as EQ crosses such threshold and increases further, such
141
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
25k-50K
75K-1L
50K-75K
Technical
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
>60
female
male
General
Service
>1Lakh
Academics
Administration
Graph 3.46 Predicted probabilities of having high achievement drive for

different levels of age, gender, income, occupation and education
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.47 Predicted probability of having above-average achievement drive

against EQ
probability starts rising continuously. There is, however, no saturation

point beyond which an increase in EQ is not associated with an increase
in the predicted probability of achieving above-average Achievement
Drive (Graph 3.47).
3.7.5.2 Commitment and Its Determinants
The estimated Probit model yields an LR chi2 of 196.26 which is sig-

nificant at 1% level, while the Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.2736.
142
Table 3.34 Predicted probability of showing above-average commitment with

given EI item would have given EI item would have
high commitment high commitment
Empathy 0.54 0.45
The probability of exhibiting above-average Commitment

improves with an improvement in Achievement Drive, Leadership
and EQ. However, increasing efficiencies in terms of Adaptability,
Innovativeness, Empathy and Conflict Management reduces probabil-
ity of being highly committed. As per our construction, Adaptability
implies flexibility in handling changes and shifting priorities and the
willingness to mould strategies accordingly. Similarly, an innovative
person is expected to accept anything new even if it is risky. An empa-
thetic person is more interested in settling others’ issues and a person
skilled in managing conflict stands ready to negotiate even with the
most difficult person to ease out situations. Persons with such skills
may not be expected to show commitment in the sense that they would
stand ready to sacrifice individual or group objectives to meet organiza-
tional goals.
The marginal effects of these relevant EI competences on the proba-
bility of attaining above-average Commitment are shown in Table 3.34.
In graph 3.48, the curve Achievement Drive shows the predicted
probability of having above-average Commitment at all levels of EQ
while Achievement Drive is maintained at its above-average level with
all others fixed at their mean values, except for Leadership, which is
fixed at its below-average level. The curve titled Leadership may be
similarly explained. The graph shows that for any given level of EQ
(for 6 < EQ < 9 on a ten point scale), choosing a person, who is oth-
erwise ‘average’ but has high Achievement Drive over another who has
143
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
AchievementDrive Leadership
Graph 3.48 Achievement drive, leadership and predicted probability of having

high commitment at different levels of EQ
skills in Leadership would result in marginally higher probability of

choosing a person with above-average Commitment. However, for EQ
levels below 6 or above 9, Achievement Drive and Leadership skills
become equally important for choosing highly committed persons.
Graph 3.48 shows the relative effect of having high Achievement
Drive or high Leadership (while others are kept either at below-average
or at their average levels) on predicted probability of having above-aver-
age Commitment at different age, income, occupation, education, and
gender groups.
For all the age, gender, income, education and occupation groups,
people with high Achievement Drive alone exhibit higher predicted
probability of being highly committed than those who are skilled in
Leadership alone. Such predicted probabilities are higher for the rela-
tively aged people, for low-income earners, and for service-holders and
academicians in their respective groups. However, a male with high
Achievement Drive or high Leadership has the same predicted probabil-
ity of being highly committed as is exhibited by the females. Same is
true for the technical and general degree holders (Graph 3.49).
The marginal effects of age, gender, occupation, education and
income on the probability of having above-average proficiency in
Commitment are shown in Graph 3.50.
The study finds the predicted probability of exhibiting above-average
commitment to be higher for the respondents belonging to the higher
144
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
75K-1L
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
>60
25k-50K
General
Technical
Service
female
Academics
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Achievement Drive Leadership
Graph 3.49 Achievement drive, leadership and predicted probability of having

high commitment (across age, income, gender, occupation and education)
0.80
0.64 0.62 0.65

0.60
0.47 0.47 0.47 0.47 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.50
0.40 0.41
0.40 0.38
0.20
0.00
25k-50K
Technical
50K-75K
75K-1L
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
>60
Service
General
female
Academics
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Graph 3.50 Predicted probabilities of having high commitment (across age,

gender, income, occupation and education)
age group and lower income class. Service-holders and academicians

have higher probability of being highly committed compared to the
administrators while no such differential impact exists across gender and
occupation category.
145
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.51 Predicted probability of having high commitment across EQ
Moreover, the predicted probability of being highly committed

depends significantly on the EQ of the respondents. There is a thresh-
old value of EQ (<6 on a ten-point scale) beyond which such predicted
probabilities are almost negligible. As values of EQ surpasses the thresh-
old, predicted probability of high commitment increases steadily and it
reaches the value of one, when EQ reaches its maximum value of 10.
There is then no saturation point in EQ beyond which increase in prob-
abilities are not associated with increase in EQ (Graph 3.51).
3.7.5.3 Initiative and Its Determinants
Exploration of determinants of Initiative uses a Probit model similar to

that described earlier. The model includes incidence of Initiative as the
dependent variable and EQ, Emotional Intelligence factors under all
tion and education are taken as independent variables.
Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.2958. The probabilities of attaining
above-average Initiative are found to increase with an improvement
in Optimism, Commitment and EQ. However, such probabilities are
inversely related to the probabilities of attaining above-average compe-
tencies in terms of Adaptability, Self Control and Cooperation. Hence,
people who seek to control their emotions; can mould themselves
146
Table 3.35 Predicted probability of showing above-average initiative with

Probability that a respondent Probability that a respondent
having below-average skill in having above-average skill in
terms of a given EI indicator terms of a given EI indicator
would have above-average would have above-average
initiative initiative
Optimism 0.56 0.64
Cooperation 0.66 0.56
accordingly and emphasize more on achieving mutually beneficial

collaborations are less likely to take vigorous initiative. The marginal
effects of these relevant EI competences on the probability of attaining
above-average initiative are shown in Table 3.35.
While analyzing the relative importance of factors that could affect
the probabilities of exhibiting high Initiative, the study inquires
whether choosing people on the basis of a single factor could guarantee
selection of people with strong Initiative. Hence, it considers the pre-
dicted probabilities of exhibiting strong Initiative where any one of the
traits with positive impact would be set at its above-average level with
other such traits set at below-average levels and remaining fixed at their
averages.
For all levels of EQ, impact of Optimism and Commitment has
remained more or less equally intensive on the probability of exhibit-
ing above-average Initiative (Graph 3.52). Hence, at any level of EQ,
choosing people with high Optimism or high Commitment is equally
effective to guarantee selection of people with strong Initiative.
The study shows further that for all age, income, gender, occupa-
tion and education groups, having strong Optimism, rather than
Commitment, leads to marginally higher probabilities of demonstrating
strong Initiative.
The impacts are less pronounced for higher age group and more pro-
nounced for high income earners. No such differential impact, however,
exists within the gender, education or occupation categories (Graph 3.53).
147
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EQ
Optimism Commitment
Graph 3.52 Optimism, commitment and high initiative (across EQ)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Academics
female
male
50K-75K
75K-1L
Administration
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>1Lakh
Service
>60
General
<25K
25k-50K
Technical
Commitment Optimism
Graph 3.53 Optimism, commitment and high initiative (across age, gender,

income, occupation and education)
The study reveals significant marginal effects of age, gender, occupa-

tion, education and income on the predicted probability of demon-
strating above-average Initiative. Such probabilities are lower for the
highly-aged people and higher for the males and the high-income earners.
148
1.0
0.81
0.8 0.69
0.63 0.59 0.59 0.57 0.62 0.61 0.60 0.58
0.58 0.60 0.56 0.58 0.56
0.6 0.49
0.46
0.4
0.2
0.0
25k-50K
Technical
75K-1L
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
General
female
Service
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Academics
Graph 3.54 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average initiative (across

age, gender, income, occupation, education)
Academicians have marginally lower tendency to exhibit above-average

Initiative. However, general and technical degree holders cannot be differ-
entiated on the basis of such probabilities (Graph 3.54).
Further, the probability of exhibiting strong Initiative depends
(≤5 on a ten-point scale) such probabilities are almost negligible. As
the EQ value reaches 5, such probabilities increase steadily with fur-
attaining above-average proficiency in Initiative (Graph 3.55).
3.7.5.4 Optimism and Its Determinants
The analysis of the Emotional Intelligence factors affecting Optimism uses

a Probit model similar to that used earlier with the probability of show-
ing above-average Optimism as the dependent variable. The independent
variables include Emotional Intelligence factors under all broad EI dimen-
sions and factors such as age, income, gender, occupation and education.
149
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.55 Probability of showing strong initiative (across EQ)
Table 3.36 Predicted probability of showing above-average optimism with

would have AA optimism would have AA optimism
Empathy 0.40 0.59

Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.2314. The probabilities of exhibiting above-
average Optimism are found to increase with improvement in Initiative,
Empathy and EQ. EQ has a direct impact on the probability of attain-
ing above-average proficiency in Optimism.
The following table shows the marginal effects of EI dimensions and
EI competencies on probability of attaining above-average Optimism
(Table 3.36).
The impacts of having above-average skills in initiative and empathy
on predicted probability of showing above-average skills in optimism
across age, income, gender, occupation, education and EQ are shown in
the following graph (Graph 3.56).
The curve shows, at all levels of EQ, the probability of demonstrat-
ing above-average Optimism by those, who already have above-average
proficiency in terms of either Empathy or Initiative. at all levels of EQ,
150
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EQ
Initiative Empathy
Graph 3.56 Initiative, empathy and predicted probability of showing high opti-

mism (across EQ)
0.60 0.55 0.54 0.54

0.49 0.51 0.48 0.49 0.48 0.46 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.48
0.42 0.44 0.45
0.40
0.23
0.20
0.00
25k-50K
75K-1L
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
Technical
>60
<25K
General
male
Service
>1Lakh
Academics
Administration
female
Initiative Empathy
Graph 3.57 Predicted probability of high optimism with enhanced skills in

empathy and initiative (across age, gender, occupation, education, income)
however, choosing people with above average Empathy or above-average

Initiative would result in the same predicted probability of exhibiting
above-average Optimism (Graph 3.57).
Graph 3.56 shows the differential impact of having above-average
skills in Empathy or in Initiative on the predicted probability of exhibit-
ing above-average Optimism across all gender, age, income, education
and occupation groups. Across all such groups, predicted probability of
151
0.60
0.51 0.50 0.51
0.46 0.48 0.45 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.46 0.46 0.45
0.42 0.41 0.42
0.39
0.40
0.21
0.20
0.00
Service
female
25k-50K
Technical
male
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
50K-75K
75K-1L
General
<25K
>1Lakh
Academics
Administration
Graph 3.58 Predicted probability of showing above-average optimism (across

exhibiting above-average Optimism remains the same whether the per-

son has higher Empathy or higher Initiative. Such probabilities however
are higher for low to middle age groups, high income earners, males and
service-holders. General degree holders and technical degree holders,
however, cannot be distinguished on the basis of such probabilities.
The study further hints towards significant marginal effects of age,
gender, occupation, education and income on the predicted probability
of demonstrating above-average Optimism. It finds such probability
to be higher for low to middle age groups, high income earners, males
and service-holders. General degree holders and technical degree hold-
ers, however, cannot be distinguished on the basis of such probabilities
(Graph 3.58).
Finally, the probability of exhibiting above-average Optimism
depends significantly on the EQ of the respondents. For a lower value
of EQ (≤5 on a ten-point scale) such probabilities are almost negligi-
ble. Once the EQ value reaches 5, probability of attaining above-average
Optimism starts increasing steadily with further increases in EQ. The
probability reaches the maximum value in its range when EQ reaches
the value of ten. There is, hence, no saturation point beyond which
increases in the value of EQ would not be able to pull up the probabili-
ties of exhibiting above-average Optimism (Graph 3.59).
152
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.59 Predicted probability of having above-average optimism across EQ
A summary of the analysis in a diagrammatic form may be useful for

further studies.
Social Skill (-) EQ (+) Social Awareness (-)
Low to middle Age
High Income
Self Motivation Males
Service Holders
Achievement Initiative Commitment Optimism

Drive
Innovativeness (+) Optimism (+) Achievement Drive (+) Initiative (+)

Commitment (+) Commitment (+) Leadership (+) Empathy (+)
Trustworthiness (-) Adaptability (-) Adaptability (-) EQ (+)
Empathy (-)
Self Control (-) Innovativeness (-)
Conscientiousness
(-) Cooperation (-) Empathy (-)
EQ (+) EQ (+) Conflict Management
(-)
EQ (+)
Low-Middle age Low-Middle age High age

High Income High Income Low Income
Male Male Service holders &
Service holders Service holders & Administrator
Administrator
153

Determinants: Social Awareness
3.8.1 Social Awareness Across Age, Income, Gender,
Social Awareness has (i) Empathy (ii) Service Orientation (iii) Developing
Others (iv) Leveraging Diversity and (v) Political Awareness as EI compe-
tences under it. The number of respondents with above average Social
Awareness across age, income, gender, occupation and education struc-
tures is shown in Table 3.37.
Among the respondents, the proportion of people showing below-
average and above-average Social Awareness are more or less equal.
Females, academicians and general degree holders have more people
with below-average Social Awareness in their group compared to their
respective counterparts. People in the lower-income bracket as well as
in the relatively high income groups exhibit higher incidence of greater
Social Awareness. Relatively younger people show less Social Awareness.
The group with below-average Social Awareness has relatively more
female, more general degree holders, and more service-holders but rela-
tively less from high income bracket, and high-age group. The same is
true for the group exhibiting above-average Social Awareness except for
the fact that it has more male in it.
3.8.2 Cross Tabulation Among Social Awareness, Other

EI Dimensions and the EQ Index

average (below-average) Social Awareness and the proportions of
respondents having above-average (below-average) proficiency in terms
sion, incidence of people showing below-average (above-average)
Social Awareness is more than the incidence of people exhibiting
Table 3.37 Social awareness across age, income, gender, occupation and education
154
with below with above people with people with

average social average social below average above average
awareness in awareness in social awareness social awareness
subgroup ‘i’ subgroup ‘i’ in subgroups in subgroups
under group ‘j’ under group ‘j’
Gender Female 57 43 59 44 0.002
Male 43 57 41 56
Income <25 K 32 68 9 19 0
25–50 K 59 41 48 33
50–75 K 55 45 25 21
75 K–1L 42 58 13 18
>1Lakh 40 60 7 10
Age 20–30 59 41 41 29 0.02
31–40 54 46 30 26
41–50 43 57 16 21
51–60 36 64 11 19
60 and above 33 67 3 5
Service 53 47 70 64
155
Table 3.38 Cross tabulation among social awareness, other EI dimensions and

the EQ index
EI dimensions Proficiency Social awareness
Below-average Above-average
EQ Below-average 0.80 0.20
Social skill Below-average 0.65 0.35
Self motivation Below-average 0.65 0.35
Self regulation Below-average 0.69 0.31
Self awareness Below-average 0.63 0.37
above-average (below-average) Social Awareness. Similarly, a per-

son with below-average skills in Social Awareness is more likely show
up with below-average proficiency in terms of each of the broad EI
dimensions. Hence, incidence of above-average Social Awareness is
likely to be highly associated with the incidences of showing above-
average proficiency in terms of other Emotional Intelligence indicators
and vice versa. The proposition may be strengthened with an analy-
sis of rank-correlation among Social Awareness, other EI dimensions
and EQ.
3.8.3 Rank Correlation Among Social Awareness, Its

The relationship among the broad EI dimension of Social Awareness,

its constituting competences (namely, Empathy, Service orientation,
Developing Others, Leveraging Diversity and Political Awareness)
and the EQ index and other EI dimensions may be analysed using the
Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (Table 3.39).
Social Awareness, the correlation being strongest with Developing Others
followed by Service Orientation, Empathy, Leveraging Diversity and
Political Awareness. The correlation with EQ index is significantly higher
156
Table 3.39 Rank correlation among social awareness, its constituents and other
EI dimensions
Competences Social awareness Dimensions
Empathy 0.44 EQ 0.76
Service orientation 0.61 Self awareness 0.38
Developing others 0.62 Social skills 0.52
Leveraging diversity 0.42 Self motivation 0.44
Political awareness 0.39 Self regulation 0.51
compared to those obtained for other EI dimensions. Correlation with

Social Skills is the highest followed by those with Self Regulation, Self
Motivation and Self Awareness.
ble association and causality among the chosen variables, the study once
again makes use of a suitable Probit model.

Intelligence Dimensions and Social Awareness

Intelligence dimensions once again hint towards suitability of using
bivariate Probit or a Probit model with sample selection that could
capture the incidents of endogenous determination of variables.
Incidentally, the relationships between Social Awareness and other
Emotional Intelligence dimensions are better modelled by a Bivariate
Probit. The study considers incidences of exhibiting above-average and
below-average Social Awareness and those in terms of other EI dimen-
sions as the first and the second dependent variable respectively. Age,
income, gender, occupation, education, EQ index and the incidence
of having above-average and below-average efficiency in EQ are taken
as independent variables. While modelling the relationship between
Social Awareness and EQ, set of explanatory variables excluded EQ
related variable form the second equation. The results are summarized
as follows:
157
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EQ
Graph 3.60 Predicted probability of having above average social awareness
3.8.4.1 EQ and Social Awareness
As is suggested by the significantly positive value of the tetrachoric cor-

relation coefficient (0.44) obtained from the estimated Bivariate Probit
model, the probability of attaining above-average Social Awareness is
directly related to the probability of attaining above-average EQ. There
is, however, no prerequisite that to have above-average Social Awareness,
one must first have above-average proficiency in terms of EQ. Further,
EQ has a significantly positive impact on the predicted probability of
attaining above-average Social Awareness once the EQ index crosses the
value of 6. Such probability reaches the maximum value in its range
(that is 1) when EQ index reaches the value of 10. There is, hence, a
threshold but no saturation point so far as the relationship between EQ
and Social Awareness is concerned (Graph 3.60).
3.8.4.2 Social Awareness and Self Motivation
The best-fit SUR Bivariate model estimating the relationship between

Self Motivation and Social Awareness finds the Tetrachoric correlation
coefficient to be significantly negative (−0.23). This suggests that the
158
probability of exhibiting skills in Self Motivation is inversely related to

the probability of attaining above-average Social Awareness.
3.8.4.3 Social Awareness and Self Regulation

Self Regulation and Social Awareness finds the Tetrachoric correlation
coefficient to be significantly negative (−0.32). Hence, people with
higher probabilities of showing self regulation are more prone to dem-
onstrate lower Social Awareness.
3.8.4.4 Self Awareness and Social Awareness
Estimation of the SUR Bivariate Probit model finds the tetrachoric cor-
relation coefficient to be insignificant. Hence, the study finds no rela-
tionship between the probabilities of exhibiting above-average skills in
Social Awareness and that in Self Awareness.
3.8.4.5 Social Awareness and Social Skills

(−0.34) obtained from the Bivariate Probit Estimation suggests pres-
ence of inverse relationship between probability of attaining above-aver-
age Social Awareness and that of attaining above-average Social Skill.
Hence, an improvement in Social Skill is likely to be associated with
weaker Social Awareness.
3.8.4.6 Relationship Between Social Awareness and Other EI

For designing of effective hiring strategy and staff development pro-

grammes, the analysis of factors affecting Social Awareness posi-
tively would be of much relevance than those affecting it inversely.
Since, predicted probability of having above-average Social Awareness is
159
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
75K-1L
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
General
25k-50K
Service
Technical
male
Academics
>1Lakh
Administration
female
Move from low EQ to high EQ
Graph 3.61 Improvement in predicted probability of having above-average

social awareness with change in EQ
directly related to movement in EQ only, the study calculates the extent

of improvement in such probabilities with a movement from lower EQ
to higher EQ across age, income, gender, occupation and education
groups. However, one must keep in mind that selecting people on the
basis of Social Skills, Self Regulation or Self Motivation would not gen-
erate a pool of persons with high Social Awareness.
above-average Social Awareness (Graph 3.61).
Improvement in Social Awareness following an improvement in EQ
is higher for the females, for the middle-aged people and the high-
income earners. In the occupation category, such improvements are
more prominent for the service-holders and academicians. General and
the technical degree holders, however, demonstrate equal improvements
in such probabilities with improvement in EQ.
The study is extended now to consider the relationship between
Social Awareness and the Emotional Intelligence items under it, namely,
Empathy, Service Orientation, Developing Others, Leveraging Diversity
and Political Awareness.
160
3.8.5 Social Awareness, the Emotional Intelligence

Items Under It and Their Determinants
tionship between Social Awareness and the EI items under it. The values
Probability of attaining above-average Social Awareness is signifi-
cantly and positively correlated with the probability of attaining above-
average skills in terms of Empathy, Service orientation, Developing
Others, Leveraging Diversity and Political Awareness. There is, how-
ever no prerequisite that to have above-average Social Awareness, one
must first have above-average proficiency in terms of these Emotional
Intelligence items. Further analysis of determinants of EI competences
under Social Awareness may be useful to comment on designing of
effective hiring strategy.
Determinants of the EI competences under Social Awareness
EI items under Social Awareness, the study considers all the remaining
Emotional Intelligence factors under Social Awareness as well as those
able Probit model similar to that used earlier has been estimated yield-
ing the results as reported below.
3.8.5.1 Empathy and Its Determinants
Exploration of determinants of Empathy uses a Probit model similar to

that described earlier. The model includes incidence of Empathy as the
Table 3.40 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient: social awareness and EI items

under it
Empathy Service Developing Leveraging Political
orientation others diversity awareness
Social 0.47* 0.73* 0.74* 0.46* 0.33*
awareness
Wald chi2 230.53* 229.41* 236.14* 247.56* 259.11*

161
Table 3.41 Predicted probability of showing strong empathy with improvement

in chosen EI items
EI indicator would have EI indicator would have
above-average empathy above-average empathy
Optimism 0.64 0.72
Developing others 0.71 0.61
Influence 0.72 0.61
Communication 0.73 0.62
dependent variable and EQ, Emotional Intelligence factors under all

tion and education are taken as independent variables.
Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.2493. The probabilities of attaining
above-average Empathy are found to increase with an improvement in
Optimism, Service orientation, Conscientiousness and EQ. However,
such probabilities are inversely related to the probabilities of attain-
ing above-average competencies in terms of Achievement Drive,
Developing Others, Influence and Communication. Hence, peo-
ple with vigour to achieve goals, ability to mould others to fit into his
achievement drive and with better psycho-social abilities to influence
and communicate are less likely to demonstrate high empathy. The
marginal effects of these relevant EI competences on the probability of
attaining above-average Empathy are shown in Table 3.41.
the probabilities of exhibiting high Empathy, the study inquires
whether choosing people on the basis of a single factor could guarantee
selection of people with strong Empathy. Hence, it considers the pre-
dicted probabilities of exhibiting strong Empathy where any one of the
traits with positive impact would be set at its above-average level with
other such traits set at below-average levels and remaining fixed at their
averages.
162
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Optimism Conscientiousness Service Orientation
Graph 3.62 Optimism, conscientiousness, service orientation and high empathy

(across EQ)
For all levels of EQ, impact of Optimism and Service Orientation

has remained more or less equally intensive on the probability of
exhibiting above-average Empathy (Graph 3.62). Hence, at any level of
EQ, choosing people with high Optimism or high Service Orientation
is equally effective to guarantee selection of people with strong
Initiative. Impact of conscientiousness, however, has been relatively less
intensive.
The study shows further that for all age, income, gender, occupation
and education groups, having strong Service Orientation, followed by
Optimism and Conscientiousness leads to higher probabilities of dem-
onstrating strong Empathy.
The impacts are pronounced for the administrators. No such differ-
ential impact, however, exists within the income, age, gender, or educa-
tion categories (Graph 3.63).
The study does not reveal any significant marginal effects of age, gen-
der, occupation, education and income on the predicted probability of
demonstrating above-average Empathy (Graph 3.64).
Further, the probability of exhibiting strong Empathy depends
163
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
25k-50K
50K-75K
Technical
Administration
female
Service
General
Academics
75K-1L
>60
<25K
>1Lakh
male
20-30
31-40
51-60
41-50

Optimism Service orientation Conscientiousness
Graph 3.63 Optimism, conscientiousness, service orientation and high empathy

(across age, gender, income, occupation and education)
1.0
0.78
0.8
0.69 0.68 0.68 0.70 0.67 0.68 0.69 0.68 0.67 0.67 0.65 0.70 0.66 0.69
0.64 0.63
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
25k-50K
75K-1L
50K-75K
Service
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
General
Technical
female
Academics
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Graph 3.64 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average empathy (across

(≤5 on a ten-point scale) such probabilities are almost negligible.

