C​OURSE​ :TXL740

Submitted By :-
Md Asif Anwar 2017TT10922
Zeeshan Ahmad 2017TT10975
Kumar Priyanshu 2017TT10918
Lakshya 2017TT10919
Mohammed Zia Kamran 2017TT10925
Ritesh Kumar 2017TT10947
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Introduction
Textiles are considered as one of the main ignition sources in fire accidents. Therefore,
the development of flame retardant textiles in many applications such as protective
clothing, carpet, furniture, curtain, flooring, sleepwear,mattresses, and industrial textiles
has attracted much attention to prevent fire accidents and protect human life.
According to the famous flame triangle, fuel, heat and oxygen are the three important
elements in a combustion process. Once the flame is ignited then stopping any of the
above three elements may stop (or reduce) the propagation of flame. An appropriate
flame retardant treatment can retard the ignition of textiles and decrease the flame
spread.Generally, flame retardant systems can be categorized as non-intumescent and
intumescent systems, based on the flame retardant mechanism. Traditional
non-intumescent flame retardant systems utilize FRs based on halogenated, phosphorus,
nitrogen, silicone, or inorganic metal compounds.the use of halogenated FRs has been
restricted owing to generation of toxic gases and high level of smoke during
combustion. Although phosphorus compounds are less toxic, they may release
formaldehyde, and some human health and environmental issues arising from them are
remarkable.the consumption of the traditional FR compounds can be reduced by
using flame retardant nanoparticles. Nanoparticles can improve the thermal stability and
the physical and mechanical properties of textiles and polymers.Various interactions
such as van der Waals, hydrogen bonding, and electrostatic interaction are created in
polymer nanocomposites which all can cause highly improved compatibility between
polymer and nanoparticles and promote dispersion of nanoparticles.With this approach,
the environmental problems can be reduced, mechanical properties can be improved,
and a synergistic effect and a regulatory fire safety performance can be obtained.

Structure and its Chemistry

One proposed mechanism for flame retardancy of nanocomposites is the formation,

during combustion, of an inorganic barrier on the surface that protects the
underlying polymer from oxygen and also reduces heat transfer. This physical barrier is
made of nanoparticles accumulating through polymer ablation, and migrating to the
surface from the bulk, for convection and surface tension reduction. Unfortunately,
the use of bulk nanocomposites for the production of flame retardant fabrics is not very
feasible due to complications with fiber production, such as the formation of
microscopic aggregates that lead to a fragile material.Despite these problems flame
retardant nanotechnology is still possible if implemented as a surface treatment that
results in a protective barrier, much the same way as for bulk nanocomposites, but with
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the advantage of being already on the surface of the polymer.Anti-flammability can also
be imparted by in-situ polymerization and plasma enhanced coatings. More recently, a
simple and highly tailorable coating technique, known as layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly
, has been used to reduce flammability of cotton fabric.This self assembly technique has
been used to impart oxygen barrier, anti-reflection, electrical conductivity and
antibacterial properties in addition to flame retardant behavior. These multifunctional
thin films are deposited through alternate immersion, or spraying, of the substrate with
oppositely charged polyelectrolyte solutions that create positively and negatively
charged layers built up on the substrate surface.In addition to growing films through
electrostatic attractions, assemblies have been built through donor/acceptor interactions,
hydrogen-bonding and covalent
bonds.The flame retardation
effect of the nanoclays is strongly
dependent on both its ability to
disperse into the nanocomposite
and organo modifier content
the formation of both intercalated
and exfoliated nanocomposites
results in good flame retardant
properties.

Schematic illustration of flame retardation mechanisms in polymer/clay

nanocomposites during combustion

Another way is to modify the chemistry of the polymer matrices. Flame retardant
coatings of polymers and composites are also a well-known method against
flammability.Plasma coating technology is another one to achieve cotton fibers based
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flame retardant composites.Char forming flame retardants works in the condensed
phase by preventing fuel release through binding up fuel as non-pyrolyzable carbon
(char) and providing thermal insulation for underlying polymer through the formation of
char protection layers.

Halogenated Flame Retardants’ flame retardancy mechanism is similar for all

compounds and involves decomposition upon heat application, to prevent flammable
gas formation.

