Chapter 2: Reference models and

Protocols
Objectives
 Explain the function of protocols in network
communications.
 Explain the advantages of using a layered model to
describe network functionality.
 Describe the role of each layer in two recognized
network models: The TCP/IP model and the OSI
model.
 Describe the importance of addressing and naming
schemes in network communications.
How messages are communicated
 Data is sent across a network in small “chunks” called
segments
 Segmentation means dividing data stream into smaller and
manageable pieces to be sent over the network.
How messages are communicated
 Multiplexing is the process of interleaving the pieces of
separate conversations together on a network.
Industry standards

 Early days – proprietary network equipment and protocols.

Note: Proprietary, means that one company or vendor
controls the definition of the protocol and how it functions.
 Now – Industry standards
 Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
Develops standards in telecommunications, information
technology and power generation. Examples: 802.3
(Ethernet), 802.11 (WLAN)
 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet
standards RFCs (Request for Comments). Example: TCP,
IP, HTTP, FTP
Function of Protocol in Network Communication

 Protocol – Rules that govern communications.

 Protocol suite - A group of inter-related protocols that are
necessary to perform a communication function.
 Protocols are used to allow devices to communicate
successfully.
 Provide the format or structure of the message.
 Provide the setting up and termination of data transfer
sessions.
Interaction of protocols

 An example of the use of a protocol suite in a network

communications s the interaction between a web server
and a web browser.
 This interaction uses a number of protocols and standards
in the process of exchanging information between them.
 The different protocols work together to ensure that the
messages are received and understood by both parties.
Interaction of protocols
 Hyper text transfer protocol (HTTP):
Defines the content and formatting of the requests and
responses exchanged between the client and server.
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP):
Is the transport protocol that manages the individual
conversations between web servers and web clients.
It also divides the HTTP massages into smaller pieces,
called segments to be sent to the destination client.
Its responsible for controlling the size and rate at which
messages are exchanged between the server and client.
Interaction of protocols
 Internet protocol (IP):
Responsible for taking the formatted segments from TCP,
encapsulating them into packets, assigning addresses and
selecting the best path to destination

 Network access protocol:

describes Data-link management and the physical
transmission of data on the media.
Data –link management protocols take the packets from IP
and format them to be transmitted over the media.
Layered Model

 In the mid-1980s, the network technologies that had

emerged had been created with a variety of different
hardware and software implementations.

 Each company that created network hardware and

software used its own company standards.

 Consequently, many of the new network technologies

were incompatible with each other.

 Need: Having a standard between multi vendors

 Solution  A Referencing Model
Layered Model
 It is a representation of Network operation.
 A framework (guideline) for network implementation and
troubleshooting
 Divides complex functions into simpler components
 Layered model types :
 OSI (Open System Interconnection ).
 TCP/IP (DOD Model)
Benefits of a layered Model

 It standardizes network components to allow multiple

vendor development and support.
 It allows different types of network hardware and
software to communicate with each other.
 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other
layers.
 It divides network communication into smaller parts to
make learning it easier to understand.
OSI vs TCP/IP model
 Internet was developed based on TCP/IP.
 OSI model is used as a guidance tool.
Layers with TCP/IP
The communication process
The communication process
A complete communication process include these steps:
1. Creation of data at the application layer at source’s end
device.
2. Segmentation and encapsulation of data.
3. Generation of the data onto the media at the network
access layer.
4. Transportation of the data through media and intermediary
devices.
5. Reception of the data at the network access layer of
destination devices.
6. De-capsulation and reassembly of the data.
7. Passing this data to the destination application at the
application layer of destination’s end device.
 The communication process
Encapsulation & De-capsulation
 Encapsulation – Process of adding control
information as it passes down through the layered
model.
 De-capsulation – Process of removing extra
information and sending only the original
The communication process
Protocol Data Unit (PDU) - The form that a piece of data
takes at any layer.
•At each stage of the process, a PDU has a different name
to reflect its new appearance.
•PDUs are named according to the protocols of the TCP/IP
suite.
Data - The general term for the PDU used at the Application layer
Segment - Transport Layer PDU
Packet - Internetwork Layer PDU
Frame - Network Access Layer PDU
Bits - A PDU used when physically
transmitting data over the medium
The communication process:
Addressing and Naming Schemes
 Labels in encapsulation headers are used to manage
communication in data networks.

 More on addressing discussed later

Layers with OSI Model
Summary