As the EQ value reaches 5, such probabilities increase steadily with fur-
164
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.65 Probability of obtaining above average empathy across EQ

attaining above-average proficiency in Empathy (Graph 3.65).
3.8.5.2 Service Orientation and Its Determinants
Exploration of determinants of Service Orientation uses a Probit model

similar to that described earlier. The model includes incidence of Service
Orientation as the dependent variable and EQ, Emotional Intelligence
factors under all broad EI dimensions and factors such as age, income,
gender, occupation and education are taken as independent variables.
The LR chi2 stands at 208.48, which is significant at 1% level. Pseudo
2
R is estimated at 0.3017. The probabilities of attaining above-aver-
age Service Orientation are found to increase with an improvement in
Initiative, Emotional Awareness, Trustworthiness, Empathy, Developing
Others and EQ. However, such probabilities are inversely related to
the probabilities of attaining above-average competencies in terms of
Leveraging Diversity and Cooperation. Hence, people with initiative,
better trustworthiness and with better ability to apprehend and appre-
ciate own as well as others’ emotion tend to be more service oriented.
However more emphasis on developing better work environment often
jeopardizes the urge to serve and cater to the needs of the target groups.
The marginal effects of these relevant EI competences on the probability
of attaining above-average Service Orientation are shown in Table 3.42.
165
Table 3.42 Predicted probability of showing above-average service orientation

Probability that a respond- Probability that a
ent having below-average respondent having above-
skill in terms of a given average skill in terms of a
EI indicator would have given EI indicator would
above-average service have above-average
orientation service orientation
Emotional awareness 0.55 0.65
Empathy 0.51 0.67
Leveraging diversity 0.65 0.56

the probabilities of exhibiting high Service Orientation, the study
inquires whether choosing people on the basis of a single factor could
guarantee selection of people with strong Service Orientation. Hence,
it considers the predicted probabilities of exhibiting strong Service
Orientation where any one of the traits with positive impact would be
set at its above-average level with other such traits set at below-average
levels and remaining fixed at their averages.
For all levels of EQ lying between 6 and 8, impacts of having strong
initiative and being trustworthy have remained relatively low and more
or less equally intensive on the probability of exhibiting above-average
Service Orientation (Graph 3.66). For these levels, impact of having
skills in developing others and being empathetic have relatively greater
impact followed by that of being emotionally aware. For the EQ levels 9
and 10, all the five factors have equal impact on the predicted probabil-
ity of having high Service Orientation.
The study shows further that for all age, income, gender, occupation
and education groups, strong skills in developing others, intense empathy
and emotional awareness followed by that in trustworthiness and initiative
leads to higher probabilities of demonstrating strong Service Orientation.
The impacts are relatively more pronounced for general degree
holders; for the administrators and service holders; for people in
166
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Developing Others Empathy Trustworthiness Emotional awareness Initiative
Graph 3.66 Initiative, emotional awareness, trustworthiness, empathy, develop-

ing others and high service orientation (across EQ)
higher-middle age groups and for people in low to middle income

groups. No such differential impact, however, exists within the gender
categories (Graph 3.67).
The study reveals further that predicted probability of demon-
strating above-average Service Orientation is more pronounced for
the higher-middle age group, low to middle income groups, for gen-
eral degree holders and for the administrators and the service hold-
ers. No such significant marginal effect exists for the gender category
(Graph 3.68).
Further, the probability of exhibiting strong service orientation
depends significantly on the EQ of the respondents. For a lower value of
EQ (≤5 on a ten-point scale) such probabilities are almost negligible. As
the EQ value crosses 5, such probabilities increase steadily with further
increases in EQ. The probability reaches the maximum value in its range
when EQ reaches its maximum value of ten. There is, hence, no satu-
ration point. Once the threshold is reached and surpassed, an increase
in EQ would always be associated with higher probabilities of attaining
above-average proficiency in service orientation (Graph 3.69).
167
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
female
male
Administration
>1Lakh
Academics
50K-75K
75K-1L
Service
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
25k-50K
Technical
General
>60
<25K
Initiative Emotional awareness Trustworthiness Empathy Developing Others
Graph 3.67 Initiative, emotional awareness, trustworthiness, empathy, develop-

ing others and high service orientation (across age, gender, income, occupation
and education)
0.8 0.69
0.64
0.63 0.61
0.57
0.63 0.63 0.62
0.58 0.55 0.59 0.62 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.57
0.6 0.46
0.4
0.2
0.0
female
Academics
75K-1L
male
Administration
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
>1Lakh
Service
51-60
General
>60
<25K
25k-50K
Technical
Graph 3.68 Predicted probability of exhibiting above-average service orientation

168
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.69 Probability of showing strong service orientation across EQ
3.8.5.3 Developing Others and Its Determinants
Exploration of determinants of skills in Developing Others uses a

Probit model similar to that used earlier. The model includes incidence
of Developing Others as the dependent variable and EQ, the other
Emotional Intelligence factors under all broad EI dimensions and fac-
tors such as age, income, gender, occupation and education are taken as
independent variables.
average skills in Developing Others are found to increase with an
improvement in skills in Accurate Self assessment, Self Confidence,
Empathy, Service Orientation, Communication, Team building capa-
bilities and EQ. Such probabilities however are inversely related to
the probabilities of attaining above-average competencies in terms of
Influence, Building bonds and Optimism. The marginal effects of these
relevant EI competences on the probability of attaining above-average
skills in Developing Others are shown in Table 3.43.
the probabilities of exhibiting strong skills in Developing Others, the
study inquires whether choosing people on the basis of a single factor
could guarantee selection of people with skills in Developing Others.
Hence, it considers the predicted probabilities of exhibiting compe-
tence in Developing Others where any one of the traits with positive
169
Table 3.43 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills in developing

others with improvement in chosen EI items
indicator would have indicator would have
above-average skills in above-average skills in
developing others developing others
Accurate Self assessment 0.42 0.51
Empathy 0.42 0.54
Team capabilities 0.41 0.50
Influence 0.51 0.41
Optimism 0.50 0.4
impact would be set at its above-average level with other such traits set
at below-average levels and remaining fixed at their averages.
For EQ levels less than or equal to 6 (on a ten point scale) impacts
of these factors on skills in Developing Others are negligible. However,
for all levels of EQ lying between 7 and 8, impacts of having strong
self assessment, better service orientation and skills in team building
capacities have been more or less equally intense on the probability of
exhibiting above-average Developing Others (Graph 3.70). The impacts
of having skills in empathy, communication and strong self confidence
have been relatively less pronounced. For the EQ levels 9 and 10, all the
six factors were revealed to have equal impact on the predicted probabil-
ity of having high skills of Developing Others.
The study finds identical results for all age, income, gender, occu-
pation and education groups (Graph 3.71). Strong skills in self assess-
ment, service orientation and team building capacities followed by that
in empathy, communication and self-confidence lead to higher prob-
abilities of demonstrating competence in Developing Others.
The impacts are relatively more pronounced for administrators, for peo-
ple in the low-to-middle age groups and in the higher income brackets.
170
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Accurate Self assessment Service orientation
Self confidence Communication
Empathy Team capabilities
Graph 3.70 Relevant EI competences affecting skills of developing others

(across EQ)
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
25k-50K
75K-1L
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
Service
Technical
General
female
male
Academics
>1Lakh
Administration

Accurate Self assessment Self confidence Empathy
Service orientation Communication Team capabilities
Graph 3.71 Relevant EI competences and skills in developing others (across age,

171
0.60
0.51 0.49
0.47 0.48 0.46 0.47 0.45 0.44 0.49 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.45 0.47 0.44
0.40 0.39
0.40
0.20
0.00
75K-1L
Technical
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
Service
>60
25k-50K
General
female
male
Academics
>1Lakh
Administration
Graph 3.72 Predicted probability of exhibiting strong skills in developing oth-

ers (across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
No such differential impact, however, exists within the gender and educa-
tion categories (Graph 3.71).
The study reveals further that predicted probability of demonstrat-
ing skills in Developing Others is more pronounced for the administra-
tors, for people belonging to the low-to-middle age groups, and in the
upper-middle income groups. No such significant marginal effect exists
for the gender and education category (Graph 3.72).
Further, the skills in Developing Others depend significantly on the
EQ of the respondents. For a lower value of EQ (≤5 on a ten-point
scale) such probabilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value crosses
5, such probabilities increase steadily with further increases in EQ. The
its maximum value of ten. There is, hence, no saturation point. Once
the threshold is reached and surpassed, an increase in EQ would always
be associated with higher probabilities of attaining above-average profi-
ciency in Developing Others (Graph 3.73).
3.8.5.4 Leveraging Diversity and Its Determinants
Exploration of determinants of skills in Leveraging Diversity uses a

Probit model similar to that used earlier. The model includes incidence
172
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.73 Probability of demonstrating skills in developing others across EQ
of Leveraging Diversity as the dependent variable and EQ, the other

average skills in Leveraging Diversity are found to increase with an
improvement in Political Awareness, EQ and in skills in Developing
Others. However, people with trustworthiness, adaptability, self control,
optimism, service orientation and influence are not highly skilled in lev-
eraging diversity. The marginal effects of these relevant EI competences
on the probability of attaining above-average competence in leveraging
diversity are shown in Table 3.44.
the probabilities of exhibiting strong skills in leveraging diversity, the
study inquires whether choosing people on the basis of a single fac-
tor could guarantee selection of people with competence in leveraging
diversity. Hence, it considers the predicted probabilities of exhibiting
skills in leveraging diversity where any one of the traits with positive
impact would be set at its above-average level with other such traits set
at below-average levels and remaining fixed at their averages.
For EQ levels less than or equal to 6 (on a ten point scale) impacts
of these factors on skills in leveraging diversity are negligible. However,
for all higher levels of EQ, predicted probability of having competence
173
Table 3.44 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills in leveraging

diversity with improvement in chosen EI items
leveraging diversity leveraging diversity
Optimism 0.79 0.69
Influence 0.79 0.69
Political awareness 0.68 0.81
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Developing Others Political Awareness
Graph 3.74 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leveraging diversity

(across EQ)
in leveraging diversity increases with an improvement in efficiencies

in developing other and political awareness. The two factors, however,
have more or less similar impact on predicted probability of demon-
strating efficiency in leveraging diversity (Graph 3.74).
As is revealed by Graph 3.75, competences in political awareness
and developing others are equally important to ensure higher predicted
174
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male
Administration
31-40
50K-75K
Service
20-30
41-50
51-60
>1Lakh
>60
General
<25K
25k-50K
Technical
Political Awareness Developing Others
Graph 3.75 Relevant EI competences and skills in leveraging diversity (across

probabilities of demonstrating strong skills in leveraging diversity across

all age, income, gender, occupation and education groups.
The impacts are marginally higher for service-holders, for people in
the middle age groups and for those who have their degrees in the gen-
eral field. No such differential impact is visible within the gender or
income categories (Graph 3.75).
The study reveals further that predicted probability of demonstrating
skills in leveraging diversity is marginally higher for the service-holders,
for people belonging to the middle age groups, and for people who have
degrees in general field. No such significant marginal effect exists for the
gender and income category (Graph 3.76).
Further, the skills in leveraging diversity depend crucially on the
EQ of the respondents. For a lower value of EQ (≤6 on a ten-point
scale) such probabilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value exceeds
6, such probabilities increase steadily with further increases in EQ.
The probability reaches the maximum value in its range when EQ
reaches its maximum value of ten. There is, hence, no saturation point.
Once the threshold is reached and surpassed, an increase in EQ would
always be associated with higher probabilities of attaining above-average
proficiency in leveraging diversity (Graph 3.77).
175
1.0
0.76 0.73 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.75 0.77 0.74 0.77 0.71 0.78 0.78 0.73 0.72 0.77 0.71
0.8
0.60
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
female
male
Administration
>1Lakh
Academics
75K-1L
Technical
Service
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
25k-50K
General
<25K
50K-75K
Graph 3.76 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence in leveraging diver-

sity (across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.77 Probability of demonstrating skills in leveraging diversity across EQ
3.8.5.5 Political Awareness and Its Determinants
For determining the factors affecting the skills in political awareness the
study uses a Probit model that includes incidence of political awareness
as the dependent variable and EQ, other Emotional Intelligence factors
under all broad EI dimensions and factors such as age, income, gender,
occupation and education as independent variables.
2
R is estimated at 0.2790. The probabilities of attaining above-average
176
Table 3.45 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills in political

awareness with improvement in chosen EI items
political awareness political awareness
Influence 0.59 0.70
skills in political awareness are found to increase with an improvement

in EQ and in skills in leveraging diversity and influence. The marginal
above-average competence in political awareness are shown in Table 3.45.
The study now considers the relative importance of factors that affect
the probabilities of exhibiting competence in political awareness. This
is to explore whether hiring people on the basis of a single factor could
guarantee selection of people with competence in political awareness.
Hence, it considers the predicted probabilities of exhibiting skills in
political awareness where any one of the traits with positive impact is set
at its above-average level while others are set at below-average levels with
the remaining maintained at their averages.
For EQ levels less than or equal to 5 (on a ten point scale) impacts of
these factors on skills in political awareness are almost negligible. As the
EQ level surpasses the threshold of 6, predicted probabilities of show-
ing strong political awareness increases with an improvement in efficien-
cies in leveraging diversity and influence. The two factors, however, have
more or less similar impact on predicted probability of demonstrating
efficiency in political awareness (Graph 3.78).
As is revealed by Graph 3.79, competences in leveraging diversity
and in influence are equally important to ensure higher predicted prob-
abilities of exhibiting competence in political awareness cross all age,
income, gender, occupation and education groups.
The impacts are marginally higher for academicians, females, middle-
aged people, and for those who have their degrees in the technical field.
People earning relatively lower income exhibit lower probabilities of
being strongly politically aware (Graph 3.79).
177
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Influence Leveraging Diversity
Graph 3.78 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in political awareness

(across EQ)
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
female
Academics
male
50K-75K
75K-1L
Administration
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>1Lakh
Service
>60
General
<25K
25k-50K
Technical

Leveraging diversity Influence
Graph 3.79 Relevant EI competences and skills in political awareness (across

The study reveals further that predicted probability of exhibiting

competence in political awareness itself is marginally higher for females,
academicians, middle-aged groups, and for those who have degrees in
technical field. People earning relatively lesser income exhibit lower
probabilities of being strongly politically aware (Graph 3.80).
178
0.80 0.70
0.66 0.63 0.69 0.62
0.67 0.68 0.69 0.67
0.62 0.64 0.62
0.69
0.57 0.60 0.59
0.60 0.52
0.40
0.20
0.00
female
male
Administration
>1Lakh
Academics
75K-1L
20-30
31-40
50K-75K
Service
41-50
Technical
General
51-60
25k-50K
>60
<25K
Graph 3.80 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence in political

awareness (across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.81 Probability of demonstrating skills in political awareness across EQ
Further, the skills in political awareness depend crucially on the EQ

of the respondents. For a lower value of EQ (≤6 on a ten-point scale)
such probabilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value exceeds 6,
such probabilities increase steadily with further increases in EQ. The
its maximum value of ten. There is, hence, no saturation point. Once
the threshold is reached and surpassed, an increase in EQ would always
be associated with higher probabilities of attaining above-average profi-
ciency in political awareness (Graph 3.81).
179
A summary diagram of the results obtained for Social Awareness may

be useful for other analysis.
Self Motivation (-) Self Regulation (-) EQ (+) Social Skill (-)
Middle aged
Social Awareness High income earner
Female
Service holders
(+) (-)
Developing Others Trustworthiness
Political Awareness Adaptability
Middle aged
EQ Self control
Political Awareness General degree holders
Optimism
Service Orientation Service holders
Influence
(+) (-)
Optimism Achievement Drive
Empathy Conscientiousness Developing Others Administrators
Service Orientation Influence
EQ Communication
Higher-middle aged
(+) (-)
Low to middle income
Initiative Leveraging Diversity
Emotional Awareness Cooperation earners
Service orientation
Trustworthiness General degree holders
Developing Others Administrators and
EQ service holders
(+) (-)
Accurate Self assessment Influence
Service Orientation Building bonds Low to middle aged
Self confidence Optimism
Developing Others Higher income earner
Empathy
Communication Administrators
Team capabilities
EQ
(+) (-)
Accurate Self assessment Influence
Middle aged
Leveraging Diversity Service Orientation Building bonds
Self confidence Optimism General degree holders
Empathy Service holders
Communication
Team capabilities
EQ
180

Determinants: Social Skill
3.9.1 Social Skill Across Age, Income, Gender,
Social skill has (i) Influence (ii) Communication (iii) Leadership

(iv) Change-Catalyst (v) Team capabilities (vi) Building Bonds (vii)
Cooperation and (viii) Conflict Management as EI competences under it. The
number of respondents with above average Social Skill across age, income,
gender, occupation and education structures is shown in Table 3.46.
Fifty one per cent of the respondents show above-average compe-
tence while 49% demonstrate below-average competence in Social
Skills. Males, technical degree holders, and service holders have more
respondents with above-average Social Skills in their group compared
to their respective counterparts. The low age group has relatively more
respondents with below-average competence in Social Skills. The higher
income brackets have relatively more people with above-average social
skills while lower income brackets have more people with relatively less
competence in Social Skills. This ratio for the middle income earners
is 50:50.
The group with above-average Social Skill has relatively more male,
more general degree holders, and more service-holders but relatively less
from higher income brackets, and the high-age group.
3.9.2 Cross Tabulation Among Social Skill, Other

EI Dimensions and the EQ Index

average (below-average) Social Skill and the proportions of respond-
ents having above-average (below-average) proficiency in terms of other
Emotional Intelligence dimensions and the EQ index may be helpful
for further analyses (Table 3.47).
sion, incidence of people showing below-average (above-average)
Table 3.46 Social skill across age, income, gender, occupation and education
with below aver- with above aver- people with people with
age social skill in age social skill in below average above average
subgroup ‘i’ subgroup ‘i’ social skill in social skill in
subgroups under subgroups under
group ‘j’ group ‘j’
Gender Female 55 45 58 45 0.004
Male 42 58 42 55
Income <25 K 58 42 16 11 0.02
25–50 K 51 49 43 38
50–75 K 50 50 23 22
75 K–1L 45 55 14 16
>1Lakh 26 74 4 12
Age 20–30 57 43 41 29 0.03
31–40 47 53 26 29
41–50 38 62 14 22
51–60 48 52 15 15
60 and above 43 57 4 5
Service 46 54 63 71
181
182
Table 3.47 Cross tabulation among social skill, other EI dimensions and the EQ
index
Social skill
Below average Above average
EQ Below average 77.87 22.13
Above average 21.13 78.87
Self motivation Below average 64.78 35.22
Self awareness Below average 65.45 34.55
Self regulation Below average 70.05 29.95
Social awareness Below average 67.08 32.92
Social Skill is more than the incidence of people exhibiting above-

average (below-average) Social Skill. Similarly, a person with below-
average competence in Social Skill is more likely to show up with
below-average proficiency in terms of each of the broad EI dimensions.
Hence, incidence of above-average Social Skill is likely to be highly
associated with the incidences of showing above-average proficiency in
terms of other Emotional Intelligence indicators and vice versa. The
proposition may be strengthened with an analysis of rank-correlation
among Social Skill, other EI dimensions and EQ.
3.9.3 Rank Correlation Among Social Skill, Its

The relationship among the broad EI dimension of Social Skill, its con-
stituting competences (namely, Influence, Communication, Leadership,
Change-Catalyst, Team capabilities, Building Bonds, Cooperation and
Conflict Management) and the EQ index and other EI dimensions may
be analysed using the Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient (Table 3.48).
All the constituents are found to be directly and positively related
to Social Skill, the correlation being strongest with Team-capabilities
followed by Leadership, Communication, Influence, Change-catalyst,
Cooperation, Conflict Management and Building Bonds. The correlation
183
Table 3.48 Rank correlation among social skill, its constituents and other EI
dimensions
Competences Social skill Dimensions Social skill
Influence 0.51 EQ 0.80
Communication 0.64
Leadership 0.67 Self awareness 0.40
Change catalyst 0.50 Social awareness 0.53
Team capabilities 0.71 Self motivation 0.50
Building bonds 0.41 Self regulation 0.49
Cooperation 0.47
Conflict management 0.46
with EQ index is significantly higher compared to those obtained for

other EI dimensions. Correlation with Social Awareness is the high-
est followed by those with Self Motivation, Self Regulation, and Self
Awareness.
ble association and causality among the chosen variables, the study uses
a suitable Probit model.