The phosphorus flame retardants act in the condensed phase.These flame retardants
transform into phosphoric acid by thermal degradation, and water is released.A
protective layer consists of interpenetrating networks of carbon and phosphorous
oxide is developed by the phosphoric acid.The formation of the radicals P and PO are
interrupting the radical chain mechanism of the combustion process.

Synthesis /Manufacturing Methods :

There are various methods to produce Nanoparticles of different kind for Nanolayer
coating .Some of their synthesis and finishing methods are mentioned below :

I)​ ​Silica Based Flame Retardant

The PET textile fabric used here was an industry standard with a density of 171 g/m2 .
Positive alumina coated silica (Ludox CL) and two different colloidal suspensions of
silica nanoparticles (Ludox TM40 and Ludox SM30) used as received to prepare 0.2
wt.-% suspensions for LbL assembly. All aqueous suspensions were diluted to 0.2
wt.-% using 18.6 MU deionized water.

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The PET fabric was alternately immersed into positive by and negative by-charged
suspensions to generate conformal colloidal layers on each fiber surface. After each
immersion step, the fabric was washed with deionized water to remove excess
nanoparticles.As the first couple of layers is the most important for the uniformity and
stability of the coating, the immersion period for these layers was 5 min, followed by 1
min for subsequent layers. The process was repeated until samples with 5, 10 and 20
bilayers (BL) were built for each system. As can be observed , the thickness may seem
too small compared with a theoretical thickness for a coating made of 10 nm and 30 or
10 nm particles layered upon one another. It should be noted that Layer-by-layer
assembly can be thought of as a nucleation and growth process that begins with the
formation island of that spread laterally to eventually coalescence as more layers are
added. Ellipsometric thickne​ss is actually measuring the average over an area containing
uncoated regions, which leads to underestimated values for actual coating thickness.

II)Metal Based Nanoparticles for Flame Retardancy

The metal based nanoparticles have been used in the textile polymers in order to
improve their flame retardation. The improvement of many flame retardant parameters
is evident in the nanocomposites containing the metal based nanoparticles. Furthermore,
with the aim of enhancing the flame retardant attributes of the nanocomposites and
textiles, most researchers have supplemented the nanoparticles with the phosphorus
compounds.
One of the method is to immobilized TiO2 nanoparticles on the surface of
cotton/polyester knitted fabrics using citric acid as a cross-linking agent and sodium
hypophosphite (SHP) as a catalyst to produce a multi-functional textile with durable
flame retardation, anti-pilling, hydrophilicity, self-cleaning, antibacterial, and UV
protection properties. The presence of SHP as a phosphor source and TiO2 increased the
char residue of the fabrics by 21%.Second method might be that Layered structure of
α-titanium phosphate (α-TiP) enhanced the flame retardation of polypropylene (PP)/IFR
composites. Three main reasons were suggested for the improved flame retardation: (I)
α-TiP layers or their dehydrated form to pyrophosphate act as physical barriers, (II)
α-TiP catalyzes and enhances the charring on the surface, and (III) α-TiP has a large
cation exchange capacity as well as a high absorption ability.layered structure of
α-titanium phosphate (α-TiP) enhanced the flame retardation of polypropylene (PP)/IFR
composites.well as a high absorption ability. Moreover, in PP/IFR, ammonium
polyphosphate (APP) and pentaerythritol (PEN)/αZrP (zirconium-phosphate)
nanocomposite, the samples containing IFR and higher content of α-ZrP showed the
best flame retardation . α-ZrP catalyzed the carbonization of the system and reacted with
APP to form a zirconium-phosphate ceramic-like structure which increased the strength
of the char shield.
The efficiency of Al2O3 nanoparticles and APP is associated with the formation of a
compact carbonaceous structure that is reinforced by a crystalline structure of
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Al2P6O18, resulting from the interactions between Al2O3 and P4O10 yielded by
decomposition of APP.This protective layer can restrict the mass transfers of both
polymer and oxygen.

​ ​ The reaction between Al2O3 and APP during thermal degradation

In addition, the decomposition of intermediates such as polyphosphoric acid into P2O5
does not occur in this system, supposing strong interactions between the oxides and
phosphorus compounds. As well, the interaction between Al2O3 and APP leads to the
release of water and ammonia.