Intelligence Dimensions and Social Skill
The significant rank-correlation among the Emotional Intelligence

dimensions hint towards suitability of using bivariate Probit or a Probit
model with sample selection that could capture the incidents of endog-
enous determination of variables. However, the relationships between
Social Skill and other Emotional Intelligence dimensions are better
modelled by a Bivariate Probit. The study considers incidences of exhib-
iting above-average and below-average Social Skill and those in terms
of other EI dimensions as the first and the second dependent variable
respectively. Age, income, gender, occupation, education, EQ index and
the incidence of having above-average and below-average efficiency in
EQ are taken as independent variables. While modelling the relation-
ship between Social Skill and EQ, set of explanatory variables excluded
EQ related variable form the second equation. The results are summa-
rized as follows:
184
3.9.4.1 EQ and Social Skill
The significantly positive value of the tetrachoric correlation coefficient

(0.76) obtained from the estimated Bivariate Probit model suggests that
the probability of attaining above-average Social Skill is directly and
simultaneously determined by the probability of attaining above-average
EQ. There is, however, no prerequisite that to have above-average Social
Skill, one must first have above-average proficiency in terms of EQ.
Further, EQ has a significantly positive impact on the predicted prob-
ability of attaining above-average Social Skill once the EQ index crosses
the value of 6. Such probability reaches the maximum value in its range
(that is 1) when EQ index reaches the value of 10. There is, hence, a
threshold but no saturation point so far as the relationship between EQ
and Social Skill is concerned (Graph 3.82).
3.9.4.2 Self Awareness and Social Skill
Estimation of the SUR Bivariate Probit model finds the tetrachoric

correlation coefficient to be insignificant. Hence, the study finds no
relationship between the probabilities of exhibiting above-average com-
petence in Social Skill and that in Self Awareness.
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
EQ
Graph 3.82 Predicted probability of having above average social skill

185
3.9.4.3 Social Skill and Self Motivation

Self Motivation and Social Skill finds the Tetrachoric correlation coef-
ficient to be significantly negative (−0.32). This suggests that the prob-
ability of exhibiting skills in Self Motivation is inversely related to the
probability of attaining above-average Social Skill.
3.9.4.4 Social Skill and Self Regulation

Self Regulation and Social Skill finds the Tetrachoric correlation coef-
ficient to be significantly negative (−0.27). Hence, people with higher
probabilities of showing Self Regulation are more prone to demonstrate
lower Social Skill.
3.9.4.5 Social Skills and Social Awareness

(−0.34) obtained from the Bivariate Probit Estimation suggests pres-
ence of inverse relationship between probability of attaining above-aver-
age Social Awareness and that of attaining above-average Social Skill.
Hence, an improvement in Social Awareness is likely to be associated
with weaker Social Skill.
3.9.4.6 Relationship Between Social Skill and Other EI

In order to design effective hiring strategy and staff development pro-

grammes, one must analyse the factors that could affect the compe-
tence in Social Skill positively rather than those that affect it inversely.
Since, predicted probability of having above-average Social Skill
186
0.7
0.59
0.5 0.46
0.35 0.33 0.35
0.30 0.30 0.31
0.3 0.26 0.24 0.28 0.23
0.27
0.20 0.22 0.22
0.17
0.1
Academics
75K-1L
female
male
Administration
20-30
41-50
>1Lakh
General
Service
31-40
51-60
>60
<25K
50K-75K
Technical
25k-50K
-0.1

Move from low EQ to high EQ
Graph 3.83 Improvement in predicted probability of showing strong social skill

with change in EQ
is directly related to movement in EQ only, the study calculates the

extent of improvement in such probabilities with a movement from
lower EQ to higher EQ across age, income, gender, occupation, and
education groups. However, an employer must keep in mind that
selecting people on the basis of Social Awareness, Self Regulation or
Self Motivation would not generate a pool of persons with impressive
Social Skills.
above-average Social Skills significantly (Graph 3.83).
Improvement in Social Skill following an improvement in EQ is
higher for the females, for the service-holders, middle-aged people and
the high-income earners. General and the technical degree holders,
however, demonstrate equal improvements in such probabilities with
improvement in EQ.
The study is extended now to consider the relationship between
Social Skill and the Emotional Intelligence items under it, namely,
Influence, Communication, Leadership, Change-Catalyst, Team capa-
bilities, Building Bonds, Cooperation and Conflict Management.
187
3.9.5 Social Skill, the Emotional Intelligence Items

tionship between Social Awareness and the EI items under it. The values
Probability of attaining above-average Social Skill is significantly
and positively correlated with the probability of attaining above-aver-
age skills in terms of Influence, Communication, Leadership, Change
Catalyst, Team Capabilities, Building Bonds, Cooperation and Conflict
Management. There is, however no prerequisite that to have above-aver-
age Social Skill, one must first have above-average proficiency in terms
of these Emotional Intelligence items. Further analysis of determinants
of EI competences under Social Skill may be useful to comment on
designing of effective hiring strategy.
Determinants of the EI competences under Social Skill
To explore the Emotional Intelligence factors affecting each of
the EI items under Social Skill, the study considers all the remaining
Emotional Intelligence factors under Social Skill as well as those coming
under other broad Emotional Intelligence dimensions. A suitable Probit
model is used for the purpose.
3.9.5.1 Influence and Its Determinants
The Probit model that explores the determinants of skills in influencing

others includes competence in influence as the dependent variable and
EQ, the other Emotional Intelligence factors under all broad EI dimen-
sions and factors such as age, income, gender, occupation and education
are taken as independent variables.
average skills in influencing others are found to increase with an
improvement in Political Awareness, Leadership, Conflict Management
and EQ. However, trustworthy people who are empathetic to others
188
Table 3.49 Tetrachoric correlation coefficient: social awareness and EI items under it
Influence Communication Leadership Change- Team Building Cooperation Conflict

catalyst capabilities bonds management
Social 0.37* 0.33* 0.46* 0.26* 0.61* 0.31* 0.40* 0.49*
skill

189
Table 3.50 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills of influencing

others with improvement in chosen EI items
have above-average skills have above-average skills
in influencing others in influencing others
Empathy 0.58 0.46
Political awareness 0.40 0.55
with significant capabilities of team building and leveraging diversity

are relatively less prone to demonstrate higher probabilities of influenc-
ing others. The marginal effects of these relevant EI competences on the
probability of attaining above-average competence in influencing others
are shown in Table 3.50.
While analyzing the relative importance of factors that affect the
probabilities of exhibiting strong skills of influencing others, the study
guarantee selection of people with competence in influencing others.
Hence, it considers the predicted probabilities of exhibiting skills in
influencing where any one of the traits with positive impact would be
set at its above-average level with other such traits set at below-average
levels and remaining fixed at their averages.
For EQ levels less than or equal to 6 (on a ten point scale) impacts of
these factors on skills in influencing others are negligible. However, for
all higher levels of EQ, predicted probability of having competence in
influencing others increases with an improvement in efficiencies in con-
flict management, political awareness and leadership. The three factors,
however, have more or less similar impact on predicted probability of
demonstrating efficiency in influencing others (Graph 3.84).
As is revealed by Graph 3.84, competences in political awareness,
conflict management and leadership are equally important to ensure
190
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ConflictManagement PoliticalAwareness Leadership
Graph 3.84 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in influencing others

(across EQ)
higher predicted probabilities of demonstrating strong skills in influ-

encing others across all age, income, gender, occupation and education
groups.
The impacts are marginally higher for service-holders, for people in
the middle age groups and for those who have their degrees in the gen-
eral field. No such differential impact is visible within the gender cat-
egory. High income earners show relatively lesser skills in influencing
others (Graph 3.85).
skills in influencing others is lower for the aged people and for those
belonging to the two extreme income groups. Females, general degree
holders and the service-holders exhibit better skills for influencing oth-
ers than their respective counterparts (Graph 3.86).
Finally, the skills in influencing others depend crucially on the EQ
of the respondents. For a lower value of EQ (≤5 on a ten-point scale)
such probabilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value exceeds 5,
such probabilities increase steadily with further increases in EQ. The
191
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Administration
female
Academics
>1Lakh
male
Technical
Service
General
50K-75K
75K-1L
25k-50K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K

ConflictManagement PoliticalAwareness Leadership
Graph 3.85 Relevant EI competences and skills in influencing others (across

0.58
0.6 0.53 0.55 0.54
0.50 0.51 0.52 0.51 0.51
0.48 0.47 0.48 0.48 0.46
0.41
0.4 0.37 0.35
0.2
0.0
75K-1L
female
Service
Academics
male
50K-75K
Administration
>1Lakh
General
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
25k-50K
Technical
Graph 3.86 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence in influencing oth-

ers (across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
its maximum value of ten. There is, hence, no saturation point.

Once the threshold is reached and surpassed, an increase in EQ would
always be associated with higher probabilities of exhibiting better skills
in influencing others (Graph 3.87).
192
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.87 Probability of demonstrating skills in influencing others across EQ
3.9.5.2 Communication and Its Determinants
The Probit model that explores the determinants of skills of communi-

cation includes competence in communication as the dependent vari-
able and EQ, the other Emotional Intelligence factors under all broad
EI dimensions and factors such as age, income, gender, occupation and
education are taken as independent variables.
average skills in communication are found to increase with an improve-
ment in EQ and Leadership. People with conscientiousness, empathy,
and skills in developing others and building bonds, however exhibit less
communicative skills. The marginal effects of these relevant EI com-
petences on the probability of attaining above-average competence in
communication are shown in Table 3.51.
While analyzing the relative importance of factors that affect the
probabilities of exhibiting strong skills of communication, the study
guarantee selection of people with competence in communication.
Hence, it considers the predicted probabilities of exhibiting such skills
where any one of the traits with positive impact would be set at its
above-average level with other such traits set at below-average levels and
remaining fixed at their averages.
193
Table 3.51 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills of communi-

cation with improvement in chosen EI items
above-average skills in com- above-average skills in com-
munication munication
Empathy 0.67 0.56
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.88 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in communication (across EQ)
For EQ levels less than or equal to 5 (on a ten point scale) impact
of having strong leadership on the communicative skills is almost neg-
ligible. However, for all higher levels of EQ, predicted probability of
having competence in communicating with others increases with an
improvement in leadership (Graph 3.88).
Graph 3.89, that shows the predicted probabilities of having higher
skills in communication given skills in leadership, reveals that the effect of
competences in leadership on communication is marginally higher for the
lower age groups and technical degree-holders. Females, academicians and
the people belonging to the two extreme incomes groups, show higher
communicative skills when they have strong leadership skills.
194
0.77 0.74
0.8 0.71
0.68 0.69 0.65 0.67 0.68 0.68 0.65 0.70
0.59
0.66 0.62 0.63 0.67 0.65
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
female
male
Administration
>1Lakh
Academics
50K-75K
75K-1L
20-30
31-40
Service
41-50
51-60
25k-50K
Technical
General
>60
<25K
Graph 3.89 Leadership and skills in communication (across age, gender,

income, occupation and education)
0.8 0.71 0.68 0.65

0.62 0.63 0.59 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.59 0.64
0.53
0.59
0.55 0.57 0.60 0.58
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
female
male
Administration
>1Lakh
Academics
50K-75K
75K-1L
Technical
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
25k-50K
General
Service
>60
<25K
Graph 3.90 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence in communication


communicative skills is higher for the lower age groups, technical degree
holders, females and academicians. The same is true for the people
belonging to the two extreme income groups (Graph 3.90).
Finally, for a lower value of EQ (≤5 on a ten-point scale) such prob-
abilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value exceeds 5, such probabili-
ties increase steadily with further increases in EQ. The probability reaches
195
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.91 Probability of demonstrating skills in communication across EQ
the maximum value in its range when EQ reaches its maximum value of
ten. There is, hence, no saturation point. Once the threshold is reached
and surpassed, an increase in EQ would always be associated with higher
probabilities of exhibiting better skills in communication (Graph 3.91).
3.9.5.3 Leadership and Its Determinants
The Probit model that explores the determinants of skills in Leadership

includes such competence as the dependent variable and EQ, the other
2
R is estimated at 0.3337. The probabilities of exhibiting above-average
skills in leadership are found to increase with an improvement in EQ and
skills in accurate self assessment, self confidence, communication and
team building capabilities. Highly committed people, however, exhibit
relatively lower probabilities of emerging as effective leaders. The marginal
above-average competence in leadership are shown in Table 3.52.
While analyzing the relative importance of factors that affect the prob-
abilities of emerging as effective leader, the study explores whether choos-
ing people on the basis of a single factor could guarantee selection of
196
Table 3.52 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills of leadership

indicator would have indicator would have
leadership leadership
people with strong leadership quality. Hence, it considers the predicted

probabilities of exhibiting such skills where any one of the traits with pos-
itive impact would be set at its above-average level with other such traits
set at below-average levels and remaining fixed at their averages.
For EQ levels less than or equal to 6 (on a ten point scale) the impact
of having above-average skills in accurate self assessment, self confi-
dence, communication and team building capabilities on the predicted
probability of emerging as a successful leader is almost negligible. For
all higher levels of EQ, predicted probability of having competence
in terms of leadership increases with an improvement in such factors.
For the EQ levels 7 and 8, self confidence has relatively mild effect on
such probability compared to the three others. For higher ranges of EQ,
however, all the factors impart equally significant marginal effects on
predicted probability of emerging as effective leader (Graph 3.92).
As is revealed by Graph 3.93, effect of competences in the selected EI
dimensions on the predicted probability of showing strong leadership is
higher for the people belonging to the higher-middle age group, high
income bracket and for the administrators. Such differential impacts are
almost negligible across gender or education groups.
The study reveals further that predicted probability of emerging as
effective leaders for the females, administrators and for the people belong-
ing to the higher-middle age group and high income bracket. Such differ-
ential impacts are almost negligible across education groups (Graph 3.94).
197
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
AccurateSelfassessment Selfconfidence
Communication Teamcapabilities
Graph 3.92 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leadership (across EQ)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
25k-50K
75K-1L
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Technical
20-30
31-40
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<25K
Service
>60
General
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Academics
female

AccurateSelfassessment Selfconfidence Communication Teamcapabilities
Graph 3.93 Leadership and relevant EI dimensions (across age, gender, income,

occupation and education)

abilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value exceeds 6, such prob-
abilities increase steadily with further increases in EQ. The probability
reaches the maximum value in its range when EQ reaches its maximum
198
1.0
0.81
0.8 0.73
0.64 0.64 0.66 0.63
0.59 0.56 0.60 0.58 0.59 0.60 0.61 0.63 0.59
0.6 0.55 0.55
0.4
0.2
0.0
25k-50K
50K-75K
75K-1L
Technical
20-30
31-40
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51-60
>60
<25K
Service
General
female
Academics
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Graph 3.94 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence in leadership

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.95 Probability of demonstrating skills in leadership across EQ
value of ten. There is, hence, no saturation point. Once the threshold
is reached and surpassed, an increase in EQ would always be associated
with higher probabilities of exhibiting effective leadership (Graph 3.95).
3.9.5.4 Building Bonds and Its Determinants
The Probit model exploring the determinants of skills of build-

ing bonds considers such competence as the dependent variable and
EQ, the other Emotional Intelligence factors under all broad EI
199
Table 3.53 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills in building

bonds with improvement in chosen EI items
have above-average skills have above-average skills
in building bond in building bond
Influence 0.62 0.65
dimensions and factors such as age, income, gender, occupation and

education as independent variables.
Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.2135. The probabilities of exhibiting com-
petence in building bonds are found to increase with an improvement
in EQ, trustworthiness, commitment and ability to influence, man-
age conflict and cooperation. People with communicative skills or with
high adaptability are less likely to be efficient in building bonds. The
marginal effects of these relevant EI competences on the probability
of attaining above-average competence in acting as change catalyst are
shown in Table 3.53.
Analysis of relative importance of factors that affect the probabili-
ties of demonstrating competence in building bonds inquires whether
choosing people on the basis of a single factor could guarantee selection
of people with such skills. Hence, the predicted probabilities of exhibit-
ing such skills are considered by fixing the traits with positive impact at
their above-average level with all other traits set at below-average levels
and remaining factors fixed at their averages.
of having above-average skills in trustworthiness, commitment, influ-
ence, conflict management and cooperation on the predicted prob-
ability of exhibiting skills in building bonds is almost negligible.
200
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
ConflictManagement Trustworthiness Commitment Influence Cooperation
Graph 3.96 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in building bonds (across EQ)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
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Technical
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20-30
31-40
41-50
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<25K
female
>60
General
male
Service
>1Lakh
Administration
Age Income Education Gender Occupation Academics

Trustworthiness Commitment Influence Conflict Management Cooperation
Graph 3.97 Skills in building bonds and relevant EI dimensions (across age, gen-
der, income, occupation and education)
For all higher levels of EQ, predicted probability of having compe-

tence in terms of building bond increases with an improvement in
such factors. Ability to manage conflict, willingness to cooperate and
commitment have marginally stronger impact on such probability
compared to the others (Graph 3.96).
As is revealed by Graph 3.97, the effect of competences in the
selected EI dimensions on the predicted probability of showing higher
skills in Building Bond is higher for respondents belonging to the
middle and high income earners, and for all but highly aged people.
201
0.8 0.71 0.70

0.64 0.68 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.63 0.65 0.65 0.63 0.60 0.64 0.65
0.56 0.51
0.6 0.49
0.4
0.2
0.0
male
Academics
75K-1L
female
Administration
51-60
20-30
31-40
41-50
>1Lakh
Service
>60
General
<25K
50K-75K
25k-50K
Technical
Graph 3.98 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence in building bonds

Such differential impacts are almost negligible across gender, occupation

or education groups (Graph 3.97).
The study reveals further that predicted probability of exhibiting
skills in building bonds is higher for the people belonging to the middle
and high income brackets and for all age groups excepting the high-age
one. Such differential impacts are almost negligible across gender, occu-
pation or education groups (Graph 3.98).
abilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value exceeds 5, such prob-
abilities increase steadily with further increases in EQ. The probability
reaches the maximum value in its range when EQ reaches its maximum
value of ten. There is, hence, no saturation point. Once the threshold
is reached and surpassed, an increase in EQ would always be associated
with higher probabilities of exhibiting competence on building bonds
(Graph 3.99).
3.9.5.5 Cooperation and Its Determinants
The Probit model analysing determinants of competence in cooperation

takes into account such skills as the dependent variable and EQ, the
other Emotional Intelligence factors and factors such as age, income,
gender, occupation and education as independent variables.
202
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.99 Probability of demonstrating skills in building bonds across EQ
Table 3.54 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills in cooperation

cooperation cooperation

Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.2275. The probabilities of exhibiting com-
petence in building bonds are found to increase with an improvement
in EQ, trustworthiness, conscientiousness, commitment, team capabili-
ties and ability in building bonds. However, people who service oriented
with strong initiative, communicative skills, and ability to emerge as
effective leader are less prone to cooperate. The marginal effects of these
relevant EI competences on the probability of attaining above-average
competence in acting as change catalyst are shown in Table 3.54.
203
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Teamcapabilities Building Bond
Graph 3.100 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in cooperation (across EQ)
Analysis of relative importance of factors that affect the probabilities

of demonstrating strong cooperation inquires whether choosing people
on the basis of a single factor could guarantee selection of people with
such skills. Hence, the predicted probabilities of exhibiting such skills
are considered by fixing the traits with positive impact at their above-
average level with all other traits set at below-average levels and remain-
ing factors fixed at their averages.
For EQ levels less than or equal to 6 (on a ten point scale) impact of
having above-average skills in trustworthiness, conscientiousness, team
capabilities and building bonds on the predicted probability of exhibit-
ing skills in cooperation is insignificant. For all the higher levels of EQ,
predicted probability of having competence in cooperation increases
with an improvement in such factors. For EQ levels up to 8, team capa-
bility and skills in building bond have relatively stronger effect on pre-
dicted probability of cooperation. For EQ values of 9 and 10, all such
factors become equally important for exhibiting above-average coopera-
tion (Graph 3.100).
Effect of competences in the selected EI dimensions on the pre-
dicted probability of showing higher cooperation is marginally higher
for respondents belonging to the lower age-groups. People in the lower-
middle income group and academics have relatively lower probabilities
while such differential impacts are almost negligible across gender, occu-
pation or education groups (Graph 3.101).
204
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
25k-50K
75K-1L
20-30
31-40
41-50
50K-75K
51-60
<25K
>60
Service
General
Technical
female
Academics
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Teamcapabilities Building Bond
Graph 3.101 Skills in cooperation and relevant EI dimensions (across age,

0.72 0.72 0.75 0.72 0.72 0.72 0.69 0.69 0.68 0.71 0.71 0.73
0.8 0.65 0.64 0.68 0.65 0.62
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
25k-50K
75K-1L
>60
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
Service
Technical
General
Academics
male
>1Lakh
Administration
female
Graph 3.102 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence in cooperation

Similar results are obtained for the predicted probability of demon-

strating skills in cooperation across age, income, gender, occupation and
education (Graph 3.102).
abilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value exceeds 6, probabilities
increase directly with EQ. The probability reaches the maximum value
in its range when EQ reaches its maximum value of ten. There is, hence,
205
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.103 Probability of demonstrating skills in cooperation across EQ

exhibiting competence on cooperation (Graph 3.103).
3.9.5.6 Conflict Management and Its Determinants
The Probit model that analyses the determinants of ability to manage

conflict takes into account skills in conflict management as the depend-
ent variable and EQ, the other Emotional Intelligence factors and
factors such as age, income, gender, occupation and education as inde-
pendent variables.
Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.3215. The probabilities of exhibiting abil-
ity to manage conflict are found to increase with an improvement in
EQ, conscientiousness, trustworthiness, self control, commitment and
skills in communication and influencing others. However, people who
are innovative and adaptable are relatively weak in managing conflict.
The marginal effects of these relevant EI competences on the probability
of demonstrating ability to manage conflict inquires whether choosing
people on the basis of a single factor could guarantee selection of people
with such skills. Hence, the predicted probabilities of exhibiting such
206
Table 3.55 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills in managing

conflict with improvement in chosen EI items
skill in terms of a given EI skill in terms of a given
indicator would have above- EI indicator would have
average skills in managing above-average skills in man-
conflict aging conflict
Influence 0.52 0.61
skills are considered by fixing the traits with positive impact at their
above-average level with all other traits set at below-average levels and
remaining factors fixed at their averages.
of having above-average skills in trustworthiness, conscientiousness,
self control, commitment, influence, communication and build-
ing bonds on the predicted probability of exhibiting skills in con-
flict management is insignificant. For all the higher levels of EQ,
predicted probability of having competence in conflict management
increases with an improvement in such factors. For EQ levels up to
9, skills in building bond, influence and self control have relatively
stronger effect on predicted probability of conflict management. For
the highest value of EQ, that is 10, all such factors become equally
important for exhibiting above-average skills in conflict management
(Graph 3.104).
Effect of competences in the selected EI dimensions is higher for
respondents belonging to the high age group. Such differential impacts
are almost negligible across other categories (Graph 3.105).
strating skills in managing conflict (Graph 3.106) with the only excep-
tion that such probabilities are marginally higher for the service holders
and for those with their degrees in general field.
207
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Conscientiousness Trustworthiness Self Control Commitment

Influence Communication Building Bond
Graph 3.104 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in conflict management

(across EQ)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
male
female
Academics
75K-1L
50K-75K
Administration
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>1Lakh
Service
>60
General
<25K
25k-50K
Technical
Conscientiousness Trustworthiness Self Control Commitment

Influence Communication Building Bond
Graph 3.105 Skills in conflict management and relevant EI dimensions (across


abilities are almost negligible. As the EQ value exceeds 5, probabilities
increase directly with EQ. It reaches the maximum value in its range
when EQ reaches its maximum value of ten. There is, hence, no satura-
tion point. Once the threshold is reached and surpassed, an increase in
EQ would always be associated with higher probabilities of exhibiting
competence on conflict management (Graph 3.107).
208
0.8
0.66
0.60 0.57 0.57 0.57 0.55 0.56 0.58 0.54 0.58 0.56 0.56 0.53 0.57 0.55
0.6 0.54
0.50
0.4
0.2
0.0
50K-75K
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>1Lakh
female
Academics
male
Administration
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
General
Service
25k-50K
Technical
Graph 3.106 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence in conflict

management (across age, gender, income, occupation, education)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.107 Probability of demonstrating skills in conflict management across EQ
3.9.5.7 Team Capability and Its Determinants
The relevant Probit model to comment on the determinants of team

capability considers such skills as the dependent variable with EQ, other
Emotional Intelligence factors and age, income, gender, occupation and
education as independent variables.
209
Table 3.56 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills in team capa-

bilities with improvement in chosen EI items
above-average skills in team above-average skills in
capabilities team capabilities

Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.316. The probabilities of exhibiting skills in
team capabilities increase with an improvement in EQ, trustworthiness,
adaptability, cooperation, skills in developing others and leadership. The
marginal effects of these relevant EI competences on the probability
of demonstrating strong team capability explores if choosing people
on the basis of a single factor could guarantee selection of people with
such skills. Hence, the predicted probabilities of exhibiting such skills
are considered by fixing the traits with positive impact at their above-
average level with all other traits set at below-average levels and remain-
ing factors fixed at their averages.
For EQ levels less than or equal to 6 (on a ten point scale) above-
average skills in cooperation and trustworthiness were the only factors
with impacts on predicted probability of exhibiting strong team capabil-
ity. Skills in adaptability, leadership and developing others come to dom-
inate at a later stage, particularly after the EQ index crosses the value of
8. While initially adaptability lags behind leadership and developing oth-
ers, it becomes as important as these two at a later stage (Graph 3.108).
210
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.108 Relevant EI competences affecting team capabilities (across EQ)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
25k-50K
75K-1L
Technical
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
>60
<25K
Service
General
female
male
Academics
>1Lakh
Administration
Trustworthiness Adaptability DevelopingOthers Leadership Cooperation
Graph 3.109 Skills in team capabilities and relevant EI dimensions (across age,

Effect of competences in the selected EI dimensions is lower for

respondents belonging to the high age group, low and high income
brackets. Such differential impacts are almost negligible across other cat-
egories (Graph 3.109).
Similar results are obtained for the predicted probability of demonstrat-
ing strong team capabilities (Graph 3.110) with the only exception that
such probabilities are marginally lower for the females and administrators.
abilities are insignificant. With the EQ value exceeding 6, probabilities
when EQ reaches the value of 9. There is, hence, a saturation point
beyond which an improvement in EQ would not be associated with
higher probability of showing strong team capability (Graph 3.111).
211
0.7 0.61 0.57

0.55
0.44
0.54 0.49 0.48 0.53 0.51 0.52 0.49 0.55 0.46 0.52 0.51
0.5 0.41 0.42
0.3
0.1
-0.1
25k-50K
75K-1L
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
Technical
>60
General
Service
female
Academics
male
>1Lakh
Administration
Graph 3.110 Predicted probability of exhibiting strong team capabilities (across