III) Carbon Nanotube-Based Flame Retardants

The main mechanisms of flame retardation in polymer/CNT systems are based on the
formation of char layers which act as a heat barrier and thermal insulator re-emitting the
radiation back to a gas phase which in turn delays the polymer degradation. CNT also
increases the thermal conductivity of the polymer nanocomposite, increases the melt
viscosity of the polymer due to the network structure formation of CNT, and acts as a
free radical scavenger.The polyvinyl phosphonic/CNT nanocomposite improved the
thermal stability and decreased the flammability of the substrate as a result of the high
heat resistance, heat insulation effect, and mass transport barrier of CNT embedded in
the coating.t the incorporation of up to 2 wt% of CNT in PA6/glass fiber laminates
improved the TTI and the time of pHRR(peak heat release rate ) by about 31 and 118%,
respectively. The existence of a sufficient content of CNT (> 0.5 wt%) in this system
formed a heat-conductive network to transport or dissipate the heat rapidly through the
bulk of the sample, which took a longer time for the surface temperature to reach the
ignition point. Additionally, since the thermal degradation of the polymer begins with
chain cleavage and radical formation, the CNT acted as a radical scavenger and delayed
the thermal degradation and therefore, improved the thermal stability of the
nanocomposite.The increased absorption of radiative heat within the top layer and only
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a slight increase in heat conductivity in carbon nanocomposites compared to unfilled PP
led to a decrease in TTI. The formation of residue layers during combustion protected
the underlying polymer and reduced the pHRR up to 74% in the case of
TRGO(Thermally-reduced graphite oxide).

IV) Clay/Polymer Nanocomposites for Flame Retardancy

Various approaches are available for each of the three synthesis methods, namely
solution-blending, melt-blending and in-situ polymerization. An important task in the
preparation of polymer/nanoclay composites is to achieve a uniform dispersion of
nanoclay in the polymer matrix. The solution-blending technique often yields favorable
dispersion of clay layers in the polymer matrix, in comparison with melt blending, due
to its low viscosity and high agitation power.
a) Solution Blending Method :Solution-blending is a solvent based process in which
the polymer and the prepolymer are soluble, which causes swelling of the clay
layers. The layered clay is exfoliated onto single layers using a solvent in which
the polymer or prepolymer is soluble, such as water, chloroform, or toluene .
When the polymer/prepolymer and layered clay are mixed in a solution, the
polymer chains intercalate and displace the solvent within the interlayer of the
clay. Upon solvent removal (by vaporization or precipitation), the intercalated
sheets reassemble, resulting in polymer/nanoclay composites.

b) Melt Blending Method :The melt-blending method blends the desired

amount of intercalated nanoclay particles with polymers .The absence of
solvents reduces the environmental impact and minimizes potential
interactions between the host and polymer solvents, which, in many
cases, limits clay dispersion . The melting conditions, such as feed rate,
temperature profile, rotor/screw speed, mixing time, oxidative
environment, die pressure, material grades and contents, as well as the
chemical nature of the nanoclay filler and polymers, are important
parameters for the synthesis of the composites

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 c) In-situ Method :

Chemical and Mechanical Properties with

Comparisons:

Properties of CNTs based retardant

CNTs exhibit excellent mechanical
properties with Young’s modulus as
high as 1.2 TPa and tensile strength
of 50–200 GPa. The combination of
these exceptional mechanical
properties along with the low density,
high aspect ratio and high surface
area make CNTs an ideal candidate
for reinforcement in composite
materials. Unlike the microscopic
particulate composites, the
mechanical properties of
nanocomposites depend strongly on
the dispersion state of nanofillers, apart from the properties of fillers and matrix
material.

Properties of Clay/polymer Nanocomposites

The interfacial interaction between nanoclay fillers and polymer matrix, as well
as the quality of nanoclay dispersion, has a significant influence on the
performance of polymer/nanoclay composites . These intercorrelated features
determine the polymer/nanoclay composites’ morphology and, thus, their final
bulk properties such as strength, elastic modulus, thermal stability, heat
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distortion temperature, self-healing, shape memory abilities and gas barrier .
The surface functionalization of nanoclays is a practical method to enhance the
interfacial interactions between nanoclay fillers and polymeric matrix, enabling
the transfer of interfacial stress from the polymer to the nanoclays . For
instance, the covalent modification of the outer surfaces of halloysite nanotubes
enhances their dispersibility into the polymer matrix, which may improve the
thermal stability and tensile properties of the resulting polymer/nanoclay
composites . Synthesis approaches may lead to different combinations of
polymer matrix and nanoclays, such as an immiscible structure, an intercalated
structure and an exfoliated structure . In the immiscible structure, the nanoclay
dispersion aggregates within the polymer matrix and the polymers are
separated from the clay layers . The polymer chains form an intercalated
structure between the clay layers, altering the geometry of the clay layers.

Properties of Silica Based Flame Retardants :

It is interesting to note that in the glass state, the dynamic storage modulus of
all of the m-GNSs containing composites was significantly higher than that of
the control epoxy, and the modulus increased with the concentration of
m-GNSs. In the composites systems, the m-GNSs were homogeneously
dispersed in the epoxy matrices due to the modification of the surfaces of
GNSs, and thus the increased modulus could be attributed to the reinforcing
effect of m-GNSs on the epoxy matrix.

Characterization:

Characterization Techniques
● Electron Microscopy Observation
○ TEM Observations
○ SEM Observations

1. Electron Microscopy Observation

Electron microscopy is an imaging technique that uses an electron beam in
order to probe a material. Since the wavelength of an electron is much smaller
than the wavelength of visible light, diffraction effects occur at much smaller
physical dimensions.

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Sem Observation:- ​The SEM morphology is performed on an XL30S-FEG
PHILIPS working at 3 kV. SEM images clearly illustrated in different figures,
show that the CNTs synthesized in this study display widely different
morphologies according to the values and the conc. of variable parameters.

SEM images: (a) highly oriented carbon nanotubes obtained under optimized
conditions (b) poorly oriented carbon nanotubes.

Figures show highly oriented films that are obtained under optimized
conditions as represented, consisting of the evaporation of ™ which is Co or
mixture of Co and Fe. While fig b shows poorly oriented nanotubes films
obtained with more defects. These figures clearly show a general view of
poorly oriented CNTs, with important physical defects.

SEM images with low and high magnification at 0% NH​ 3​.

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 SEM images with low and high magnification with 1% NH​ 3​.

Sample %NH​ 3 Density(​µm-2) Mean Length

diameter distribution
(nm)
1 0 290 20 ± 5 300-450
2 1 50 20 ± 5 250-500
3 3 3 20 ± 5 800-300

The main experimental morphological and correlation data determined from SEM and
TEM observation for CNTs.

In spite of the fact that SEM analysis gives valuable information in

morphological and structural characterization of CNTs, it is however not
sufficient to establish the ultimate nature of carbon nanotubes. It is easy to
confuse only on the basis of SEM observations carbon nanotubes from
nanofibers. Thus, one proceeds to TEM analysis of the samples to have deeper
information on obtained CNTs​.

TEM Observation:-​ TEM micrographs clearly illustrate that nanotubes

obtained display widely different morphologies according to some variable
parameters. And it is possible to control the morphology. Within the medium
value of the plasma power, as shown with SEM study, carbon nanotubes are
yet grown. These samples, however, display different mutual orientations. The
highly oriented films are obtained under optimized conditions and poorly and
medium oriented films are also obtained, showing more defects.

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CNTs TEM images with TM particles inserted at one end: (a) CNT highly oriented, (b)
CNTs medium oriented and (c) CNTs sample synthesized with 1% of NH3. The two ends
of each CNT are well observed detached from the substrate. One end has the graphitic
structure (half fullerene) and the other has a TM particle inserted in the tube.

Unfortunately, TEM images of CNTs do not give the opportunity to determine

the exact number of walls of each sample of CNTs (Figure a). This deficiency
is the result of defects. In this way, mutually aligned tubes of different
densities are obtained, depending on the ammonia concentration in the reactive
gas mixture. TEM images of CNTs show that the mean diameter is 25 nm and
few micrometers in length. From the TEM image, one could see that CNTs are
very thin like broadcast needles on the floor. The absence of TEM analysis can
lead to wrong conclusions in the case of carbon nanomaterials. It is the most
important and most reliable technique for correctly identifying the nature and
the form of carbon nanomaterials. However, there remains some missing
information. TEM images of CNTs and CNFs are clearly distinct, but it is
quite difficult to know the exact number of walls.