1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.111 Probability of demonstrating skills in team capabilities across EQ
3.9.5.8 Change Catalyst and Its Determinants
The relevant Probit model to consider the determinants of ability to act

as change catalyst considers such skills as the dependent variable with
EQ, other Emotional Intelligence factors and age, income, gender,
occupation and education as independent variables.
Pseudo R2 is estimated at 0.209. The probabilities of exhibiting skills to
act as change catalyst increase with an improvement in EQ, and in self
confidence, commitment, leadership and building bonds. The marginal
212
Table 3.57 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills to act as

change catalyst with improvement in chosen EI items
would have above-average would have above-average
skills to act as change catalyst skills to act as change catalyst
effects of these relevant EI competences on the probability of attain-

ing above-average competence in acting as change catalyst are shown in
Table 3.57.
Analysis of relative importance of factors that affect the probabili-
ties of demonstrating skills to act as change catalyst explores if choosing
people on the basis of a single factor could guarantee selection of people
with such skills. Hence, the predicted probabilities of exhibiting such
skills are considered by fixing the traits with positive impact at their
above-average level with all other traits set at below-average levels and
remaining factors fixed at their averages.
For EQ levels less than or equal to 4 (on a ten point scale) such fac-
tors were having almost no impact on the predicted probability of act-
ing as change catalyst. For higher levels of EQ, impact of commitment
has remained marginally lower than the three other factors. For EQ lev-
els 9 and 10, however, all the factors exert similar impact on the pre-
dicted probability of acting as a change catalyst (Graph 3.112).
Effect of competences in the selected EI dimensions on the pre-
dicted probability of showing efficiency in acting as change catalyst is
marginally higher for academicians and for the respondents belong-
ing to the high age group, and to the low and middle income brackets.
Such differential impacts are almost negligible across other categories
(Graph 3.113).
strating strong team capabilities (Graph 3.114) with the only exception
that such probabilities are marginally higher for the females.
213
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Selfconfidence Commitment Leadership Buildingbonds
Graph 3.112 Relevant EI competences affecting skills to act as change catalyst

(across EQ)
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
female
Academics
male
75K-1L
Administration
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
50K-75K
>1Lakh
Service
>60
General
<25K
25k-50K
Technical

Selfconfidence Commitment Leadership Buildingbonds
Graph 3.113 Skills in acting as change catalyst and relevant EI dimensions

(across age, gender, income, occupation and education)

abilities are insignificant. With the EQ value exceeding 5, probabilities
when EQ reaches the value of 9. There is, hence, a saturation point
beyond which an improvement in EQ would not be associated with
higher probability of acting as change catalyst (Graph 3.115).
214
0.81 0.82 0.86 0.81 0.81 0.77 0.79 0.77 0.81 0.76 0.77 0.84
0.80 0.74 0.79 0.72 0.73 0.67
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
25k-50K
75K-1L
Technical
50K-75K
20-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
<25K
>60
General
male
Service
>1Lakh
Academics
Administration
female
Graph 3.114 Predicted probability of acting as change catalyst (across age, gen-

der, income, occupation, education)
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 3.115 Probability of demonstrating skills in acting as change catalyst

across EQ
215
A summary of the results obtained thus far may be useful for further
courses of study.
Self Motivation (-) Self Regulation (-) EQ (+) Social Awareness (-)
Social Skill
Influence Communication
(+) (-) (+) Empathy

Political Awareness Trustworthiness Leadership, EQ Developing Others
Leadership Empathy (-) Building bonds
Conflict Management Leveraging diversity Conscientiousness
EQ Team capabilities
Lower age, Technical degree holders,

Middle age, general degree, & service holders Females, academician
Leadership Change Catalyst
(+) EQ
(+)
Accurate Self assessment Self confidence
Self confidence, Commitment,
Communication (-)
Leadership, Building bonds, EQ
Team capabilities Commitment
High age, low-middle income, Females,

Higher-middle age, high income, Females,
academics
administrator
Team capabilities Building Bonds
(+) Cooperation
(+) EQ Trustworthiness EQ
Trustworthiness (-) Commitment (-)
Adaptability Influence Influence Communication
Developing Others Change catalyst Conflict Management Adaptability
Leadership Initiative
Cooperation Optimism
Low to higher-middle age, middle & high
income
Higher-middle age, lower-middle income,
males, Service & academics
Cooperation Conflict Management
(+) (-) (+) Influence

Conscientiousness Initiative Conscientiousness Communication
Trustworthiness Service orientation Trustworthiness EQ
Building bonds Communication Self control (-)
Team capabilities Leadership Commitment Adaptability
EQ
Building bonds Innovativeness
Lower age, income except for lower-middle, High age, service & general degree holders
service holders & administrators
216
The analysis thus far has revealed significant interconnection among

different Emotional Intelligence indicators. While the broad EI dimen-
sions are significantly interconnected among them, similar relationships
might be traced for their constituent EI indicators. Such an analy-
sis, however, is the starting point of a study that seeks to deviate from
the traditional approach of focussing on the intellectual, logical, ana-
lytical, and rational abilities of individuals to explain and predict their
performances and accomplishment. This study, with its focus on non-
cognitive skills and interconnected non-cognitive traits, attempts to
explore how individuals with some desirable non-cognitive skills could
excel and might help an organization, to which they belong, to attain
certain desired goals. Specifically, organizations would be interested to
find out whether individuals with some selective intrinsic non-cognitive
skills, or competences in some psycho-social factors might have higher
predicted probability of emerging as successful leader with better ser-
vice orientation, empathy and skills of managing conflicts or any other
outcomes that would be desired by any organization striving for effi-
ciency. Further, a related matter of concern for the organization might
be to explore whether people coming from any particular gender, age,
income, occupation or education category could come out the desirable
non-cognitive traits. Such explorations would have significant bearing
on organizations to design suitable hiring strategies and to devise staff-
development programmes. This is precisely where the study moves next.
Notes
1. Emotional Intelligence: 10th Anniversary Edition.
2. The EI competences are already defined in the previous chapter.
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4
Benefit to an Organization: Intrinsic Skills
and (Or?) Psycho-social Factors
“Too often we underestimate the power of a touch, a smile, a kind word, a listening
ear, an honest compliment, or the smallest act of caring, all of which have the
potential to turn a life around ”
—Leo Buscaglia
Abstract  The present chapter delves deep to identify whether emotional

intelligence competences of employees in certain areas across age, gender,
income, education and occupation structure indeed translate into superior
on-the-job performances in a country like India. An affirmative answer
would emphasize the need for an organization to look for such skills in
potential employees and the inevitability to nurture such skill in existing
employees. The chapter proceeds further to explore whether hiring peo-
ple on the basis of such non-cognitive skills would help an organization
avoid the problem of moral hazards where hidden actions on part of the
employees, who are otherwise skilled, might adversely affect the organiza-
tion’s valuation of the transactions in which they would be involved.
Keywords  Intrinsic skill · Psycho social factors · Professional ethics

Commitment · Moral hazard · SUR Probit
222
4.1 Introduction
Contemporary literature identifies competence in emotional intelli-
gence as a considerable factor that adds value to the performance and
distinguishes the star performers from the average players in any field.
Ever since the introduction of the distinction between cognitive and
non-cognitive skills, researchers have emphasized the latter with poten-
tial to be translated into workplace success, thereby reinterpreting the
theory of emotional intelligence as a theory of performance. Goleman
(1998b) described emotional competence as “a learned capability based
on emotional intelligence that results in outstanding performance at
work”. For example, as is mentioned by Goleman, individuals who
tend to show better abilities in leadership, service orientation, conflict
management or team building must have at least some skills in EI fun-
damentals, such as social awareness or self-control. Goleman (1998b)
found skills in self-awareness to be crucial for explaining the job perfor-
mance of a financial planner. Accurate self-assessment skills were found
to characterize managers in different organizations (Boyatzis 1982)
and the superior performers in knowledge based fields (Kelley 1998).
Studies by Boyatzis (1982), Saks (1995) and Holahan and Sears (1995)
found self-confidence to have critical influence on job-performances.
Rahim and Psenicka (1996), Boyatzis and Burrus (1995), Spencer and
Spencer (1993), Boyatzis (1982) and Lusch and Serkenci (1990) iden-
tified skills in emotional self-control as significant explicatory factor
behind spectacular on-the-job performances. Skills in social awareness
have been identified as competence crucial to developing behind-the-
screen or informal network so as to ensure customers’ satisfaction, to
be able to coordinate diversify workforce and to enhance effective
interaction with colleagues and clients (Friedman and DiMatteo 1982;
Spencer and Spencer 1993; Pilling and Eroglu 1994; Steele 1997;
McBane 1995; Boyatzis 1982). Proficiencies in terms of social skills do
have significant bearing on effective leadership and persuasion (rather
than manipulation), influencing fellow-members, effective communica-
tion, development of network, initiating changes and on development
of teamwork and collaboration (Spencer and Spencer 1993; Goleman
4 Benefit to an Organization …
223
2000; Ganesan 1993; Bachman 1988; George and Bettenhausen

1990). While EI skills can affect an individual’s success in an organi-
zation, it might affect the overall success of the organization itself
(Goleman 2000). For example, as pointed out by Williams (1994) and
McClelland (1998), a leader who is competent in terms of emotional
intelligence, can promote a working environment vibrant with positive
thoughts and actions to motivate his co-workers to perform better; and
this leads to a trickledown effect that improves company performances
in the longer run. This trend is visible in many industries including
insurance companies, food and beverage division, financial institutions,
health care providers, or, even in the high schools (Lees and Barnard
1999), across the world.
With this backdrop in mind, the present chapter now delves deeper
to identify whether emotional intelligence competences of employees in
certain areas indeed translate into superior on-the-job performances in
a country like India. An affirmative answer would emphasize the need
for an organization to look for such skills in potential employees and
the inevitability to nurture such skill in existing employees. The study
proceeds further to explore whether hiring people on the basis of such
non-cognitive skills would help an organization avoid the problem of
moral hazards where hidden-actions on part of the employees, who are
otherwise skilled, might adversely affect the organization’s valuation of
the transactions in which they would be involved.
4.2 The Interacting EI Competences

The earlier chapter was devoted to an understanding of individual
Emotional Intelligence traits and an exploration of their determinants.
Such an analysis has got theoretical as well as practical significance
because, while each competence may have its unique impact on employee
performance, competences may be demonstrated in synergistic groups
or clusters characterized by presence of significant interdependences and
mutual support among them. Often, having some Emotional Intelligence
competence as pre-requisite or “mastery of a critical mass of competen-
cies” is necessary for superior performance (Boyatzis et al. 2000).
224
Observations from the earlier chapter reveal significant interconnec-

tion not only among the different broad Emotional Intelligence dimen-
sions, but also among the constituent Emotional Intelligence items
under those. People coming from different age, income, gender, occu-
pation and education groups have been found to possess non-cognitive
traits that are specific to the socio-economic or demographic categories
to which they belong. A study of the benefits that an organization could
extract from such interconnections might start from a recapitulation of
findings from earlier exploration.
Skills in terms of some of the Emotional Intelligence items are found
to be associated among them in ways that are unidirectional or bidirec-
tional. Presence of such unidirectional or bidirectional associations are
indeed significant for designing hiring strategies or staff development
policies because they form effective loops such that hiring people on the
basis of one particular non-cognitive trait might ensure selection of peo-
ple with many other desirable traits. Similarly, schemes to develop one
particular trait among employees are likely to foster other skills that an
organization looks for in the performances of those they have already
hired. This might reduce, to some extent, the complexity in the process
of designing effective hiring or staff development strategies. Likewise,
it might be of interest for the organizations to explore whether people
coming from a particular service, age group, income bracket, educa-
tion level, or gender are relatively more prone to exhibit competences in
terms of some desirable Emotional Intelligence indicators. Such explo-
ration would be helpful to set target groups who may be approached for
hiring or for proper counselling, if already hired.
Therefore, analysing the nature of benefit that may possibly be
accrued to an organization from the interconnection of Emotional
Intelligence indicators requires rearranging of results obtained earlier,
from an organization’s point of view. Graphs 4.1 and 4.2 depict, respec-
tively, the bidirectional and unidirectional paths among different indi-
cators that may be taken into consideration by an organization while
designing hiring and staff development strategies. For example, leader-
ship and team building capabilities are related by both-way associations.
Therefore, people with skills to emerge as leaders are likely to show
higher skills in team building, and vice versa (Graph 4.1). However,
225
Accurate Self assessment

Optimism Initiative
Empathy
Communication
Service Orientation
Change catalyst
Developing Others
Leadership
Team capabilities
Cooperation
Commitment Achievement drive Innovativeness
Self confidence
Building Bonds
Self control Conflict management
Influence
Trustworthiness Conscientiousness
Political Awareness
Leveraging Diversity
Graph 4.1 Bidirectional relationship among skills in terms of EI indicators
choosing people with strong leadership quality would eventually ensure

choice of people with some other desirable traits. For example, strong
leadership skills would ensure skills in influencing others which, in turn,
through ability to build bonds would result in higher ability to act as
change catalyst with adaptability and team capability, thus making the
circle complete in an indirect way (Graph 4.2). Similarly, while skills in
226
Self Control
Leadership
Influence
Team Capability Innovativeness
Building bonds Change catalyst Adaptability Achievement Drive
Emotional Awareness Accurate self

Commitment assessment
Conflict management Innovativeness Developing Others
Conscientiousness Self Confidence

Service Orientation
Trustworthiness
Initiative Emotional Awareness
Cooperation
Optimism
Empathy
Communication
Graph 4.2 Unidirectional relationship among skills in terms of EI indicators
leadership and commitment are associated with a bi-way relationship

(Graph 4.2), commitment ensures accurate self assessment, which in
turn ensures emotional awareness and self control (Graph 4.1). Hence,
choosing a competent leader would indirectly impart other desir-
able factors in a system. There are, thus many different paths that an
organization might follow to ensure desirable traits in their existing and
potential employees.
Looking for right people or to nurture them as right people on the
basis of EI skills may often be facilitated if an organization knows
beforehand whether people coming from a particular service, age group,
income bracket, education level, or gender are relatively more prone
227
Leveraging Diversity Service Orientation

Political Awareness
Communication Influence Conflict Management
Technical General
Accurate
Self Initiative Achievement Drive
Assessment
Trustworthiness Innovativeness Adaptability Self Control Conscientiousness
Graph 4.3 Differences in skills in terms of EI indicators (across Education

Category)
to exhibit competences in terms of some desirable Emotional

Intelligence indicators. Graph 4.3 depicts the Emotional Intelligence
indicators in which people from a particular education stream is more
skilled compared to their counterparts in other streams. For example, so
far as the competence in terms of the broad EI dimension of Social Skill
is concerned, people with their degrees in general field are more skilled
in influencing other and managing conflict; whereas those with their
degrees in technical field are better skilled in communicating with oth-
ers. While technical degree holders possess better skills in Self Regulation,
general degree holders have better Self Motivation. There are, indeed,
cases where general and technical degree holders cannot be differentiated
in terms of Emotional Intelligence indicators. While designing policies,
however, organizations must keep in mind that efficiency of one group
of people does not necessarily imply inefficiency of the other groups. For
example, technical degree holders are better skilled in communicating
(Graph 4.3) and through interconnections (Graphs 4.1, 4.2) they may
have skills in service orientation. But the fact remains that they would
always remain relatively less efficient than the general degree holders.
228
Political Awareness Service Orientation Developing Others Social

Awareness
Cooperation Team Capability Social Skill
Communication Change Catalyst Influence Building Bond Leadership
Low Lower-middle Middle Higher-middle High

Income Income Income Income Income
Initiative
Self Confidence Self Accurate

Awareness Self Achievement
Assessment Drive
Commitment
Trustworthiness Innovativeness Adaptability Self Control Conscientiousness
Self Regulation Self

Motivation
Graph 4.4 Differences in skills in terms of EI indicators (across income brackets)
Graph 4.4 shows whether people from a particular income group are

better skilled in terms of different EI indicators compared to their coun-
terparts in other income groups. This would be important for an organ-
ization that seeks to employ people who are already in service or aim to
develop suitable staff development strategies. The high income earners,
for example, are better skilled in terms of social skills such as leader-
ship, communication and building bonds. They are more conscientious
and have higher initiative and achievement drive and better self assess-
ment. An organization interested in these skills might select people who
are already employed in this category anywhere else or it could design
suitable strategies to provide incentives to this group. In a similar way,
organizations that look for some specifically desirable attributes in their
existing or potential employees might approach those selective people,
instead of approaching the entire group, and this would be saving costs
of designing hiring and staff development strategies.
Graph 4.5 shows similarly how do people coming from different age
groups excel in terms of different Emotional Intelligence indicators.
229
PoliticalAwareness
Developing Others
Leveraging Diversity Social
Service Orientation
Awareness
Cooperation Leadership Team Capability Conflict Management Social Skill
Communication Building Bond Influence Change Catalyst
Low age Lower-middle Middle Higher-middle High age

group age group age group age group group
Initiative
Achievement Drive
Commitment
Accurate Self Assessment Self Confidence Emotional Awareness
Self
Motivation
Innovativeness Trustworthiness Conscientiousness
Self
Adaptability Self Control Awareness
Self Regulation
Graph 4.5 Differences in skills in terms of EI indicators (across age groups)
Just to take an example, people in the low age group are better skilled
in communicating and cooperating with others. They have accurate
self assessment and are more innovative with self control. People from
high age group, however, are strongly committed with better skills in
managing conflict and acting as change catalyst. They are competent in
terms of self control, self confidence and emotional awareness. The mid-
dle age group is self-confident and trustworthy with their capabilities in
team building, developing and influencing others. Leveraging diversity
and political awareness are unique to this group. The lower-middle age
group is competent in social skills such as communication, cooperation,
leadership and building bonds. While they are more trustworthy and
230
Empathy Developing Others Service Orientation
Leveraging Diversity
Political Awareness
Communication Team Capability Conflict Management
Building Change
Influence Cooperation
Bond Catalyst Leadership
Academics Administration Service

Achievement
Drive
Initiative
Accurate Self Assessment Self Confidence Emotional Awareness

Commitment
Conscientiousness Self Control Adaptability
Innovativeness Trustworthiness
Graph 4.6 Differences in skills in terms of EI indicators (across occupation types)
adaptable, they possess skills in self-assessment and self confidence. The

self confident and conscientious high-middle age group has better ser-
vice orientation and influence. Such an analysis might be helpful in case
an organization is interested in a particular trait and looks for it in an
age group. There are, however, traits that are not specific to any particu-
lar age group.
Graphs 4.6 and 4.7 identify people coming from different types of
service and the two gender categories who demonstrate above-average
skills in terms of different Emotional Intelligence indicators.
People in academia are better skilled in communicating, building
bonds and acting as change catalyst. They are strongly self-motivated,
politically aware, and more conscientious with better skills of self
assessment compared to their counterpart. The more self-confident,
231
Social
Political Awareness
Awareness
Change Catalyst Team Capability

Communication
Influence Leadership Cooperation Social Skill
Female Male
Self
Self Con
fidence Emotional Awareness
Awareness
Innovativeness
Adaptability Self Control
Self
Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Regulation
Graph 4.7 Differences in skills in terms of EI indicators (across gender)
service-oriented and empathetic administrators possess strong leader-

ship quality with proficiencies in developing others. The service holders
are also self-motivated and strongly self-regulated with skills in emo-
tional awareness, team capability, conflict management, influence, ser-
vice orientation and leveraging diversity. There are, however, Emotional
Intelligence traits that do not differentiate among service groups.
Graph 4.7 depicts the differences in Emotional Intelligence traits
across gender categories. Politically aware female respondents are bet-
ter skilled in terms of leadership, communication, influence and have
better skills to act as change catalysts. They have self-confidence with
stronger self-regulation. Males, on the other hand, are more skilled
in terms of Emotional Intelligence indicators such as cooperation,
team capability, emotional awareness and innovativeness. No other
Emotional Intelligence trait, however distinguishes between males
and females.
232
Such an analysis may be helpful for organizations who are interested

in some desirable individual Emotional Intelligence traits. It is a fact
that each of such Emotional Intelligence traits contributes in its own
way to workplace effectiveness or to the organizational efficiency, but
often it turns out to be more effective to consider the traits in clusters,
where we can assess the synergies of strengths in several competencies
that enable organizations to attain their goals. In particular, organiza-
tional goals may themselves be described as a combination of different
interdependent Emotional Intelligence traits.
4.3 The Intrinsic Skills, Psycho-social Factors

and Outcome Parameters
The study now considers different organizational goals as combina-
tion of different Emotional Intelligence traits and seeks to explore how
the organizations might attain those objectives by hiring of suitable
personnel or through proper counselling of the existing employees.
Anyone can easily appreciate the fact that any organization would treas-
ure employees, who would ultimately come out as effective leaders
who would be empathetic enough to ensure cohesion and cooperation
among team-members with abilities to improve upon performances,
to manage crisis and to shape future in the desirable way. Accordingly,
the study defines some indexes of employee performances which an
organization aspiring for success might be interested in.
4.3.1 The Outcome Indexes
The first index in this category is the index of Improved Performance.

The employees’ ability to improve performances is expected to depend
on the following Emotional Intelligence traits:
(i)
Initiative: People with initiative are proactive rather than reactive.
They act before they are compelled by the changing environ-
ment to do so. They possess the farsightedness to act on potential
233
opportunities much before others can do. Industries such as real

estate which depend on sales and industries such as business and
consulting, where development of personal relationship with cus-
tomers is essential, require skills in initiative in personnel before
they could emerge as star performers (Crant 1995; Rosier 1996).
(ii) Achievement Drive: McClelland (1961) identified Achievement
Drive as the skill that drives the success of an entrepreneur. This is
particularly so, because, as referred by Goleman (1998a), achieve-
ment drive is continuous and optimistic endeavour to improve
performance. As is evident from the literature, this trait differenti-
ates between the superior and the average executives in the busi-
ness field (Spencer and Spencer 1993; Schulman 1995). People
with achievement drive are proactive, persistent and prone to take
more calculated risks. As leaders, they support enterprising innova-
tions and set challenging goals for their employees.
(iii) Change Catalyst: Ability of personnel to act as change catalyst helps
an organization enhance performances. Individuals skilled to act
as change catalyst would recognize the need for initiating changes
by challenging the existing tradition and norms; to remove obsta-
cles and to set up new organizational goals to meet the demands of
the changing situations. An individual skilled at catalyzing change
improves the performance of the organization not only through
his own action but also by encouraging fellow members to be flex-
ible enough to adopt changes (House et al. 1995).
(iv) Service Orientation: Service Orientation is the efficiency to com-
prehend even the undeclared requirements and apprehensions of
the customer group and mould the services accordingly. It usually
builds upon the other social awareness skills. Skills to be sensitive
and compassionate are often identified as the factor explaining star-
performance, particularly among physicians, managers of product
development teams, retailers, sales persons and personnel in other
industries (Friedman and DiMatteo 1982; Spencer and Spencer
1993; Pilling and Eroglu 1994). With a competence in service ori-
entation, people are found to flourish in the arena of sales (Spencer
and Spencer 1993; McBane 1995). Competence in organizational
awareness explains the above-average performance in almost every
234
field. As pointed out by Boyatzis (1982) people skilled in organiza-

tional awareness can comprehend situations objectively and in an
unbiased manner that helps them respond to situations effectively.
This justifies the inclusion of these four indicators in the index of

Improved Performance for an organization. The individual scores on
these four indicators have been used to construct the equally weighted
index of Improved Performance. Computations are then made so that the
index takes the value one when the value taken by a particular obser-
vation is greater than the average of all values that this index assumes.
And, it is zero otherwise.
The second index is the index of Situation Management, which is
based on the employees’ ability to manage crisis and resolve emerging
issues in the workplace. Such ability is expected to depend on the fol-
lowing Emotional Intelligence traits:
(i) Adaptability: As is evident from the literature, the effective and

star performers in the managerial ranks tend to be more adapta-
ble (Spencer and Spencer 1993). Adaptable people stand ready to
accept new ideas, can easily do away with conventions and, hence,
can easily and readily mould themselves to fit into changing situa-
tions. Such flexibility in the thought process allows them to think
“out of the box,” to demonstrate creativity and to apply new ideas
to achieve results in a demanding situation.
(ii)
Conflict Management: Individuals skilled in conflict management
are apt to spot a brewing trouble that might ripe into a conflict
and can take immediate actions to settle matters and pacify the
aggrieved parties involved in it. They can handle difficult people
and situations with diplomacy so as to ensure a win–win situation
for the organization to which they belong. Competences in con-
flict management and effective negotiation are essential to develop
long run, symbiotic business relationships, particularly in indus-
tries like manufacturing and retailing (Ganesan 1993).
This justifies the inclusion of the competences in terms of the indica-

tors of Adaptability and Conflict Management in the index of Situation
235
Management. The scores are used to construct the equally-weighted

index of Situation Management. The index takes up the value one, when
the concerned observation takes up a value which is greater than the
average of all the values assumed by the index. It is zero otherwise.
The third index is constructed as the index of Teamwork that depends
on the ability of the people to build up a team and to nurture cohe-
sion among the team members to ensure effective collective effort. This
is based on the following Emotional Intelligence traits:
(i) Empathy: Individuals who are empathetic can recognize, appreci-

ate and respect others’ emotions, concerns, and needs. They are
usually skilled to comprehend emotional currents and to catch on
nonverbal cues such as timber of voice or even facial expression.
Such sensitivity allows individuals to perform better when deal-
ing with customers or interaction with fellow-members, as part of
job-description, is essential. For instance, physicians who are better
at recognizing emotions in patients are more successful than their
less sensitive colleagues at treating them (Friedman and DiMatteo
1982). The ability to read others’ needs well comes naturally to
the best managers of product development teams (Spencer and
Spencer 1993). And skill in Empathy correlates with effective sales,
as was found in a study among large and small retailers (Pilling and
Eroglu 1994). In an increasingly diverse workforce, the Empathy
competence allows us to read people accurately and avoid resorting
to the stereotyping that can lead to performance deficits by creat-
ing anxiety in the stereotyped individuals (Steele 1997).
(ii) Developing Others: Developing others is all about recognizing devel-
opmental needs of fellow members and bolstering their abilities.
Such skills characterize the most successful coaches and mentors, and
start performers in fields where interaction with fellow members is
vital. It differentiates superior managers from the averages (Spencer
and Spencer 1993) and has emerged as a vital skill for front-line jobs
and effective leadership at high levels (Goleman 2000).
(iii)
Building Bonds: Efficiency in building bond requires the ability to
develop large network of acquaintances, professional relationships
and friends at work places in an ultimate aim to establish mutually
236
beneficial relationship that would help the organization flourish.

Such skill characterizes star performers in fields like engineering,
computer science, biotechnology, and other knowledge work fields
where networking is crucial for success (Kelley 1998). This skill
differentiates between highly effective managers who can establish
and develop trust and goodwill among team members from the less
effective managers who fail to build such bonds (Kaplan 1991).
(iv)
Cooperation: Skills in cooperation requires viewing the team as
something that needs nurturing. An individual proficient in facilitat-
ing cooperation tends to take collaboration as essential for effective
decision making. Hence, they focus on building relationships along
with the tasks, share information to foster a collaborating work envi-
ronment, build a team-identity to foster collective pride and take up
opportunities to develop the capacity of the team with an ultimate aim
to improve productivity. Studies by Sweeney (1999), Totterdell et al.
(1998), George and Bettenhausen (1990) and Barsade and Gibson
(1998) identified skills in cooperation as vital for developing teamwork.
(v) Team Capabilities: Team capabilities or the ability to work in
teams ensures cooperation, cohesion and a sense of mutual respect
among the fellow members.
Thus, the choice of such skills to constitute the index of Teamwork may
be justified on natural ground and is backed by evidences in literature.
Hence, the scores attained under each category are used to construct the
equally-weighted index of Teamwork. Further, the index takes up the
value one, when the concerned observation takes up a value which is
greater than the average of all the values assumed by the index. It is zero
otherwise.
The fourth index is the index of Leadership. Leadership is often
portrayed as a skill where individuals draw on their personal skills

to motivate others to work in cohesion to achieve a common goal.
Influence and leadership are strongly related because natural leaders
can boost up zeal among team members for attaining a shared vision
and mission. They often take the pioneering role, inspiring others
while holding them responsible at any stage of interaction. The positive
role played by a leader ensures cooperation and cohesion in the group
237
(George and Bettenhausen 1990) and the emotional tone set by a

leader tends to ripple outward with remarkable power (Bachman 1988).
Effective leadership creates an environment that nurtures enthusiasm
among the employees to bring the best out of them and ultimately results
in superior performances of the organization to which they are a part
(Williams 1994; McClelland 1998).
The Leadership index is constructed using the scores attained under
the indicator “leadership”. The index takes up the value 1, if the
responses are ‘agree’ or ‘strongly agree’ and zero otherwise.
The fifth index is described as the index for shaping the future. An
organization, along with present performance would be interested in
hiring employees who would have the vision to ensure superior perfor-
mances in future, to identify newer avenues of growth, to build up new
customer base and to develop an environment where the entire system
would function better by nurturing success of all those who are part of
it. The study considers the following Emotional Intelligence indicators
under the index:
(i) Innovativeness: An innovative person would like to explore off-beat

avenues and would like to raise out-of-the-box issues. Such skills
are essential to accept calculated risks that would be transmitted
into higher productivity and better service orientation in good time
(Spencer and Spencer 1993; Amabile 1988; McClelland 1961).
(ii) Optimism: Optimism is essential ingredient of achievement and
shaping future as it determines one’s reaction to unfavorable events
or circumstances. An individual with optimism would be proactive
and persistent and would have an optimistic attitude toward set-
backs, and operate from hope of success. Studies have shown that
optimism can contribute significantly to sales gains, among other
accomplishments (Schulman 1995).
(iii)
Political Awareness: An individual with political awareness would
be skilled to read the mission, values, goals, cultures, emotions and
political realities in groups. Such skills are important to develop
effective networking and coalition that allows individuals to read
situations objectively, to wield influence and to respond effectively
to changing needs (Boyatzis 1982).
238
Thus, the choice of competence in Emotional Intelligence indicators

like Innovativeness, Optimism and Political Awareness qualify to be
included to constitute the index of Shaping the Future. The choices may
be justified on natural ground and are backed by evidences in literature.
Hence, the scores attained under each category are used to construct the
equally-weighted index of Shaping the Future. Further, the index takes
up the value one, when the concerned observation takes up a value
which is greater than the average of all the values assumed by the index.
It is zero otherwise.
4.3.2 Index of Intrinsic Skills
Along with these five indexes that may be treated as the outcome vari-
ables for an organization, the study now introduces an index of intrin-
sic skills that constitutes of Emotional Intelligence indicators such as
Trustworthiness, Conscientiousness, Commitment, Self Control and
Self Confidence. While such traits are easily appreciated and anyone
would be happy to work with persons with proficiencies in these areas,
literature finds people with such skills to emerge as start performers in
their respective fields. This is simply because a committed person would
readily make personal or group sacrifices to meet a larger organiza-
tional goal and would seek out opportunities to fulfil the group’s mis-
sion. A person with conscientiousness would always remain alert; stay
committed to the process of emotional self-regulation and would hold
none but himself responsible for his emotions, actions and reactions.
Trustworthiness implies maintaining parity between commitment and
action; and being honest about one’s weaknesses. In a way, it is related
to integrity where actions are in line with one’s values. Individuals skilled
in self control would be least perturbed by distress and disruptive feel-
ings, would remain poised in stressful situations and be composed while
dealing with difficult or hostile person without retaliating. People with
self confidence would be skilled to recognize their goals and capabilities.
They are likely to have strong presence and self assurance with capabili-
ties of accurate self assessment. They can fight for what they believe and
can pursue even unpopular tracks if they believe it to be right.
239
The literature finds trustworthiness to translate into ability to become

star performer in the respective field (Goleman 1998b). Salovey et al.
(1995), Kee and Knox (1970) and Ross and LaCroix (1996) found
trustworthiness as important predictor of risk taking and related out-
comes. Others view trustworthiness as a proximal antecedent of a
variety of job performance behaviors, including task performance, citi-
zenship behavior, and counterproductive behavior (Dirks and Ferrin
2002; Jones and George 1998; Williams 2001). In studies of job per-
formance, direct relationship is found between conscientiousness and
performance across different criteria and occupational groups (Barrick
and Mount 1991; Salgado 1997; Ones and Viswesvaran 1996). Dudley
et al. (2006), Behling (1998) and Mount and Barrick (1998) found
conscientiousness as the dominant predictor of job performance.
Among sales representatives for a large U.S. appliance manufacturer,
those who were most conscientious had the largest volume of sales
(Barrick et al. 1993). Studies on employee commitment and attitudes
to work, job performance or satisfaction reveal mixed results. Gaertner
(1999) observed negative correlation between commitment and job
satisfaction. McClurg (1999) however, found commitment and atti-
tude as related to employee behaviour and efficiency. Bratton and Gold
(2007), Mowday et al. (1979), Meyer and Allen (1991) and Freund and
Carmeli (2003) considered commitment as a multidimensional con-
cept to gauge its impact on performance. Bayazit and Mannix (2003)
established positive relationship between organizational commitment
and quality of service while Lowry et al. (2002), Schwepker (2001) and
Aksu and Aktas (2005) found positive work ethics to affect commit-
ment. Feinstein and Vondrasek (2001) and Jernigan et al. (2002) found
direct relationship between job satisfaction and commitment. Clarke
and Chen (2007) and Lashley and Lee-Ross (2003) found employee
commitment as beneficial for both employers and employees. The avail-
able literature thus focuses on how personality traits affect job perfor-
mance and related outcomes. However, very few have considered more
than one intrinsic skills and psycho-social factors simultaneously. This
is particularly the point where the present study differs from others.
Among small business owners and employees, individuals with self con-
trol are found to become less depressed or perturbed while faced with
240
job stress and they are less likely to quit their jobs (Rahim and Psenicka
1996). Among counsellors and psychotherapists, superior performers
tend to respond calmly to angry attacks by a patient, as do outstand-
ing flight attendants dealing with disgruntled passengers (Boyatzis and
Burrus 1995; Spencer and Spencer 1993). Similarly, highly perform-
ing managers and executives possess the skill to balance their drive and
ambition and can control their personal needs so as to fulfil the mis-
sion and the goals of the organizations to which they belong (Boyatzis
1982). The store managers who can handle their occupational stress
effectively are likely to enjoy more profit in the form of, for example,
sales per square foot, in a national retail chain (Lusch and Serpkenci
1990). The positive impact of having competence in self confidence has
been revealed in a number of studies. Among supervisors, managers,
and executives, skills in self confidence distinguishes the best from the
average performers (Boyatzis 1982). Among 112 entry-level account-
ants, those with the highest sense of self efficacy, a form of self confi-
dence, were found to be display superior performance while rated by
their supervisors ten months later their appointment. The level of
Self-Confidence was in fact a stronger predictor of performance than
the level of skill or previous training (Saks 1995). Holahan and Sears
(1995) considered a sixty-year study involving more than one thousand
high-IQ men and women who were tracked from their early childhood
to retirement. The people with self confidence in their salad days were
found to be most successful in their careers.
The literature thus suggests that people with such intrinsic skills
have a higher probability to emerge as star performers in their respec-
tive fields. This might make the organizations interested to look for such
skills in their potential employees and to harness such skills, through
proper staff development strategies, among their existing employ-
ees. This is particularly the area where the present study intervenes in
its attempt to explore whether individuals coming from different eco-
nomic, social and demographic strata but with competence in these
intrinsic skills help the organization, to which they belong, to attain cer-
tain specific goals that have been mentioned earlier.
The study at this point of juncture, however, admits the difficulties in
assessing proficiencies in intrinsic skills that might hinder designing of
241
efficient and workable hiring strategy. Thus, to make things w orkable,

some ‘observable’ psycho-social skills may be explored which could
proxy for such imponderable innate-skills. Accordingly, the study
assesses the role of soft skills (particularly, skills in communication
and influencing others) on the probability of attaining above-average
efficiency in the outcome parameters.
4.3.3 Index of Psycho-social Skills
The index of Psycho-social Skill is constituted of skills in Communication

and Influence others.
(i) Influence: Such skill is described as the ability to have an impact on

others feelings and their decision making. The people with com-
petence in such aspects comprehend others’ emotions and tweak
their own to arrive at a perfect blend that enhances productivity.
Effective influencing includes persuasion and star-performers often
use their skill to persuade to move interactions in the desired direc-
tion. However, such attempts must be honest and non-manipula-
tive so that self interest does not take over collective goals.
(ii)
Communication: Such skill is described as competence that
involves exchanging emotional information effectively, candid
dealing of complicated issues, complete sharing of information,
encouraging open and frank discussion and remaining equally
receptive to good and bad news.
Empirical studies in the field have found such competencies to indeed

affect the productivity and distinguish among better and poor perform-
ers in any chosen field. Competence in Influence is a significant factor
that distinguishes star performers from the average ones (Spencer and
Spencer 1993). Studies involving managers and executives reveal that
the more efficient people are to demonstrate the communicative skills,
the more they are preferred to be dealt with (Goleman 1998a).
The scores attained under indicators of communication and influ-
ence, are used to construct the equally-weighted index of Psycho-social
242
skills. Further, the index takes up the value one, when the concerned
observation takes up a value which is greater than the average of all the
values assumed by the index. It is zero otherwise.
With this backdrop in mind, the study now attempts to answer the
following set of questions:
1. Do proficiencies in Intrinsic Skills such as commitment, trustwor-

thiness, conscientiousness, self control and self confidence (or,
the intrinsic skills index) translate into above-average proficien-
cies in terms of the outcome indexes such as index of Improved
Performance, Situation Management, Leadership, Teamwork and
Shaping the Future? Any affirmative answer would emphasize the
need to look for such intrinsic skills in potential employees and to
develop such skills in those who are currently employed.
2. If hiring people with competence in the chosen intrinsic skills is
indeed desirable, where to look for them? Are such proficiencies
specific to gender, age, income, occupation or education structures?
This would have significant bearing on the hiring strategies and for
designing suitable employee development activities.
3. While it is difficult to work with the unobservable intrinsic skills, is
it possible to find out some ‘observable’, particularly psycho-social
factors that could proxy for such imponderable intrinsic skills?
Accordingly, the study assesses the role of psycho-social factors, par-
ticularly skills in communication and influencing others, on the
probability of attaining above-average efficiency in the outcome
parameters. Specifically, it examines whether, possessing above-aver-
age proficiency in soft skills would suffice to guarantee above-average
skills in outcome parameters even at a lower level of intrinsic skills;
or whether above-average proficiencies in those soft skills are closely
related to above-average proficiencies in intrinsic skills that ultimately
lead to above-average skills in leadership, service-orientation, empa-
thy, and conflict management. If so, hiring strategy might boil down
to developing a suitable framework to hire people with soft skills.
The study has conducted a reliability analysis to check the internal con-
sistency of responses using the Cronbach’s alpha. As mentioned earlier,
243
the Cronbach’s alpha is used as a (lower-bound) estimate of the relia-

bility of a psychometric test. Alpha can be viewed as the expected cor-
relation of two tests that measure the same construct. If we measure a
quantity X = Y1 + Y2 + …… + YK then alpha is defined as
Kc
α=
v + (k − 1)c
where v is the average variance of each component (item), and c is the

average of all covariances between the components across the current
sample of persons. Cronbach’s alpha will increase as the inter-correla-
tions among test items increase, and is thus known as an internal con-
sistency estimate of reliability of test scores. Any value of alpha lying
between 0.7 and 0.8 is acceptable. Table 4.1 shows the Cronbach’s alpha
obtained for each of the indexes.
Table 4.1 Reliability analysis for the constructed indexes

Outcome indexes Constituents Cronbach’s alpha
Improved performance Achievement drive 0.79
Initiative
Change catalyst
Service orientation
Situation management Adaptability 0.72
Conflict management
Teamwork Empathy 0.82
Developing others
Building bonds
Cooperation
Team capabilities
Shaping the future Innovativeness 0.75
Optimism
Political awareness
Intrinsic skill index Trustworthiness 0.84
Conscientiousness
Commitment
Self control
Self confidence
Psycho social skill index Communication 0.75
Influence
244
Table 4.2 Tetrachoric correlation coefficients obtained for outcome indexes

Index Team work Situation man- Shaping the Leadership
agement future
Situation man- 0.43* – – –
agement
Shaping the 0.40* 0.40* – –
future
Leadership 0.38* 0.18* 0.32* –
Improved perfor- 0.54* 0.42* 0.53* 0.37*
mance
The study makes use of Bivariate Probit model, Seemingly Unrelated

Bivariate Probit model and Bivariate Probit models with sample selec-
tion depending on their appropriateness given the nature of the prob-
lem and the data. The theories, already mentioned in Chap. 3, are not
replicated here. The appropriateness of using such models in the pre-
sent context may however, be recapitulated. The Bivariate Probit model
estimates decisions that are interrelated rather than independent and
is a joint model for two binary outcomes that may be correlated, with
correlation ρ, the Tetrachoric Correlation. With insignificant correla-
tion, two separate Probit models may be run. The choice of the model
may be justified on the ground that we expect the probabilities of hav-
ing above-average outcome parameters to be jointly determined with
probabilities of having above-average proficiencies in each of the cho-
sen intrinsic skills. Seemingly Unrelated Bivariate Probit model may be
applicable in cases where we expect the explanatory variables to differ
for the otherwise jointly determined first and the second dependent var-
iables. Bivariate Probit models with sample selection may be appropriate
if we expect that a certain degree of proficiency in one dependent vari-
able is a prerequisite to attain proficiencies in terms of the other.
4.3.4 Interdependence of Performance Indexes
The estimation of SUR Bivariate Probit model, which is appropriate

in this case, reveals all the outcome indexes to be jointly and posi-
tively determined in pairs. This is revealed by the significantly positive
245
Table 4.3 Improvement in predicted probability of showing skills in outcome

index following improvement in skills in terms of others
Improvement in predicted prob- Following the improvement in
ability of showing skills in outcome skills in terms of
index
Improved performance Leadership 0.42
Teamwork Leadership 0.42
Shaping the future Leadership 0.38
Situation management Leadership 0.36
Leadership Improved performance 0.34
Teamwork Improved performance 0.29
Improved performance Teamwork 0.28
Shaping the future Improved performance 0.26
Situation management Teamwork 0.25
Improved performance Shaping the future 0.24
Shaping the future Teamwork 0.24
Leadership Teamwork 0.24
Situation management Improved performance 0.23
Teamwork Situation management 0.22
Improved performance Situation management 0.21
Situation management Shaping the future 0.20
Shaping the future Situation management 0.20
Teamwork Shaping the future 0.20
Leadership Shaping the future 0.16
Leadership Situation management 0.14
tetrachoric correlation coefficient obtained for each pair of the outcome

indexes (Table 4.2). Hence, predicted probability of showing competence
in terms of each of the indexes would be jointly determined by the prob-
abilities of showing competences in terms of each of the other indexes.
The result bears significance because ensuring efficiency in terms of
one outcome parameter would likely to ensure skills in terms of oth-
ers. The marginal effects, however, show that the impact of one out-
come index on the others is not equally extensive for all. This is shown
in Table 4.3. Computation of marginal effects following an estimation
of a Bivariate Probit model with two outcome indexes i and j involves
calculation of joint predicted probabilities {(outcome index)i = 1; (out-
come index)j = 1}, {(outcome index)i = 1; (outcome index)j = 0} and
{(outcome index)i = 0; (outcome index)j = 1}. The difference between
the first and the second would measure the improvement, if any, in the
predicted probability of showing above-average competence in terms of
246
the i’th outcome index following an improvement in skills in the j’th

outcome index. Similarly, the difference between the first and the third
measures the improvement, if any, in the predicted probability of show-
ing above-average competence in terms of the j’th outcome index fol-
lowing an improvement in skills in the i’th outcome index.
While improvement in each outcome index is affecting the predicted
probabilities of exhibiting above-average efficiency in terms of the oth-
ers, the index of leadership has the most significant marginal effects.
Improvement in skills in leadership has a significantly high and direct
effect on the predicted probabilities of showing improved performance,
teamwork, and skills in shaping the future and situation management.
Similarly improved performances improve the skills in leadership and
teamwork significantly. Such bi-directional relationship is the strongest
for the improved performance and leadership pair. This is followed by
the index-pair of improved performance and team work. Improvement
in the skills of situation management or in shaping the future, however,
has a less significant effect on improved performance and more so for
the index of leadership. Hence, having a good leader in an organization
helps it a lot to attain goals like improved performance, teamwork, set-
ting a vision and managing crises. However, people with vision or with
skills in managing crises are less likely to emerge as effective leaders.
Moreover, people with better ability to manage crises have relatively less
significant impact on other outcome variables.
The study is now extended to look for the determinants of such out-
come parameters in some selective intrinsic skills and psycho-social
skills possessed by the individuals.
4.3.5 Performance Index, Intrinsic Skill, Psycho-social

Factor and EQ
Table 4.4 shows the estimation results obtained for the Improved

Performance Index.
Table 4.4 shows the relationship between the Emotional Intelligence
competences under the Index of Improved Performances and the
247
Table 4.4 Tetrachoric correlation obtained from estimations related to improved perfor-

mance index
Achievement Initiative Change Service ori- Improved per-

drive catalyst entation formance index
Communication −0.021 0.14***1 0.99**1 −0.041 −0.19**1
Influence 0.011 −0.1081 −0.0791 0.051 −0.16**1
Trustworthiness −0.101 0.29***1 0.981 0.17***1 0.39*1
Conscientiousness −0.15***1 −0.031 −0.24*1 0.99**1 −0.22*1
Commitment 0.25*1 0.28*1 0.99*1 0.35*1 0.21*1
Self control −0.021 −0.25*1 0.72*1 0.99**1 −0.29*1
Self confidence 0.041 −0.081 0.89*1 0.15**1 0.11*1
EQ 0.99*2 0.37*2 Significant3 Significant3 Significant3
Intrinsic skill index 0.99*2
Psycho-social skill −0.41*2
index
*/**/***: Significant at 1/5/10 per cent level

1/2/3: Bivariate Probit/Bivariate Probit with sample selection/SUR Bivariate Probit
competences under the Index of Intrinsic skill and those under the
Psycho-social Skill index. For the indicator of Achievement Drive, prob-
ability of showing above-average proficiency is jointly determined prob-
ability of showing above-average proficiency in conscientiousness and
that in commitment. People high on conscientiousness tend to restrict
their personal emotions and hold themselves responsible for their emo-
tions, actions and reactions. With such self-imposed restriction on emo-
tions it may be difficult for individuals to go all-out for an achievement
drive. Highly committed people, who always keep organizational goals
before personal or even small-group agenda, however, are always high
on achievement drive. Communication, trustworthiness and commit-
ment play significant and direct roles for people who are high on initia-
tive. However, people with emotional self control exhibit weaker skills
in taking initiative. People who are skilled to act as change catalyst are
committed, with skills in communication, self control and self confi-
dence. Further, people with competence in trustworthiness, conscien-
tiousness, commitment, self control and self confidence tend to exhibit
focussed service orientation.
The estimation results show further that probability of exhibiting
above-average skills in Improved Performance is jointly determined with
248
all the intrinsic skills and psycho-social factors individually. Individuals

with skills in communication and influencing others tend to show
below-average proficiencies in terms of improved performance. On the
contrary, individuals high on trustworthiness, commitment and self
confidence show higher probabilities of demonstrating improved perfor-
mance. However, people with strong emotional self control or conscien-
tiousness find it difficult to put all-out effort to improve performances.
This is reflected in the relationship between the index of improved per-
formance and the index of intrinsic skill and that of psycho-social fac-
tor. The probability of demonstrating improved performance is jointly
and positively determined by the probability of showing above-average
proficiency in intrinsic skills. Moreover, as is revealed by the estimation
results, a minimum proficiency in intrinsic skills is a pre-requisite for
exhibiting above-average proficiency in improving performance. Such
probabilities however are negatively determined by the probabilities of
having above-average skills in terms of psycho-social factors.
The study has estimated the predicted joint probabilities of show-
ing above-average proficiencies in terms of improved performances for
two cases, namely (i) when incidence of showing improved performance
is kept at high level with incidence of high intrinsic skills at low level
and (ii) when incidence of showing improved performance is fixed at
high level with incidence of high intrinsic skills kept at high level. The
difference between these two would demonstrate the improvement in
the predicted probability of showing above-average skills in improving
performances with a move from below-average intrinsic skills to above-
average intrinsic skills. Such differences are calculated across all gender,
age, income, occupation and education groups (Graph 4.8).
The improvement in predicted probability of improving perfor-
mance following an improvement in intrinsic skill is high for the high
age group, for males and for the academicians. For the different income
and education categories, improvement in intrinsic skills improves the
probabilities of showing improved performance, but with hardly any
group effect.
Along with the intrinsic skills, index of EQ has a direct and signifi-
cant impact on probability of showing above-average improved perfor-
mances. The results from the estimation of the Bivariate Probit model
249
0.80
0.64
0.60 0.51
0.46 0.47 0.46 0.45 0.50
0.45 0.46 0.42 0.46 0.46 0.45
0.42 0.44
0.41 0.41
0.40
0.20
0.00
Administration
Academics
Female
Lower-middle
Middle
Lower-middle
Middle
Male
Technical
Upper-middle
Upper-middle
General
Service
Low
High
Low
High
Age Income Gender Education Occupation
Graph 4.8 Increase in predicted probability of showing improved performance

with an improvement in intrinsic skill (across age, gender, income, education,
occupation)
show an improvement in the predicted probability of showing improved

performances with an improvement in EQ (Graph 4.9). For an EQ
level less than 6 on a ten point scale, impact of EQ on predicted proba-
bility of showing improved performance is negligible. However, as soon
as value of EQ crosses this threshold, predicted probability of showing
improved performance increases continuously with an improvement in
EQ. There is, however, no saturation point.
Graph 4.10 shows the Increase in predicted probability of showing
improved performance with an improvement in EQ across different age,
gender, income, education, and occupation categories.
The improvement in the probability of showing improved per-
formance following an improvement in EQ is positive for all groups,
except for the education category. Such improvements, however, are
less than those obtained earlier with an improvement in intrinsic
skills. Moreover, there is hardly any in-group effect except for the fact
that females, rather than males, exhibit higher probability of showing
improved performances with an improvement in their EQ.
Hence, for improved performance, it is a group of selective intrinsic
skills, and not the entire EQ index that matters most. Psycho-social fac-
tors have a negative impact on improved performances in the sense that
250
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

with an improvement in EQ
0.3
0.21 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.21
0.19
0.2 0.17
0.14
0.1
-0.004 -0.004
0.0
Upper-middle
Administration
Academics
Female
Lower-middle
Middle
Male
Technical
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Middle
Service
Low
High
Low
High
General
-0.1

with an improvement in EQ (across age, gender, income, education, occupation)
an improvement in the probability of showing skills in psycho social

factors is associated with lower probabilities of exhibiting improved per-
formance.
4.3.6 Situation Management Index, Intrinsic Skill,