HRTEM is now capable of imaging individual atoms in nanostructures with

subangström resolution. The continued development of new tools is critical to
the pace of further progress in nanoscience and technology, they provide the
“eyes” to see and the “fingers” to handle nanostructures. In the nearer term, the
greater need is to provide laboratory researchers with the instruments and tools
to discover and investigate new chemical, physical, and biological phenomena
and applications.

SEM and TEM Characterization and discussions:-

A perfect CNT is an abstraction because the hexagonal structure sp​2​ forms
layers with different types of alterations as shown in the literature. These

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 alterations can come from the growth mode, from the deposit on a substrate, or
they can be the result of a heat or chemical treatment. An important
consequence of these defects on surface morphology that needs to be pointed
out is the roughness of the CNTs surface. The defects are in general very
important because they can modify the electronic properties of the
nanostructure, and so, they can be seen as a feature that can influence
nanostructures applications. Generally, a defective site has a high chemical
reactivity, in other words, this site is chemical reactions favored. Thus CNTs
and CNFs with poor orientation, and which have many defects are not
appropriate for applications in field emission devices but can have other
important applications like functionalization. In most cases, TEM
investigations and seldom in SEM’s, it is shown that the catalyst metal
particles are attached to the nanostructures top end (nanofibers or nanotubes),
or found inside the nanostructures (nanofibers, nanotubes, and nanoparticles)
or at last in the sidewalls for all varieties obtained.

Properties:

Flame retardancy is the ability of a material to prevent or retard the propagation of fire

through either restraining the chemical reactions responsible for the flame or creating a
surface preventive layer. Considering thermosets, flame retardancy is an important
feature that decides its high-temperature applications. For conventional epoxies, their
combustible essence limited their advanced high flame resistance applications. Materials
containing halogens are widely used to improve the flame retardancy of epoxy resins.
However, due to some environmental considerations, the usage of halogenated
compounds is limited.

In order to substitute halogen-based flame retardants, more studies have been carried out
concerning halogen-free high flame-resistant epoxies. As a result, outstanding flame
retardancy of epoxy polymer is achieved through the incorporation of heteroatoms like

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phosphorus, silicon, and boron. A study of Jiao et al. developed a flame-retardant epoxy
resin (FREP) by reacting bisphenol A epoxy resin with phosphoric acid. Then, epoxy
resin was blended with FREP and cured using 0.2% triphenylphosphine accelerator. It
was reported that decreased rate of heat release and smoke production and increased
char residue for cured epoxy blend. This was ascribed to the creation of a preventive
phosphorus bountiful layer in the modified epoxy.

In another study, Hou et al. synthesized a phosphorus-containing epoxide siloxane

(PES) modifier by treating epoxy-siloxane and
9,10-dihydro-9-oxa-10-phosphaphenanthrene-10-oxide (DOPO) together. Later, PES
was introduced into the epoxy resin, and the curing reaction was carried out with the
help of 4,4′-diaminodiphenyl methane (DDM). As a result of PES incorporation, flame
retardancy and thermal properties of epoxy were increased. Xu et al. fabricated
efficiently a flame retardant, namely, CTP-DOPO from combined mixture of
hexachlorocyclotriphosphazene, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 4-aminophenol, and DOPO.
Afterward, epoxy resin was blended with CTP-DOPO and then cured using
4,4′-diaminodiphenyl sulfone (DDS). The cured epoxy polymer successfully passed the
UL-94 test with a flammability rating of V-0 , and their LOI value dramatically
increased to 36.6% from 21.7% of pure epoxy. The appearance of enriched aromatic
structure, phosphazene, and phosphaphenanthrene groups in the CTP-DOPO flame
retardant caused it to exhibit greater residual char, flame retardancy, and thermal
resistance. In another study, Martin et al. examined the effect of boron-modified
novolac resin on flammability and thermal stability of epoxy. The boron-modified
novolac resin in the blend produced boric acid at higher temperatures, which resulted in
an intumescent char and thereby reduced the flame propagation and the thermal
degradation of epoxy thermoset.