Psycho-social Factor and EQ
Table 4.5 depicts the estimation results obtained for Situation

Management Index.
251
Table 4.5 Tetrachoric correlation obtained from estimations related to situation

management index
Adaptability Conflict manage- Situation manage-
ment ment index
Communication 0.03**1 0.17**1 0.21*1
Influence −0.131 0.26**1 0.021
Trustworthiness −0.011 0.36*1 0.19*1
Conscientiousness 0.101 0.19**1 0.021
Commitment 0.14**1 0.18**1 0.20*1
Self Control −0.061 0.27*1 0.28*1
Self Confidence 0.011 0.091 0.101
EQ Significant3 Significant3 Significant3
Intrinsic skill index 0.99*2
Psycho-social Skill −0.062
index
Table 4.5 shows the results relating to estimation of relationship

among Emotional Intelligence indicators under Situation Management
Index and individual intrinsic skills, psycho-social factors and EQ. It
depicts further the results related to the relationship between Situation
Management index itself with the indexes of intrinsic skill, psycho-
social factors and EQ. Probability of showing above-average skills in
adaptability is jointly and directly determined by probabilities of show-
ing above-average proficiencies in communication and in commitment
respectively. People who are high on commitment to fulfil larger organ-
izational goal show the skill to remain unperturbed and poised while
faced with stressed situation and can readily change them to meet the
needs that situation demands. Skills in communicating with others help
an individual a lot to adapt himself to changing situations. Moreover,
EQ has a direct and significant impact on the probability of showing
above-average proficiency in adaptability and conflict management.
Probability of exhibiting above-average skills in conflict management
is jointly determined by that in communication, influence, and all other
intrinsic skills except for self confidence. Hence, people who are strong
on psycho-social skills and are trustworthy, conscientious, and commit-
ted with immense emotional self control can manage conflict and han-
dle difficult people with efficiency.
252
The probabilities of showing above-average skills in situation manage-

ment, however is jointly and directly determined with probabilities of
showing proficiencies in communication, trustworthiness, commitment
and self control. Thus, people who have considerable communication
skills and emotional self control and who are high on intrinsic skills like
trustworthiness and commitment are better able to manage difficult sit-
uations and amend their course of action to meet the needs of chang-
ing business environment. The results, show further that probabilities
of showing above-average skills in situation management itself is jointly
determined with the probabilities of showing above-average proficiency
in terms of the index of intrinsic skill. Moreover, as is suggested by the
estimation results, a minimum proficiency in intrinsic skills is a pre-req-
uisite for showing above-average proficiency in situation management.
The psycho-social factor index, as a whole, however, has no impact on
skill in situation management.
The study has considered the marginal effects across age, gender,
income, occupation and education groups. It has considered predicted
joint probabilities under two cases namely (i) when values of both
situation management index and intrinsic skill index are held at their
high levels and (ii) when values of situation management index is kept
at high level while values of intrinsic skill index is set at low level. The
predicted joint probability for the first case has been higher implying
that an improvement in intrinsic skill increases the predicted prob-
ability of showing above-average proficiency in situation management.
Graph 4.11 shows such improvement across all gender, age, income,
education and occupation category.
The males, academicians and respondents in their higher-middle age
and degrees in technical field show greater improvement in their ability
to manage situations following an improvement in their intrinsic skills
compared to their respective counterparts.
Along with an improvement in intrinsic skills, index of EQ has a
direct and significant impact on probability of showing above-average
skills in situation management. Estimation of an appropriate model,
which is SUR Bivariate Probit model in this case, shows an improve-
ment in the predicted probability of showing skills in managing adverse
situation with an improvement in EQ (Graph 4.12). For an EQ level
253
0.47 0.44 0.44 0.45 0.44 0.47

0.50 0.40 0.43 0.40 0.39 0.38 0.40 0.40 0.39 0.40 0.37 0.40
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
0.00
Academics
Female
Administration
Male
Technical
Lower-middle
Middle
Lower-middle
Middle
Upper-middle
Upper-middle
Service
High
General
Low
Low
High
Graph 4.11 Increase in predicted probability of showing ability to manage

situation with an improvement in intrinsic skill (across age, gender, income,
education, occupation)
less than 6 on a ten point scale, impact of EQ on predicted probability

of showing skills in managing situation is negligible. However, as soon
as the value of EQ crosses this threshold, predicted probability of show-
ing above-average skills in managing situation increases continuously
with an improvement in EQ. There is, however, no saturation point.
Graph 4.13 shows the Increase in the predicted probability of exhib-
iting above-average skills in managing situations with an improvement
in EQ across different age, gender, income, education, and occupation
categories.
The improvement in the probability of showing improved perfor-
mance following an improvement in EQ is positive for all the socio-
economic and demographic groups. Such improvements, however, are
marginal in comparison with those obtained for an improvement in
intrinsic skills. Moreover, there is hardly any differential in-group effect.
Hence, for situation management, once again it is the same group of
selective intrinsic skills, and not the entire EQ index that matters most.
Psycho-social skill index, on the whole, has no impact on probability
of having above-average skills in situation management although at an
individual level, skills in communication has a direct impact on such
probability.
254
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

with an improvement in EQ
0.02
0.01
0.00
Male
Middle
Technical
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
Middle
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Administration
Service
Academics
Low
High
Low
High
General
Female
-0.01
Graph 4.13 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills in managing

situation with an improvement in EQ (across age, gender, income, education,
occupation)
4.3.7 Index of Teamwork, Intrinsic Skill, Psycho-social

Factor and EQ
Table 4.6 depicts the estimation results obtained for the Index of

Teamwork.
As is suggested by Table 4.6 people with above-average skills in
communicating and influencing others actually show up with lesser
empathy. Being trustworthy, conscientious and committed is essential
Table 4.6 Tetrachoric correlation obtained from estimations related to index of teamwork
Empathy Developing others Building bonds Cooperation Team Index of
capabilities teamwork
Communication −0.17*1 0.17*1 0.32*1 0.15*1 0.31*1 0.21*1
Influence −0.22*1 −0.28**1 0.13**1 0.031 0.071 0.22*1
Trustworthiness 0.26*1 −0.051 0.27*1 0.24*1 0.17*1 0.21*1
Conscientiousness 0.24*1 −0.061 −0.101 0.24*1 0.041 0.20**1
Commitment 0.14**1 −0.071 0.11**1 −0.071 0.071 0.21*1
Self control −0.051 0.15*1 0.081 0.041 −0.051 0.22*1
Self confidence −0.031 0.22*1 −0.071 0.051 0.011 0.191
EQ Significant3 Significant3 Significant3 Significant3 Significant3 Significant3
Intrinsic skill index 0.21*1 0.17*1 0.18**1 0.28*1 0.44*1 0.36*1
Psycho-social skill −0.32*1 0.23*1 0.15**1 0.081 0.27*1 0.21*1
index
255
256
0.60
0.42 0.40
0.40 0.35 0.36
0.33 0.31
0.29 0.31 0.34 0.33 0.32 0.31 0.32 0.33
0.25 0.25 0.27
0.20
0.00
Middle
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Middle
Upper-middle
Male
Technical
Lower-middle
Service
Academics
Low
General
High
Low
High
Administration
Female
Graph 4.14 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills in teamwork

occupation)
for being empathetic towards fellow members. As a result, probabil-

ity of showing above-average skills in empathy is jointly and directly
determined with the probability of showing above-average proficiencies
in intrinsic skills and is negatively related to the probability of show-
ing above-average proficiencies in psycho-social factors. Probabilities
of showing above-average efficiency in developing others is directly
determined with those in intrinsic skills and in psycho-social skills. At
the individual level, skills in communication exert positive impact while
influencing skills have negative effects. Self control and self confidence
are absolutely essential for showing skills in developing others. Skills in
building bonds depend crucially on skills in communication, influence
and commitment. On the whole, people with proficiencies in terms of
intrinsic skills and psycho-social factors show up with better efficien-
cies in building bond among the team members. Similarly, individuals
who are trustworthy, conscientious and have better skills in communi-
cation can effectively foster cooperation among team-members. Further,
the probability of showing above-average cooperation is directly and
jointly determined with the probability of showing efficiency in terms
of the intrinsic skill index. Showing above-average efficiency in team
capabilities depends on proficiency in terms of intrinsic skills and that
257
0.4 0.38
0.32
0.3 0.25 0.27 0.28
0.23 0.24 0.24 0.22
0.19 0.18 0.20 0.19
0.2 0.15 0.14 0.16
0.1
0.0
Middle
Male
Technical
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
Middle
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
General
Administration
Service
Academics
Low
High
Low
High
Female

with an improvement in psycho-social skill (across age, gender, income, educa-
tion, occupation)
in psycho-social factors. At the individual level, skills in communica-

tion and being trustworthy affect capabilities in team building. For all
the indicators, EQ plays a direct and significant role. The efficiency in
terms of index of teamwork is jointly determined with the probabili-
ties of exhibiting above-average skills both in terms of intrinsic skills
and psycho-social factors. At the individual level, efficiencies in effec-
tive team building depend crucially on EQ and on all the intrinsic skills
(except self confidence) and psycho social factors.
The movement from a lower level of intrinsic skill to a higher level
increases the predicted probability of showing above-average proficiency
in terms of the index of team work. This is true for psycho-social factors
and EQ at all levels of age, gender, income, occupation and education.
The improvement in predicted probability of showing improved
skills in teamwork with an improvement in intrinsic skills is marginally
higher for the high age group, middle-income groups and for males. No
such differential marginal effect exists for the occupation and education
category (Graph 4.14).
The improvement in predicted probability of showing improved skills
in teamwork with an improvement in psycho-social skills is significantly
higher for the middle age group, high income bracket, for administra-
tors, males and for those who have their degrees in the general field
(Graph 4.15).
258
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 4.16 Increase in predicted probability of showing higher teamwork with

an improvement in EQ
0.30
0.25 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.21 0.19 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.21
0.20 0.17
0.14
0.15
0.10
0.05 -0.004-0.004
0.00
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
Middle
Middle
Service
Low
Male
General
Technical
High
Low
Administration
High
Female
Academics
-0.05

Further, the index of EQ has a direct and significant impact on prob-

ability of showing above-average skills in teambuilding. The relevant
SUR Bivariate Probit model shows that an improvement in the pre-
dicted probability of showing skills in team building is associated with
an improvement in EQ (Graph 4.16). For an EQ level less than 4 on a
ten point scale, impact of EQ on predicted probability of showing skills
in teamwork is negligible. However, as soon as the value of EQ crosses
this threshold, predicted probability of showing above-average skills in
teamwork increases continuously with an improvement in EQ.
259
Table 4.7 Tetrachoric correlation obtained from estimations related to index of

leadership
Index of Index of
leadership leadership
Communication 0.21*1 Self control 0.22*1
Influence 0.22*1 Self confidence 0.191
Trustworthiness 0.21*1 EQ Significant3
Conscientiousness 0.20**1 Intrinsic skill index 0.36*1
Commitment 0.21*1 Psycho-social skill 0.21*1
index
There is, however, a saturation point. Predicted probability of show-

ing better skills in teamwork reaches its maximum value for the EQ
value of 8. Hence, increasing EQ beyond this level cannot lead to fur-
ther improvement in skills in teamwork.
Graph 4.17 shows the increase in the predicted probability of exhibit-
ing above-average skills in teamwork with an improvement in EQ across
different age, gender, income, education, and occupation categories.
While the improvement in EQ increases the predicted probability of
exhibiting better skills in teamwork (except for the education category)
there is hardly any differential impact across the socio-economic and
demographic groups.
Hence, for the index of teamwork, both the intrinsic skills and
psycho-social factors matter and their impact on the predicted probabil-
ity of showing better skills in teamwork is much more extensive than
that of the more general EQ index.
4.3.8 Index of Leadership, Intrinsic Skill, Psycho-social

Factor and EQ
Table 4.7 depicts the estimation results related to the index of

Leadership.
A successful and effective leader tends to possess above-average skills
in terms of all the psycho-social factors and the individual intrinsic
skills, except for self confidence. An effective leader must have skills
260
0.60 0.56
0.50
0.38 0.39 0.36
0.40 0.35
0.31 0.30 0.27
0.30 0.26 0.25 0.25 0.23 0.24 0.26
0.21
0.20 0.11 0.11
0.10
0.00
Middle
Middle
Male
Technical
Administration
Service
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
Academics
Low
High
Low
High
General
Female
Graph 4.18 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills in leadership

occupation)
in communicating and influencing others; and must be trustworthy,

conscientious and committed with skills in emotional self control.
Moreover, the probability to exhibit above-average skills in leadership
is jointly and directly related to the probability of having above-aver-
age proficiencies in terms of the intrinsic skill and the psycho-social
skill indexes. This is true for the EQ index and for all the age, gender,
income, occupation and education categories.
The improvement in predicted probability of exhibiting above-aver-
age efficiency in leadership following an improvement in intrinsic skill
is higher for males, academicians, general degree holders and for the
respondents belonging to the high age group and higher-middle income
bracket (Graph 4.18). However, the improvement in the predicted
probability of exhibiting above-average efficiency in leadership follow-
ing an improvement in psycho-social skill is higher for males, admin-
istrators, general degree holders, middle-aged and for the low income
earners (Graph 4.19).
Further, the index of EQ has a direct and significant impact on the
predicted probability of showing above-average skills in leadership. The
relevant SUR Bivariate Probit model shows that an improvement in the
261
0.50 0.49
0.41
0.37 0.35 0.33
0.40 0.32 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.26
0.30 0.24 0.24 0.22 0.25
0.22
0.20
0.10 0.01 0.01
0.00
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Upper-middle
Middle
Low
Middle
Service
Male
General
Technical
High
Low
Administration
High
Female
Academics

with an improvement in psycho-social skills (across age, gender, income, educa-
tion, occupation)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 4.20 Increase in predicted probability of showing higher quality leader-

ship with an improvement in EQ
predicted probability of showing skills in leadership is associated with

an improvement in EQ (Graph 4.20). For an EQ level less than 4 on a
ten point scale, impact of EQ on predicted probability of showing skills
in leadership is negligible. However, as soon as the value of EQ crosses
this threshold, predicted probability of showing above-average skills in
leadership increases continuously with an improvement in EQ. There is,
however, no saturation point.
262
0.16 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.14

0.13 0.12 0.13
0.15
0.13
0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13
0.12 0.10
0.08
0.04
0.00
Lower-middle
Middle
Lower-middle
Middle
Upper-middle
Male
Technical
Administration
Upper-middle
Service
General
Academics
Low
High
High
Low
Female

Graph 4.21 shows the increase in the predicted probability of exhibit-

ing above-average skills in leadership with an improvement in EQ across
different age, gender, income, education, and occupation categories.
While the improvement in EQ increases the predicted probability
of exhibiting better skills in leadership there is hardly any differential
impact across the socio-economic and demographic groups.
Hence, for the index of leadership also the intrinsic skills and psycho-
social factors matter and their impact on the predicted probability of
showing better skills in leadership is much more extensive than that of
the more general EQ index.
4.3.9 Index of Shaping the Future, Intrinsic Skill,

Psycho-social Factor and EQ
Table 4.8 depicts the estimation results related to the index of Shaping

the Future.
Table 4.8 shows the relationship between the probabilities of dem-
onstrating above-average skills in shaping the future and the intrinsic
skills and psycho-social factors. Individuals who are skilled in innova-
tiveness are trustworthy, committed with self control, self confidence
and skills in communication and influencing others. An optimistic
263
Table 4.8 Tetrachoric correlation obtained from estimations related to index of

shaping the future
Innovativeness Optimism Political Index of
awareness shaping the
future
Communication 0.30*1 0.19*1 0.041 0.21**1
Influence 0.18**1 0.091 0.24*1 0.25*1
Trustworthiness 0.20**1 0.31*1 0.18**1 0.22**1
Conscientiousness 0.141 0.21**1 0.161 0.22**1
Commitment 0.16**1 0.15**1 0.23*1 0.18**1
Self control 0.17**1 0.21**1 0.18**1 0.21**1
Self confidence 0.40*1 0.26*1 0.18**1 0.38*1
EQ Significant3 Significant3 Significant3 Significant3
Intrinsic skill index 0.28*1 0.33*1 0.25*1 0.34*1
Psycho-social skill 0.22*1 0.18**1 0.38*1 0.31*1
index
person however is proficient in terms of all the intrinsic skills and com-
munication. People with strong political awareness are better skilled
in influencing others and are trustworthy and committed with strong
self control and self confidence. Factually, probabilities of showing
above-average skills in terms of innovativeness, optimism and political
awareness are all jointly and directly determined by the probabilities of
showing proficiency in terms of intrinsic skill and psycho-social factors.
The same is true for the index of shaping the future. Just like its con-
stituents, people showing above-average competence in terms of index of
shaping the future are proficient in all the individual intrinsic skills and
psycho-social factors. Moreover, the probability to exhibit above-average
skills in shaping the future is jointly and directly related to the proba-
bility of having above-average proficiencies in terms of the intrinsic skill
and the psycho-social skill indexes. This is true for the EQ index and for
all the age, gender, income, occupation and education categories.
The improvement in predicted probability of exhibiting above-
average efficiency in shaping the future following an improvement in
intrinsic skill is higher for academicians, general degree holders and for
the respondents belonging to the middle age group and high income
bracket (Graph 4.22). However, the improvement in the predicted
264
0.50 0.44
0.40 0.34 0.36
0.29 0.30 0.31
0.30 0.23 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.26 0.28 0.25 0.26
0.22 0.22
0.20
0.07
0.10
0.00
Upper-middle
Administration
Academics
Female
Male
Technical
Lower-middle
Middle
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Middle
Service
Low
High
Low
High
General
Graph 4.22 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills in shaping the

future with an improvement in intrinsic skills (across age, gender, income, edu-
cation, occupation)
0.50
0.40
0.40 0.34 0.32
0.29 0.29 0.28
0.30 0.26 0.28 0.25
0.22 0.21 0.23 0.22 0.21
0.18
0.20 0.15
0.10 0.03
0.00
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Lower-middle
Male
Service
Middle
Middle
General
Technical
Low
Upper-middle
Administration
High
Low
High
Female
Academics

future with an improvement in psycho-social skills (across age, gender, income,
education, occupation)
probability of exhibiting above-average efficiency in shaping the future

following an improvement in psycho-social skill is higher for males,
administrators, general degree holders, middle-aged and for the high
income earners (Graph 4.23).
Moreover, the index of EQ has a direct and significant impact on
the predicted probability of showing above-average skills in shaping
the future. The relevant SUR Bivariate Probit model shows that an
improvement in the predicted probability of showing skills in shaping
265
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Graph 4.24 Increase in predicted probability of showing higher leadership with

an improvement in EQ
0.16 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15

0.14 0.14
0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13
0.12 0.12
0.12 0.12
0.12 0.10
0.08
0.04
0.00
Upper-middle
Lower-middle
Lower-middle
Male
Service
Middle
Middle
Upper-middle
Low
High
Low
High
General
Technical
Female
Administration
Academics

future with an improvement in EQ (across age, gender, income, education,
occupation)
the future is associated with an improvement in EQ (Graph 4.24).

For an EQ level less than 4 on a ten point scale, impact of EQ on pre-
dicted probability of showing skills in shaping the future is negligible.
However, as soon as the value of EQ crosses this threshold, such prob-
abilities increase continuously with an improvement in EQ. There is,
however, no saturation point.
266
Graph 4.25 shows the increase in the predicted probability of

exhibiting above-average skills in leadership with an improvement in
EQ across different age, gender, income, education, and occupation
categories.
While the improvement in EQ increases the predicted probability of
exhibiting better skills in shaping the future there is hardly any differen-
tial impact across the socio-economic and demographic groups.
Hence, for the index of shaping the future also the intrinsic skills and
psycho-social factors matter and their impact on the predicted probabil-
ity of showing better skills in leadership is much more extensive than
that of the more general EQ index.
A summary of the results obtained thus far may be useful for further
analysis (Tables 4.9, 4.10).
4.3.10 Do Psycho-social Factors Proxy for the Intrinsic

Skills?
The study thus far has revealed significance of emphasizing on intrin-

sic skills and, in some cases, on the psycho-social factors in order to
ensure some outcome parameters that an organization aspiring for suc-
cess would be interested in. The study, however, admits that difficulties
in assessing proficiencies in intrinsic skills alone might hinder designing
of efficient and workable hiring strategy. Thus, to make things work-
able, some ‘observable’ skills may be explored to be used as proxy for
such imponderable innate-skills. Hence, the study assesses the role of
soft skills that have been considered in the study on the probability of
attaining above-average efficiency in the outcome parameters through
the proficiencies in terms of the intrinsic skills. Specifically, it seeks to
explore whether, possessing above-average proficiency in soft skills
would suffice to guarantee above-average skills in outcome parameters
even at a lower level of intrinsic skills; or whether above-average pro-
ficiencies in those soft skills are closely related to above-average profi-
ciencies in intrinsic skills that ultimately lead to above-average skills in
terms of outcome parameters. If so, hiring strategy might boil down to
developing a suitable framework to hire people with soft skills.
Table 4.9 Summary of estimation results involving intrinsic skill, psycho-social skill, EQ and outcome indexes
Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Commitment Self Self Communication Influence Intrinsic Psycho EQ
control confidence Skill social
Index Skill
Index
Improved Y(+) Y(−) Y(+) Y(−) Y(+) Y(−) Y(−) Y(+) Y(−) Y(+)
Performance
Index
Achievement – Y(−) Y(+) – – – – – – Y(+)
drive
Initiative Y(+) − Y(+) Y(−) − Y(+) – – – Y(+)
Change catalyst − Y(−) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) – – – Y(+)
Service orienta- Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) − – – – Y(+)
tion
Situation Y(+) − Y(+) Y(+) − Y(+) – Y(+) – Y(+)
Management
Index
Adaptability − − Y(+) − – Y(+) – – – Y(+)
Conflict Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) – Y(+) Y(+) – – Y(+)
Management
Team work Index Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) – Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+)
Empathy Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) − – Y(−) Y(−) Y(+) Y(−) Y(+)
Developing – – – Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(−) Y(+) Y(−) Y(+)
Others
Building bonds Y(+) – Y(+) – – Y(−) Y(+) – – Y(+)
Cooperation Y(+) Y(+) – – – Y(−) – Y(+) Y(−) Y(+)
Team capabilities Y(+) – – – – Y(+) – – Y(+) Y(+)
Leadership Index Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) – Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+)
Shaping the Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+)
future Index
Innovativeness Y(+) – Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+)
Optimism Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) – Y(+) Y(+) Y(+)
Political Y(+) – Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) – Y(+) Y(+) Y(+) Y(+)
Awareness
267
Y(+)/Y(−) stands for presence of significant positive/negative tetrachoric correlation coefficient between the concerned pair
Table 4.10 Summary of estimation results involving intrinsic skill, psycho-social skill, EQ and outcome indexes (across
age, gender, income, occupation and education groups)
Increase in predicted probability of showing above-average skills in
Following Improved Situation man- Team work index Leadership Shaping the future
268
improvement in performance agement Index index index

Index
Intrinsic skill Gender Male Male Male Male –
index Age High High High High Middle
Income – – Middle Higher-middle High
Occupation Academician Academician – Academician Academician
Education – – – General General
Psycho-social Gender NA – Male Male Male
skill index Age NA – Middle Middle Middle
Income NA – High Low High
Occupation NA – Administrator Administrator Administrator
Education NA – General General General

EQ index Gender Female – – – –
Age – – – – –
Income – – – – –
Occupation – – – – –
Education – – – – –
269
The study uses a suitable Probit model to check whether such

psycho-social factors are related to intrinsic skills and can affect the out-
come parameters through such interdependence.
The model takes the following form:
(outcome index)i = constant + Intrinsic - skill index
+ Psycho - social - skill index + (Intrinsic -
skill # Psycho - social - skill) + EQ index + age
+ gender + income + occupation
+ education + error term
The study has five outcome indexes, namely, Improved Performance
Index, Situation Management Index, Team work Index, Leadership
Index and Shaping the future Index. Each of these indexes is of (0,1)
type. As mentioned earlier, a dependent outcome index, in case it is
continuous, a respondent is assigned a value 1 (and zero otherwise) if
the score attained is more than the average of all the values that the vari-
able takes. The intrinsic skill index and the psycho-social skill indexes
are the same as were introduced before. The term (Intrinsic-skill #
Psycho-social-skill) is introduced to incorporate interaction between
intrinsic skills and psycho-social factors.
The estimated model for Improved Performance Index shows a LR
Chi2 of 97.20 which is significant at 1% level of significance. The
pseudo R2 stands at 0.1382. The interaction dummy is not significant
thereby establishing an absence of any channel through which the inter-
action between the intrinsic skill and the psycho-social factors could
affect the predicted probability of having above-average proficiency in
terms of improved performances. An improvement in intrinsic skill and
in EQ (but not in psycho-social skills) improves the predicted probabil-
ity of having improved performance. Similar results are obtained for the
indexes of Shaping the Future, Teamwork and Situation Management.
For the index of Leadership, all the three matter. The interaction
dummy however is not significant.
270
Table 4.11 Predicted probability of showing above-average proficiency in out-

come indexes following change in combination of intrinsic and psycho-social skill
Combination of Intrinsic Skill (IS) and
Psychosocial (PS) factor
Predicted probability of IS high IS high IS low
showing above-average PS high PS low PS high
proficiency in
Improved performance index 0.73 0.64 0.36
Shaping the future index 0.71 0.52 0.49
Teamwork index 0.72 0.64 0.48
Situation management index 0.71 0.55 0.45
Leadership index 0.87 0.76 0.66
The marginal effects are also calculated (Table 4.11). A combination

of high social skill and high intrinsic skill ensures a predicted probabil-
ity of 0.73. If, however, social skills are fixed at their high levels with
intrinsic skills reduced to their low levels, such probability falls to 0.36;
while reducing social skills to their low levels with keeping intrinsic
skills at their high levels reduces the probability to 0.64. Hence, intrin-
sic skills indeed matter for showing improved performances. This is true
for the index of Teamwork and Leadership too. For shaping the future,
however, intrinsic skill matters more but not to that extent that we
observed earlier. This is evident from the marginal effects. A Reduction
in psycho-social skills to low levels while keeping intrinsic skills at their
high level reduces the predicted probability of showing above-aver-
age skills in shaping the future from 0.71 to 0.52; whereas the reverse
reduces it to 0.49. Same is true for the Situation Management index.
Such findings might have significant bearing on organizations in
designing of suitable hiring strategies and to devise staff-development
programmes. Although the intrinsic skills matter, these are indeed dif-
ficult to be assessed while hiring personnel. However, the attempt to
explore whether more easily observable skills, mostly the social ones,
could be used as proxies for innate non-cognitive skills did not ensure
any interactive channel between intrinsic skills and psycho-social fac-
tors which could lead to better predicted probabilities of exhibiting
competences in terms of the desired outcome parameters. Moreover,
the skills in psycho-social factors are found to be neither necessary nor
sufficient to guarantee above-average efficiency in terms of the outcome
271
parameters. It is the intrinsic skill that matters. Therefore, an effective

hiring policy should emphasize on selecting people on the basis of such
skills. The potential employee should be interviewed not only for cogni-
tive competence but also for his/her character, to assess their integrity
and intent; to explore their ability to cope with the immediate world,
their emotional and psycho-social factors and to identify their strengths
and weaknesses to flourish as an individual, a team member or an effec-
tive leader. Hence, a behavioural interview that focuses on aspects of
emotional intelligence; a perfect blend of cognitive and non-cognitive
excellence, might enhance the chances of hiring the right person. The
organizations can benefit further by offering opportunities to enhance
these skills in the workplace.
4.4 Emotional Intelligence: Means to

Overcome the Problem of Moral Hazard?
In its final note, the study takes up another important issue in an organ-
ization’s life, namely the problem of moral hazard. Life of any organi-
zation initiates with some motivation but commitment keeps it going.
Committed employees are assets that every organization would like to
acquire, treasure and retain simply because commitment keeps organiza-
tional goal above personal or small-group interests and seeks out oppor-
tunities to fulfil broader mission of a group. The problem of moral
hazard is identified as sheer lack of commitment and professional ethics
where hidden-actions on part of the employees, who otherwise possess
cognitive skills, adversely affect the organization’s valuation of the trans-
actions in which they have entered and those they have to pursue. Such
cases of moral hazard typically arise when the party with more informa-
tion about its actions or intentions (here, the employee) has a tendency
or incentive to behave inappropriately from the perspective of the party
with less information (that is, the employer). With a separation between
ownership and control, employees, who were hired earlier on the basis
of purely cognitive excellence, may be subject to moral hazard to the
extent that they can reduce their efforts without fearing reduced pay
272
or job-loss. Such intentional reduction in effort might prove costly for

the parent organizations in the form of sheer loss in profit, sales or any
other outcome variables. Designing of effective incentive mechanism
such as employee’s stock option schemes, policies of tying bonus or pro-
motions to performances; policies to prevent immoral behaviour and
regular monitoring may be some of the ways to confiscate the problem
of moral hazard. However, hiring people on the basis of cognitive skills
and designing effective incentive schemes and introducing stringent sys-
tem of monitoring to control the associated problem of moral hazard
might involve substantial cost in terms of time and money. The study
intervenes to explore whether hiring people on the basis of non-cogni-
tive, rather than cognitive competences could ensure higher outcomes
desired by the organizations without introducing problem of moral
hazard. In such cases cost of hiring and managing personnel would not
involve the costs for monitoring to control moral hazard.
The study has already found people with competence in commitment
to contribute in the process of ensuring outcomes desired by organiza-
tions. Such a result may be backed by the existing literature. McClurg
(1999) found commitment and attitude to be related to employee
behaviour and efficiency. Bratton and Gold (2007), Meyer and Allen
(1991) and Freund and Carmeli (2003) considered commitment as a
multidimensional concept to gauge its impact on performance. Bayazit
and Mannix (2003) established positive relationship between organi-
zational commitment and quality of service while Lowry et al. (2002),
Schwepker (2001) and Aksu and Aktas (2005) found positive work
ethics to affect commitment. Feinstein and Vondrasek (2001) and
Jernigan et al. (2002) found direct relationship between job satisfaction
and commitment. Clarke and Chen (2007) and Lashley and Lee-Ross
(2003) found employee commitment as beneficial for both employers
and employees. The study now proceeds to explore whether commit-
ment leads to positive workplace ethics. An affirmative answer would
justify the need for selecting people with competence in commitment as
they would then automatically come out with skills to ensure improved
company-level performances without imposing any moral hazard.
To explore such issues, the study isolates the questions related to
commitment and professional ethics from the questionnaire that was
used earlier. Such questions are reproduced below as:
273
Commitment
1. I can readily make personal or group sacrifices to meet a larger organ-
izational goal.
2. I actively seek out opportunities to fulfil the group’s mission.
Professional Ethics
1. I can act ethically and confront unethical actions in others irrespec-

tive of any material incentive or fear of punishment.
The question on professional ethics has been so designed that one with
such competence would act ethically and make others to do so even
in the absence of any conscious and inducing effort on part of the
employer. Hence, being ethical would come to them naturally as an
intrinsic skill: a prerequisite to avoid the problem of moral hazard.
The study considers further some more factors that the employees
themselves consider to affect their commitment. These factors relate
to the work place environment faced by the employees including the
incentive scheme, the reaction of their peer group, family and other
social responsibilities. Accordingly, the questionnaire incorporated the
following questions:
Factors Affecting Commitment

1. My work environment including the incentive scheme is restricting
me to be fully committed.
2. Reaction of my peer group is a motivating factor for me.
3. Family responsibilities are restricting me to be fully committed.
4. Other social responsibilities are affecting my job-related commitments.
The scores are considered for each factor. Under each factor, the
assigned value is 1(2) if one’s response is either disagree (agree) or strongly
disagree (strongly agree). The value assigned is zero if the respondent is
uncertain about the impact.
Scores for the first two categories have been calculated following
the method discussed in previous chapter. A respondent is assigned
the value 1 (and zero otherwise) if the score attained is more than the
average of all values that the concerned variable takes. The study uses
a Seemingly Unrelated Bivariate Probit model that estimates seemingly
274
unrelated decisions and is a joint model for two such binary outcomes
that may be correlated, with ρ, the Tetrachoric Correlation. The choice
of the model may be justified as probabilities of possessing above-aver-
age work-ethics may be jointly determined with probabilities of being
highly committed, with the later being influenced by some factors
related to work environment and other responsibilities of the employee.
In a SUR Bivariate Probit model, the unobserved latent variables are
presented as:
y1∗ = x1′ β1 + e1 and

y2∗ = x2′ β2 + e2
1 ify1∗ > 0

The outcomes are specified as: y1 =
0 ify1∗ ≤ 0
1 ify2∗ > 0

y2 =
0 ify2∗ ≤ 0
If ρ is the Tetrachoric Correlation between y1 and y2,

e1 0 1ρ
∼N ,
e2 0 ρ 1
The explanatory variables in x1 and x2 are likely to be different. The
log-likelihood function is defined as follows:
(2yi1 − 1)β1′ xi1

 
�n
Log L = log∅2  (2yi2 − 1)β1′ xi2 
i=1 (2yi1 − 1)(2yi2 − 1)ρ
�n
log∅2 qi1 β1′ xi1 , qi2 β2′ xi2 , qi1 qi2 ρ
� �
=
i=1
where qi1 = (2yi1 − 1) = −1 if yi1 = 0 and + 1 if yi1 = 1. ∅2 is the
bivariate normal CDF. Log L is maximized with respect to β1, β2 and
ρ. Marginal effects and
′predicted values
can be estimated for the binary
Probit models as ∅2 β1 xi1 , β2 xi2 , ρ (derivatives of joint probability),
′
and P(yi1, yi2 = 1)/Prob(yi2 = 1) (partial effects).

275
Table 4.12 External factors affecting commitment (responses by all respond-

ents)
% of people who % of people who % of people who
agree (strongly or are not sure disagree (strongly
otherwise) (%) or otherwise)
(%) (%)
Work environment 53.67 23.55 22.78
including the
incentive scheme
is adversely
affecting com-
mitment
Reaction of peer 65.25 23.75 11.0
group is a moti-
vating factor
Family responsibili- 43.63 23.17 33.20
ties are adversely
affecting com-
mitment
Other social 32.26 24.80 42.94
responsibilities
are adversely
affecting job-
related commit-
ments
The estimation results show a Wald statistic of 2031.37 which is

significant at 1% level. Tetrachoric correlation (r = 0.28) is signifi-
cantly positive implying a direct relationship between the probability
of being highly committed and that of possessing strong work ethics.
This, however, raises further question namely, while it is necessary to
have stronger commitment to ensure better professional ethics, do the
external factors considered in the study adversely affect the employees’
commitment? An affirmative answer would emphasize the need for
designing suitable policies on part of the organization to remove such
obstacles and nurture an environment where the desired intrinsic skills
may be implemented and nourished.
As is suggested by Table 4.12, relatively more people believe that
work environment is not satisfactory and family responsibilities are
adversely affecting their job-related commitment. While, peer group
276
social responsibility is too burdensome 0.50 0.64

social responsibility is not burdensome 0.56 0.72
family responsibity is too burdensome 0.55 0.70

family responsibity is not too burdensome 0.58 0.73
peer group is motivating 0.56 0.71

peer group is not motivating 0.40 0.50
work environment is really poor 0.53 0.67

work environment is not so poor 0.57 0.72
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80
being ethical given strong commitment being strongly commited
Graph 4.26 External factors and predicted probabilities of exhibiting strong

commitment and stronger ethics given commitment
remains a motivating factor, people do not find social responsibilities to

have adverse effects on commitment.
Graph 4.26 suggests that with all the external effects in action, the
predicted probability of showing above-average commitment is more
than the predicted probability of acting ethical given such high commit-
ment. The people, who feel that negative external effects are stronger,
show up with a lower probability of being highly committed or highly
ethical. For example, people who consider the work environment along
with the incentive scheme to be really poor are expected to be less com-
mitted and less ethical compared to those who feel the work environ-
ment to be not so poor. Similarly, people for whom the social or family
responsibilities are too cumbersome exhibit relatively poor incidences
of commitment and professional ethics. Peer group reaction, however,
remains a motivating factor. The study finds people to be more commit-
ted and more ethical when the peer group serves as a motivating factor
for them. The peer group effect moreover seems to be the most domi-
nant external factor as the increase in chances of exhibiting stronger
277
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
Low-middle
Academics
Female
middle
middle
Technical
Male
Upper-middle
Low-middle
Upper-middle
Service
General
high
high
Low
Low
Adminstration
Education Gender Income Age Occupation
Probability of being committed Probability of being ethical given commitment
Graph 4.27 Predicted probabilities of exhibiting strong commitment and

stronger ethics given commitment (across age, gender, income, education, occu-
pation)
commitment and better ethics following a relaxation in the external

constraint is the highest for peer group effect.
The study delves deeper to explore the nature of such relationships
across gender, age, income, education and occupation structures. The
academicians, general degree holders people earning in the middle-
income brackets and belonging to the high age group show better
chances of being highly committed; while within the highly committed
group, females, academicians, high income earners and people in their
middle age show stronger professional ethics (Graph 4.27).
Graphs 4.28 and 4.29 show the percentage increase in the predicted
probabilities of exhibiting above-average commitment and stronger pro-
fessional ethics with relaxation in external constraint across age groups.
The relaxation in the external constraints is more effective at relatively
lower ages in both the cases. Peer group reaction remains the most sig-
nificant effect as the improvement in the relevant predicted probabili-
ties following a relaxation in the constraint are significantly higher than
those obtained by relaxing other external constraints. In terms of signifi-
cance, peer group effect is followed by social responsibility constraint,
work environment constraint and family responsibility constraint. This
bears significant implications for designing of suitable staff development
strategies.
278
% 47.24
50 43.92
38.85 38.60
40
30.45
30
14.24
13.23
11.70
11.63
20
9.14
7.59
7.06
6.24
6.20
5.20
4.88
4.83
4.25
4.22
3.30
10
0
Low age Low-middle age Middle age Upper-middle High age
age
social responsibility constraint removed work environment constraint removed

peer group constraint removed family responsibility constraint removed
Graph 4.28 External factors and % improvement in predicted probabilities of

exhibiting strong commitment (across age)
%
60
43.1 40.1
45 35.4 32.8
30 25.8
13.0
12.1
10.6
9.9
7.7
6.9
6.4
15
5.7
5.3
4.7
4.4
4.1
3.8
3.5
0 2.7
Low age Low-middle age Middle age Upper-middle age High age


exhibiting better ethics given strong commitment (across age)

probabilities of exhibiting above-average commitment and stronger pro-
fessional ethics with relaxation in external constraints across income
groups. People earning in the middle income brackets tend to exhibit
above-average commitment and better work place ethics. Other findings
are similar to those that have been obtained for the earlier case.
probabilities of exhibiting above-average commitment and stronger
279
%
50 44.91 45.15 43.39
40 35.28 36.01
30
13.61
13.54
13.08
10.84
10.62
20
7.26
7.22
6.98
5.79
5.67
4.97
4.94
4.77
3.93
3.85
10
0
Low income Low-middle Middle income Upper-middle High income
icome income

exhibiting strong commitment (across income)
% 40.77 41.51 40.16

45
34.30
28.35
30
12.47
12.25
12.06
10.29
8.47
6.65
6.53
6.44
5.49
4.54
4.52
4.45
4.38
3.72
15
3.04
0
Low income Low-middle Middle income Upper-middle High income
icome income

exhibiting better ethics given strong commitment (across income)
professional ethics with relaxation in external constraints across gender,

occupation and education groups.
The peer group effect once again remains the most significant factor
followed by burdensome social responsibility, adverse work envi-
ronment and arduous family responsibilities. With a relaxation in
external constraints, females and males show improvement in the pre-
dicted probability of showing above-average commitment in almost
the same extent. Under similar circumstances, general degree hold-
ers and administrators show greater improvement in the respective
280
%
60 48.89
42.56 42.05 44.45 41.17
45 39.58
14.46
13.43
12.87
12.72
12.44
30
11.75
7.69
7.17
6.87
6.79
6.64
6.26
5.24
4.91
4.70
4.64
4.53
4.24
15
0.00
0.00
0.00
0
Female General Adminstration Academics
Gender Education Occupation


exhibiting strong commitment (across gender, occupation, education)
%
50 44.76
39.33 37.69 39.33 37.69
40 36.13
30
13.23
11.88
11.88
11.38
11.38
20 10.70
7.03
6.34
6.34
6.07
6.07
5.70
4.76
4.31
4.31
4.12
4.12
3.83
0.00
0.00
0.00
10
0
Female Male General Technical Adminstration Service Academics
Gender Education Occupation


exhibiting better ethics given strong commitment (across gender, occupation,
education)
predicted probabilities of being highly committed. Academicians, who

have already revealed themselves to be the most committed group
(Graph 4.27), exhibit no further improvement with relaxation in exter-
nal constraints.
With relaxation in external factors faced by the people in the strongly
committed group, females, general degree holders and administrators
show greater improvement in terms of showing better professional eth-
ics than their respective counterparts.
281
4.5 A Final Note

The study thus finds the theory of EI to offer a solution to the problem
of moral hazard in workplaces, albeit, in the absence of some external
de-motivating factors. To start with, the study isolates the academicians,
general degree holders, people earning in the middle-income brackets
and those belonging to the high age group as showing up with better
chances of being highly committed; while within the highly committed
group, females, academicians, high income earners and people in their
middle age show stronger professional ethics. In presence of external
factors, however, the observations differ to some extent. All the exter-
nal factors considered in the study seem to be binding in the sense that
people operate less efficiently in their presence and any relaxation in
either of those leads to an improvement in the predicted probability of
showing competences in terms of the desired variables.
The peer group reaction turns out to be the most significant and bind-
ing factor so that an improvement in the relevant predicted probabili-
ties following a relaxation in the constraint are significantly higher than
those obtained by relaxing other external constraints. In terms of signif-
icance, peer group effect is followed by social responsibility constraint,
work environment constraint and family responsibility constraint. If
the individuals are endowed with a better work environment or may be
freed, to some extent from the social or family-related responsibilities,
they may emerge as employees with better commitment and sense of
professional ethics: a prerequisite to overcome the problem of on-the-job
moral hazard. Moreover, in both the cases, the relaxation in the exter-
nal constraints is more effective at relatively lower ages, middle income
brackets, for females, general degree holders and administrators. People
from these groups find the constraints to be most binding and their per-
formances improve significantly with relaxation in such constraints.
This has got significant implications for designing of effective staff
development strategies. In presence of such external constraints,
employees in their lower ages, who are possibly the new entrants; the
middle income earners and the females, must be targeted by an organi-
zation as with a relaxation in the selected external constraints these
people tend to exhibit better professional ethics, given above-average
282
commitment. An attempt must be initiated by the organization to

foster better work environment with suitable incentive schemes, and to
develop effective support systems so as to free the employees from their
social and family responsibilities to an extent that is feasible. However,
providing the employees with a motivating peer group that is vibrant
with positive thoughts is essential for an organization. Therefore, select-
ing a group of people who can recognize, comprehend and respect oth-
ers’ emotions and can nurture effective teamwork through cooperation
and cohesion is essential because that would motivate others, particu-
larly the younger employees to be committed and ethical. The people
belonging to the academic sector, however, are to be treated differently.
They possess extremely high probabilities of being committed and ethi-
cal compared to their counterparts. The negative external factors hence,
are not at all binding for them. The people in the administrative jobs
are most affected by these negative factors followed by their counter-
parts in other services. A relaxation in such constraints, therefore,
ensures a lot to reduce possibilities of moral hazard in these sectors.
The study, therefore, finds the theory of EI, not only as a theory of
superior performances, but also as means to reduce possibilities of moral
hazard where people, who are committed, maintain workplace eth-
ics irrespective of material incentives or fear of punishment. Conscious
efforts on part of the organizations to remove binding constraints in
appropriate contexts are likely to solve the problem of moral hazard or
hidden-action on part of the employees.
Hence it becomes essential, as is revealed by the study, to integrate EI
based valuation at all stages of the life of an organization. Given the tre-
mendous personal and organizational benefit of Emotional Intelligence
skills; organizations while hiring personnel should emphasize on such
skills as selection criterion. The potential employee should be interviewed
not only for cognitive competence but also for his/her mental stability,
to assess their integrity and intent; to explore their ability to cope with
the immediate world, their emotional and psycho-social factors and to
identify their strengths and weaknesses to flourish as an individual, a
team member or an effective leader. Hence, a behavioural interview that
focuses on aspects of emotional intelligence; a perfect blend of cogni-
tive and non-cognitive excellence, might enhance the chances of hiring
283
the right person. Similar policies may be pursued while designing

schemes for promotions or career advancements. The organizations can
benefit further by offering opportunities to enhance these skills in the
workplace. Staff development and training programmes should focus
on developing such skills in employees. As pointed out by Goleman
(1998b), organizations need to introduce special and innovative means
of imparting knowledge to help employees acquire EI competences. This
is specifically so because standard methods for developing academic or
technical skills may hardly be suitable for developing skills in Emotional
Intelligence which encompass, in its domain, cognitive as well as non-
cognitive elements.
Towards this purpose, the Consortium for Research on Emotional
Intelligence in Organizations has considered number of empirical explora-
tions in the possible and effective modes of imparting emotional intel-
ligence skills in employees and has accordingly, formulated guidelines for
their effective development. The official website of the consortium (www.
eiconsortium.org) contains such guidelines and reappraisal of those
might be helpful for our purpose. The consortium guidelines are based
on the results obtained in the various empirical studies available in the
literature related to the fields of training and development; counseling
and psychotherapy and behavioural analysis. Such guidelines aim at pro-
moting social and emotional intelligences among employees through
well-contemplated efforts to develop managerial skill that includes nur-
turing proficiencies in leadership, cooperation, team building, service
orientation, situation management, public relations and in other rel-
evant soft and social skills. The consortium considers the guidelines to
be “additive and synergistic” and feels the need for simultaneous fulfilling
of all such conditions for effective realization of the social and emotional
intelligence learning process. Such guidelines identify four phases of
social and emotional learning and accordingly, are categorized into four,
viz, preparation; training; transfer and maintenance; and evaluation.
Phase one isolates the Emotional Intelligence competences inculcat-
ing which among the existing employees are crucial for achieving the
goals specific to a particular organization. The target group of indi-
viduals are then to be objectively assessed for their potentials, strength
and weaknesses in terms of those desired EI traits. The responsibility
284
now remains onto the organization to let the incumbent know the
evaluation results. This requires impartiality, unbiasedness, articula-