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Applications :
The recent developments in the application of different nanoparticles or a combination
of nanoparticles and conventional FRs for flammability reduction of textile polymers
have been quite good.The extent of improvement depends on several parameters such as
morphology and composition of the nanoparticle, compatibility between nanoparticle
and polymer, dispersion of the nanoparticles in the polymer matrix, and migration speed
of nanoparticles to the surface.

Nanoparticles can reduce the flammability of polymers because of the reduction in heat
release rate, the increase in flame-out and their ability to auto-extinguish.The
mechanisms involve physical barrier effects and catalytic processes, which can modify
the degradation of polymers and form charred protective layers reinforced by the
nanoparticles. The properties conferred by nanoparticles depend on dispersion and the
chemical modifications to improve compatibility with polymers. The reduction of total
heat released during combustion is achieved by a combination of nanoparticles and
flame retardants.Future trends include the development of nanoparticle/polymer hybrids
and the optimization of the composition and morphology of the protective barrier.

Conclusions:
After going through many research papers, we can make the conclusion that ​most of ​the
nanoparticles can improve the thermal stability and flame retardant properties of the
textile polymers.The main mechanisms involved are the formation of a protective
barrier layer combined with char promotion and free radical trapping.Although most
polymer nanocomposites exhibit thermal stability through lower HRR, higher char
residue and LOI value, they do not self-extinguish. Therefore, they are incapable of
passing some regulatory fire tests. Consequently, the best approach is to use the polymer
nanocomposite in combination with the conventional FRs to achieve regulatory fire
safety performance. These flame retardant nanocomposites provide synergistic and
enhanced flame retardation. Moreover, nanoparticles are able to reduce the
concentration of the common FRs, improve physical and mechanical properties and
develop multifunctional textiles. Recent studies have focused on enhancing the fire
retardation of textiles with improved laundering durability, good physical properties,
easy processing, and surely low cost by nanoparticles.

We find a research paper that focused on various branched polyethyleneimine​ ​and

sodium montmorillonite (BPEI/MMT) thin-film assemblies, with the goal of developing
a flame-retardant coating system for cotton fabrics.Flame-retardant properties of the

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coating on the cotton fabric were tested with TGA, vertical flame testing, and micro
combustion calorimetry. During actual burning in the vertical flame test, afterglow time
was significantly reduced for the coated fabrics. Additionally, micro-calorimeter testing
revealed lower heat release for coated fabrics, suggesting that fewer combustible
volatiles were generated. The physical properties of the fabrics did not show great
differences between control and coated, suggesting that the coating does not adversely
affect the desirable properties of the fabric itself.

In another research paper, PET fabric was coated using layer-by-layer assembly in an
effort to enhance flame retardant properties. SEM images results show a change in
surface morphology for treated fabrics with an increased presence of the coating as a
function of bilayers deposited. Fabric thermal stability in oxidative conditions was
found to be slightly improved by the presence of the coating, as assessed with TGA.
Flammability and combustion properties were found to be greatly influenced by the
morphology of the coating and its physical stability during testing. The coatings
improved fabric fire properties as long as they were able to maintain continuous
coverage of the fibers, which leads to the formation of an effective inorganic
barrier.When tested with a vertical flame test, the coating was able to reduce the burning
time by 95% and eliminate melt dripping, which is one of the most significant issues
with PET. This ability to dramatically reduce the flammability of PET fabric, using an
environmentally-friendly process and relatively few bilayers, makes this a promising
alternative to current anti-flammable treatments. Overall the flame retardant chemicals
should not cause a greater hazard to our ​health​ and the ​environment​ than the threat of
fire they are supposed to prevent.

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K. Characteristic properties of nanoclays and characterization of nano particulates
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2) Prabhakar, M & Shah, Atta ur Rehman & Song, Jung-Il. (​2015​). A Review on the
Flammability and Flame Retardant Properties of Natural Fibers and Polymer
Matrix Based Composites. Composites Research. 28. 29-39.
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