tion and to some extent, compassion on part of the employer. While
it is essential to make the employees aware of the non-triviality of their
deficiencies; cushion must be provided when they would try hard to
absorb the shock, if there is any. The individuals lagging behind should
be encouraged and motivated to participate in the training and devel-
opment process. This however cannot be achieved unless the employees
have trust on the organizational representatives and the developmental
programmes appear to be effective as well as worthwhile to them and
could match their expectations, objectives and values. The employ-
ees are to be motivated with enough empathy and the programme-
deliverables are to be portrayed, of course objectively, as adding values
so that choosing those would become an obvious choice for them.
The second phase of training must nurture positive interactions
between the instructor and the participant. While the programme
should be tailor-made to cater to the individual needs, it requires empa-
thy, honesty and warmth on part of the instructor. Such EI develop-
ment programmes must be based on unambiguously defined and clearly
spelt-out objectives which, however, should be approached, in man-
ageable steps. Being over-optimistic is likely to jeopardize the original
intention. As the process continues, the participants should be encour-
aged to practise the skills in their workplaces and if possible, in personal
domains too. They may be acquainted with the real life cases where
application of EI skills has turned out to be most effective. A well-
developed, supportive and empathetic system of providing focused,
objective and continuous feed-back may be encouraging for the learners.
In the third phase of transfer and maintenance, the responsibility
should be with the organization to ensure a supportive, positive and
safe work environment where the newly developed skills may be experi-
mented for implementation without much hindrance. An empathetic
environment is vital to ensure sustainability of such changes.
The last phase in the process is concerned with periodic evaluation
of the developmental effort. It is important to check, on a regular basis,
whether the participants could actually learn and implement those skills
effectively so that the process leads ultimately to superior job-related
outcomes and employee benefits.
285
However, given the critical role of social and emotional intelligences

in explaining organizational achievements; individual success stories
and their abilities to lead an effective life, pursuing EI developing strate-
gies at the organizational level alone may not be sufficient. The incum-
bents may be targeted at a much earlier stage in their life; possibly by
making value based education programmes a part of the curriculum.
It is, of course true that such learning process begins at home with
proper parent–child interactions that help them develop an “emo-
tional knowledge base” (Mayer and Salovey 1997). However, unfortu-
nately not all are equally opportune to learn social and emotional skills.
The psychological limitations on part of the parents often hinder the
development of a broad and strong EI base. This, however, may be rec-
tified by introducing a value-based education system where everybody,
who are a part of it, would be offered equal opportunity to develop and
broaden their EI base. Value based education is an approach to teaching
that nurtures value in its core. It aims to create a positive and vibrant
learning environment to enhance the academic accomplishment of the
students and inculcate among them, the social and emotional skills
that last throughout their lives. Such a system encourages critical and
reflective thinking; endorses rational choice and responsible behaviour;
strengthens resilience; and helps youngsters master skills to recognize,
comprehend and respect the emotions of their fellow members. While
catching them young is important, such endeavour should not remain
confined within the boundaries of the school. At the higher education
level, as is pointed out by Goleman (1998a) and Mayer and Salovey
(1997), there remains a significant lacuna when it comes to the issue
of grooming younger generation in terms of the desired and requisite
emotional intelligence competences. The value based programmes that
are initiated at the school level, usual lose their significance or relevance
to the education policy makers at higher levels. However, given the con-
siderable evidence of skills in emotional intelligence having impact on
career success and their organizational benefit, value based education
must constitute a significant core in higher education. Otherwise, as
conjectured by C.S. Lewis, “Education without values, as useful as it is,
seems rather to make man a more clever devil.”
286
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Author Index
A Boyatzis, R. 29–33, 36, 54, 55, 222,

Aksu, A. 239, 272 223, 234, 237, 240
Aktas, A. 239, 272 Brackett, M.A. 20, 21, 38, 42
Allen, N.J. 239, 272 Bratko, D. 39
Amabile, T. 55, 237 Bratton, J. 239, 272
Anastasi, A. 26 Briner, R.R. 55
Averill, J.R. 27 Burrus, J.A. 32, 55, 222, 240
B C
Bachman, W. 35, 55, 223, 237 Caputi, P. 41
Barnard, D. 223 Carmeli, A. 239, 272
Bar-On, R. 20, 21 Caruso, D.R. 27, 38
Barrick, M.R. 32, 55, 239 Chen, H.C. 3
Barsade, S.G. 36, 54, 55, 236 Chen, M.J. 3
Bayazit, M. 239, 272 Chen, W. 239, 272
Beggs J. M. 239, 273 Ciarrochi, J. 41
Behling, O. 239 Clarke, A. 239, 272
Bernstein, M. 3 Collins, J. 28
Berry, J.W. 3 Conway, B.E. 3
Bettenhausen, K. 35, 36, 55, 223, Cooper, J.T. 28
236, 237 Cortina, J.M. 239
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 291
G. Chakrabarti and T. Chatterjea, Employees' Emotional Intelligence, Motivation &
Productivity, and Organizational Excellence, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5759-5
292
Author Index
Craik, F.I.M. 3 Gibbs, G. 28

Crant, J.M. 32, 55, 233 Gibson, D.E. 36, 55, 236
Gilmer, B. 14
Gold, J. 239, 272
D
Golden, C.J. 28
Das, J.P. 3
Goldman, S. 14
Dasen, P. 3
Goleman, D. 17, 28–33, 35, 36, 52,
Detterman, D.K. 16
54–56, 222, 223, 233, 235,
DiMatteo, M.R. 33, 55, 222, 233,
239, 241, 283, 285
235
Gregorenko, E.L. 3
DiPaolo, M.T. 27
Guilford, J.P. 15
Dirks, K.T. 239
Dudley, N.M. 239
Durojaiye, M.O.A. 3 H
Haggerty, D.J. 28
Hall, L.E. 28
E
Handley, R. 21
Eroglu, S. 33, 54, 55, 222, 233, 235
Harkness, S. 3
Heckman, J. 87, 88
F Hedlund, J. 4
Feinstein, A.H. 239, 272 Hergenhahn, B.R. 37
Ferrin, D.L. 239 Hilgard, E.R. 3
Freund, A. 239, 272 Hoepfner, R. 15
Friedman, H.S. 33, 55, 222, 233, Holahan, C.K. 31, 54, 222, 240
235 House, R.J. 35, 55, 233
Fund, S. 21
Furnham, A. 39, 41
J
Jausovec, K. 28
G Jausovec, N. 28
Gaertner, S. 239 Jensen, A.R. 28
Ganesan, S. 35, 55, 223, 234 Jernigan, I.E. 239, 272
Gardner, H. 13, 16 Jones, G.R. 239
Gardner, J.K. 39
Gaschke, Y.N. 25
K
Geher, G. 27
Kaplan, R.E. 35, 55, 236
George, J.M. 35, 36, 55, 223, 236,
Kee, H.W. 239
239
Kellett, S. 55
Gerlic, I. 28
Kelley, R. 31, 35, 54, 55, 222, 236
Author Index
293
Ketron, J.L. 3 Mount, M.K. 32, 55, 239

Kilbride, P.L. 3 Mowday, R.T. 239
Kimberley, N. 239, 273 Myers, D.G. 37
Knox, R.E. 239
Kohut, G.F. 239, 273
N
Kokkinaki, F. 39
Nunley, E.P. 27
Konstantin, P. 16
Nygren, D.J. 36
Krivoy, E. 21
O
L
Olson, M.H. 37
LaCroix, J. 239
Ones, D.Z. 239
Lane, R.D. 40, 41
Lashley, C. 239, 272
Lebiecki, J.E. 239 P
Lee-Ross, D. 239, 272 Palfai, T. 14
Lees, A. 223 Parker, J.D.A. 20
Leroy, R. 39 Pérez, J.C. 39
Likert, R. 72 Petrides, K. 39
Lockhart, R.S. 3 Petrides, K.V. 16, 38, 39, 41
Lowry, D.S. 239, 272 Pilling, B.K. 33, 54, 55, 222, 233,
Lusch, R.F. 32, 54, 55, 222, 240 235
Pita, R. 39
Pluta, P. 21
M
Plutchik, R. 24
Malouff, J.M. 28
Porter, L.W. 239
Mandler, G. 15
Psenicka, C. 32, 55, 222, 240
Mannix, E.A. 272
Putnam, D.B. 3
Martins, A. 39
Matthews, G. 4
Mayer, J.D. 4, 14–16, 20–28, 30, 38, Q
41, 42, 53, 285 Qualter, P. 39
McBane, D. 33, 222, 233 Quinlan, D.M. 40
McClelland, D.C. 32, 36, 53, 54,
223, 233, 237
R
McClurg, L.N. 239, 272
Rahim, M.A. 32
Meyer, J.P. 239, 272
Ramalho, N. 39
Mikolajczak, L. 39
Rhee, K. 36
Mitchell, D.C. 4
Roberts, R.D. 4
Morin, E. 39
294
Author Index
Rosier, R.H. 32, 55, 233 T

Ross, W. 239 Teuchmann, K. 36, 55, 236
Rousseau, D.M. 35, 233 Thomas-Hunt, M. 35, 233
Ruzgis, P.M. 3 Thorndike, E.L. 13
Totterdell, P. 36, 55, 236
Turvey, C. 14
S
Saarni, C. 27
Saks, A.M. 31, 54, 222, 240 U
Sala, F. 38 Ukeritis, M.D. 36
Salgado, J.F. 239
Salovey, P. 2, 4
V
Schaffer, L.F. 14
Valencia, R.R. 20
Schermer, J.A. 39
Van Rooy, D.L. 21
Schoen, M. 14
Viswesvaran, C. 21
Schulman, P. 53–55
Vondrasek, D. 239, 273
Schutte, N.S. 28, 41, 42
Schwartz, G.E. 40
Schwepker, C.H. 239, 272 W
Sears, R.R. 31, 54, 222, 240 Walker, P.A. 40
Serpell, R. 3 Wechsler, D. 13, 14
Serpkenci, R. 54, 55, 240 Weyl Ben-Arush, M. 21
Simon, A. 239, 273 Williams, D. 223, 227
Spearman, C. 15 Williams, M. 239
Spencer, L. 32, 33, 35, 36, 55, 222, Wober, M. 3
233–235, 237, 240, 241
Spencer, S. 32, 33, 35, 36, 55, 222,
Y
233–235, 237, 240, 241
Yang, S.-Y. 3
Spielberger, C.D. 16
Young, P.T. 14
Steele, C.M. 55, 222, 235
Steers, R.M. 239
Sternberg, R.J. 3, 4, 16, 53 Z
Stevens, A. 30 Zeidner, M. 4
Strauss, J.P. 32 Zeitlin, S.B. 40
Super, C.M. 3
Suzuki, L.A. 20
Swart, A. 21
Sweeny, P. 35
Subject Index
A Building bonds
Ability model 16, 22, 38–40 determinants 198
Accurate self assessment
determinants 123
C
Achievement drive
determinants 138 Change catalyst
Adaptability determinants 211
determinants 80, 93, 107, 111, Cognitive excellence 3, 271
142, 145, 172, 199, 209 Cognitive skills 6, 23, 24, 53, 271, 272
Affect 3, 6, 13, 14, 25, 35, 61, 103, Commitment
138, 146, 161, 165, 168, 172, determinants 141
176, 185, 189, 192, 195, 199, Communication
203, 205, 209, 212, 221, 223, determinants 192
239, 241, 257, 269, 271–273, Conflict-management
275 determinants 205
Conscientiousness
determinants 98
B Content scale 17–19
Bar-On Model 11, 16, 17, 19–21, Cooperation
37 determinants 201
Big Five Personality Factor Model Cronbach’s alpha 20, 42, 72, 73,
21, 38, 39, 42 242, 243
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018 295
G. Chakrabarti and T. Chatterjea, Employees' Emotional Intelligence, Motivation &
Productivity, and Organizational Excellence, DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-5759-5
296
Subject Index
D Emotional self awareness

Developing others determinants 115
determinants 80, 153, 160, 164, Emotional Understanding 22
168, 171, 192, 208 Emotional Use 22
Empathy
determinants 138, 142, 149, 160,
E
164, 168, 192
EI competences
EQ-i 17, 19, 20, 28, 38, 39
determinants 80, 99, 115, 121,
137, 138, 142, 145, 153, 160,
161, 172, 176, 187, 192, 195, F
199, 202, 205, 209, 212, 223 Five-point Likert scale 56, 72
EI dimensions 72, 74, 75, 80, 82, 84,
91, 103, 107, 111, 115, 117,
G
120, 122, 133, 145, 148, 155,
156, 161, 164, 168, 175, 182, General Mood 19
183, 187, 192, 195, 196, 198, Goleman Model 16, 37
200, 203, 210, 212, 216
Emotional Intelligence 3–5, 12–17, H
20, 21, 26–28, 31, 33, 35, Hot Intelligences 2, 4
37–42, 52–55, 74, 80, 82, 89,
93–95, 98, 102, 107, 117, 121,
122, 134, 137–139, 145, 153, I
156, 160, 164, 172, 175, 180, Index of Improved Performance
183, 186, 187, 198, 201, 205, Interdependence of Performance
216, 222–224, 227, 228, 235, Indexes 244
238, 246, 271, 282, 283, 285 Performance Index, Intrinsic Skill,
Emotional Management 22 Psycho-social factor and EQ
Emotional Perception 27 246
Emotional Quotient (EQ) 17, 19, Index of Intrinsic Skills 238
72, 74, 82, 84, 90–92, 95, 98, Index of Leadership
102, 109, 112, 117, 119, 121, and EQ 262
123, 132, 134, 136, 140, 145, and Intrinsic Skill 252
148, 149, 151, 153, 155, 157, and Psycho-social factor 269
159, 161, 164, 168, 174, 180, Index of Psycho-social Skills 241
183, 184, 186, 187, 190, 195, Index of Shaping the Future
196, 199, 203, 205, 206, 209, and EQ 262
211, 213, 248, 251–253, 257, and Intrinsic Skill 263
258, 269 and Psycho-social factor 262, 266
Subject Index
297
Index of Situation Management O

and EQ 251 Optimism
and Intrinsic Skill 252 determinants 95, 130, 137, 148,
and Psycho-social factor 282 161, 168, 172
Index of Teamwork Organizational Awareness 33, 233
and EQ 257 Outcome indexes 242, 244, 269
and Intrinsic Skill 270
and Psycho-social factor 256, 270
P
Influence
Political awareness
determinants 161, 168, 172, 176,
determinants 153, 175
187, 199
Probit Model
Initiative
Bivariate Probit Model 85, 89, 93,
determinants 95, 107, 130, 137,
121, 134, 137, 157, 158, 160,
139, 145, 149, 164, 202
184, 187, 244, 248, 252, 258,
Innovativeness
260, 264, 273
determinants 93, 99, 103, 110,
Probit Model with sample
138, 142
selection 86, 89, 134,
Inter-Personal scale 18
156, 183
Intra-Personal scale 17
SUR Bivariate Probit model 158,
Intrinsic skills 7, 232, 238, 240, 244,
184, 252, 258, 260, 264
246, 248, 249, 251–253, 257,
Professional ethics 271, 275, 276,
259, 262, 266, 270
279, 281
Psycho-social factors 232, 239, 242,
L 248, 249, 251, 256, 257, 259,
Leadership 263, 266, 269, 271
determinants 187, 198, 211
Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale
R
(LEAS) 40
Reliability analysis 72, 242
Leveraging-diversity 56
S
M
Self Awareness
Marginal effects 95, 96, 99, 101, 103,
EQ and Self Regulation 89
107, 109, 121, 142, 146, 161,
Rank correlation 77, 84, 118, 133,
172, 189, 192, 195, 209, 245,
155, 183
270
Self Awareness and other EI
Mayer-Salovey Model 16
dimensions
Motivation 2, 3, 7, 13, 74, 83, 90, 119,
gender, age, income, occupation
132, 135, 136, 157, 185, 271
and education structures 91
298
Subject Index
Self Awareness (Continued) Self Regulation and Self

Self Awareness and Self Awareness 80, 90
Motivation 135 Self Regulation and Self
Self Awareness and Self Motivation 80, 90, 135
Regulation 75 Self Regulation and Social
Self Awareness and Social Skills Awareness 80, 91, 158
184 Self Regulation and Social Skills
Social Awareness and Self 80, 91
Awareness 133 Self-Report Emotional Intelligence
Self confidence Test (SREIT) 40, 41
determinants 103, 111, 121, 123, Service Orientation
126, 153, 168, 195, 211 determinants 153, 160, 164, 168,
Self control 172
determinants 80, 93, 99, 103, Situation Management Index
111, 126, 153, 172, 205 and EQ 251
Self Motivation and Intrinsic Skill 251, 252, 269
EQ and Self Motivation 134 and Psycho-social factor 269
Rank correlation 75, 84, 118, 133 Social Awareness
Self Motivation and other EI EQ and Social Awareness 157
dimensions Rank correlation 155
gender, age, income, occupa- Social Awareness and other EI
tion and education struc- dimensions
tures 136, 186 gender,age,income,occupation
Self Motivation and Self and education structures
Awareness 135, 156 185
Self Motivation and Self Social Awareness and Self
Regulation 135 Awareness 134
Self Motivation and Social Social Awareness and Self
Awareness 135 Motivation 84, 119, 157
Self Motivation and Social Skills Social Awareness and Self
80, 136 Regulation 83, 158
Self Regulation Social Awareness and Social Skills
EQ and Self Regulation 89 80, 119, 158
Rank correlation 77, 118, 133 Social intelligence 12, 20, 21
Self Regulation and other EI Social skill
dimensions EQ and Social skill 184
gender,age,income,occupation Rank correlation 77, 182
and education structures 91, Social skill and Self Awareness
158, 185 184
Subject Index
299
Social skill and Self Regulation T

185 Team capabilities
Social skill and Social Awareness determinants 180, 202, 209
74 Team work 246, 257, 269
Social Skills and other EI dimen- Tetrachoric Correlation 89, 91, 93,
sions 119, 121, 134, 135, 137, 157,
gender,age,income,occupation 158, 160, 184, 185, 187, 245,
and education structures 274
185 Trait based model 16, 38, 40
Social Skills and Self Motivation Trustworthiness
136, 185 determinants 80, 93, 95, 99, 138,
Spatial performance intelligence 12 164, 172, 199, 202, 205
Spearman’s rank correlation coef-
ficient 80
V
Stress Management 19
Verbal propositional intelligence 12
Stress Tolerance 19

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EMPLOYEES’ EMOTIONAL

A Future Trend in HRD

ISBN 978-981-10-5758-8 ISBN 978-981-10-5759-5 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947723

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

Cover illustration: © John Rawsterne/patternhead.com

Printed on acid-free paper

This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature

The study of Emotional Intelligence could be traced back to the era

situations are being claimed to require a perfect blending of reasoning

belong, to attain certain specific goals. Do emotional intelligence skills

Kolkata, India Amitava Sarkar

This book is an attempt to recognize the relevance and significance of

While the book is an attempt to quench the thirst of the researchers,

Kolkata, India Dr. Gagari Chakrabarti

2 Intelligence? … Emotions? … or, the Emotional

3 Indicators of Emotional Intelligence: Determinants

4 Benefit to an Organization: Intrinsic Skills

Author Index 291

Subject Index 295

Graph 3.1 Classification of respondents according to gender 62

Graph 3.12 Predicted probability of having above-average

Graph 3.27 Predicted probability of attaining above-average

Graph 3.43 Improvement in predicted probability of showing

Graph 3.61 Improvement in predicted probability of having

Graph 3.76 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence

Graph 3.92 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leadership

Graph 3.108 Relevant EI competences affecting team capabilities

Graph 4.10 Increase in predicted probability of showing

Graph 4.23 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills

Table 3.1 Detailed educational structure 65

Table 3.15 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient among

Table 3.34 Predicted probability of showing above-average

Table 3.51 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills

Table 4.11 Predicted probability of showing above-average proficiency

Abstract As a preamble to the issue of employees’ emotional

© The Author(s) 2018 1

Keywords Emotional intelligence · Cognitive and Non-cognitive

The 1997 classic paper by J.D. Mayer and P. Salovey on “What is

In traditional line of thinking passions and reckoning were considered

proficiency in dealing with, specially disruptive, emotions; the skills in

and control personal emotions; would recognize, appreciate and respect

1. How competent a group of individuals, coming from different socio-

models that are available in literature for analysing, measuring and

Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In

Emotions can get in the way or get you on the way.

Abstract This chapter portrays the conceptual development of

Keywords Emotional intelligence · Bar-On model · Ability based

may be described as an unconscious state which is distinct from cogni-

with higher emotional and social skills and by offering opportunities to

2.2 Models for Analysing Emotional

2.2.1 The Bar-On Model of Emotional Intelligence

(i) Intra-Personal scale includes Emotional Self-Awareness,

causing those. Assertiveness is portrayed as the ability to put across

perception and the reality. Alternatively, it relates the subjective

2.2.2 The Ability-Based Model: Mayer and Salovey

Much of the development in the area of Emotional Intelligence was

emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional

1. Perception, appraisal and expression of emotion: Mayer and Salovey

non-cognitive skills that Mayer and Salovey (1997) tried to categorize

factors such as mood swing might effectively impinge on occupational

emotions gush in. Accordingly, Mayer and Salovey (1997) described

2.2.2.1 Measuring Emotional Intelligence in Mayer

Graph 3.12 Predicted probability of having above-average

Graph 3.27 Predicted probability of attaining above-average

Graph 3.43 Improvement in predicted probability of showing

Graph 3.61 Improvement in predicted probability of having

Graph 3.76 Predicted probability of exhibiting competence

Graph 3.92 Relevant EI competences affecting skills in leadership

Graph 3.108 Relevant EI competences affecting team capabilities

Graph 4.10 Increase in predicted probability of showing

Graph 4.23 Increase in predicted probability of showing skills

Table 3.1 Detailed educational structure 65

Table 3.15 Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient among

Table 3.34 Predicted probability of showing above-average

Table 3.51 Predicted probability of showing above-average skills

Table 4.11 Predicted probability of showing above-average proficiency

Abstract   As a preamble to the issue of employees’ emotional

Keywords  Emotional intelligence · Cognitive and Non-cognitive

Abstract   This chapter portrays the conceptual development of

Keywords  Emotional intelligence · Bar-On model · Ability based

2.2 Models for Analysing Emotional

2.2.1 The Bar-On Model of Emotional Intelligence

2.2.2 The Ability-Based Model: Mayer and Salovey

2.2.2.1 Measuring Emotional Intelligence in Mayer

2.2.3 The Mixed Model of Emotional Intelligence:

(a) Self-awareness or the ability to know one’s emotions, strengths,

(b) Trustworthiness: a skill portrayed as the ability to convey one’s val-

(a) Empathy is described as the skill to comprehend others’ feelings,

(b) Influence is described as the ability to have an impact on others

as well as of the leader tends to improve performance (Totterdell et al.

2.2.4 The Trait Based Model of Emotional Intelligence

2.2.4.1 “Big Five” Personality Factor Model

2.2.4.2 Trait Model of Emotional Intelligence

2.2.5 Other Models and Measures of Emotional

2.2.5.1 The Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (LEAS)

2.2.5.2 The Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test (SREIT)

Abstract  Redefining intelligence has changed the way in which indi-

Keywords  EI competences · EI dimensions · Five-point Likert scale

3.2 The Survey and the Questionnaire

3.3 Respondents Classified According

3.3.2 Classification According to Income

Graph 3.1 Classification of respondents according to gender

Graph 3.2 Classification of respondents according to monthly income

3.3.3 Classification According to Age

3.3.4 Classification According to Occupation

Graph 3.3 Classification of respondents according to age in years

Graph 3.4 Classification of respondents according to occupation

3.3.5 Classification According to Educational

Table 3.1 Detailed educational structure

Graph 3.5 Classification of respondents according to education

3.3.6 Cross Tabulation According to Gender, Age,

Table 3.2 Cross tabulation involving age and gender

Table 3.3 Cross tabulation involving gender and income

Table 3.4 Cross tabulation involving gender and occupation