Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

Temporary overvoltage suppression in half-wavelength transmission lines T

during asymmetric faults
⁎
Felipe Proença Albuquerquea, Ronaldo F. Ribeiro Pereiraa, Eduardo C. Marques Costaa, ,
Luisa H. Bartocci Libonib
a
Department of Energy and Automation Engineering, Polytechnic School, USP – University of São Paulo, Brazil
b
IFSP – Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of São Paulo, Sertãozinho, SP, Brazil

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper approaches the principal electric characteristics of half-wavelength transmission lines and possible
Transmission lines voltage transients resulted from asymmetric faults. Although this non-conventional AC transmission technique
Overvoltage presents some attractive advances for electric power transmission through long distances, when compared to the
Surge arresters well-established HVDC systems, some important issues should be investigated on eventual overvoltage levels
along half-wavelength transmission lines during temporary asymmetric operation conditions, e.g. phase-to-
ground fault and single-phase reclosing. In this research, an iterative computational routine locates the over-
voltage points by varying the asymmetric fault location from the sending to the receiving end of the transmission
line. This procedure provides a full mapping of the most critical overvoltages as a function of the fault point
through the line length. Since the most critical fault occurrences and overvoltage locations are known, an al-
ternative method for overvoltage suppression is proposed by using line surge arresters directly at the phases in
parallel with the tower insulators. This technique represents an original method to contain overvoltages at
middle sections of half-wavelength transmission lines.

1. Introduction
The power transmission has been always a great challenge in
countries with continental territorial dimension, environmental issues,
rugged areas and many other geographic barriers. Transmission lines
with tall sections without corridors, supported by tower with more than
150 m height, have been proposed to overcome natural barriers, such
as: tropical forests, large rivers, flooded areas and also ecological re-
serves [1,2]. A recent example of this emerging technology is the Tu-
curuí–Macapá–Manaus interconnection across the Brazilian Amazon
region that is composed of tall line sections with more than 200 m
height over the tropical forest and flooded areas [1].
A well-established technology for power transmission through long
distances is represented by the High-Voltage Direct Current — HVDC
systems with bipolar and monopole topologies. Bipolar HVDC trans-
mission systems using Line Commuted Converters (LCC-HVDC) is a
mature technology for point-to-point power transmission through very
long distances. The LCC-HVDC systems present several advantages if
compared to conventional AC transmission systems: less power losses
during transmission, point-to-point power control using the LCCs and
no intermediary substations along the HVDC link. The Itaipu HVDC
bipolar system is an emblematic example of this technology, which
links the hydroelectric power plant of Itaipu (Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil),
with installed power capacity of 12,000 MW, to Ibiuna substation, São
Paulo, Brazil. Another example is the LCC-HVDC link from the Madeira
hydroelectric complex to the São Paulo state, connecting the Northern
Brazil to the Southeast region by a point-to-point transmission line with
approximately 2500 km length, which represents almost half wave-
length of the fundamental voltage signal at 60 Hz. A half-wavelength
line was suggested as an economic and technical attractive solution for
the North–Southeast power transmission issue, however, the well-
known HVDC technology was chosen as a more reliable and mature
alternative [3,4]. Although the theory provides various economic and
technical advantages of the half-wavelength line compared to point-to-
point HVDC systems, there are no practical reports on the reliability
and effective performance to encourage substantial financial supports
for project and construction of an AC half-wavelength transmission line.
However, the half-wavelength technique is still a viable alternative for
further transmission lines in Brazil, from unexplored hydroelectric po-
tential in the North to the industrial centers in the South and Southeast,

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: educosta@usp.br (E.C. Marques Costa).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2019.106028
Received 14 February 2019; Received in revised form 13 May 2019; Accepted 6 September 2019
0378-7796/ © 2019 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
F.P. Albuquerque, et al.
as well as other countries with continental territorial dimensions.
Another emerging HVDC technology that has been widely diffused
in the Europe is the voltage source converters in modular multilevel
converter topology for high-voltage direct (VSC-MMC-HVDC). This
technology differs of the LCC-HVDC systems because the converters
architecture is based on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs) and
commuted by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), which means that the
commutation of the IGBTs is controlled varying the PWM, differently of
the LCCs that are commuted based on the AC signal frequency using
thyristors. The VSC-HVDC technologies are a reliable solution for multi-
terminal transmission systems with distributed generation, even for
power transmission along very short distances [5,6].
Some non-conventional methods were also proposed in order to
improve the reliability and power transmission stability through
medium and long distances. Such methods are only based on the line
geometrical characteristics (distance between phases, bundle config-
uration, tower structure, cable characteristics etc) and electrical para-
meters. The technical literature proposes a four-phase transmission line
in which the three-phase to four-phase conversion is carried out by a
simple double Scott or Le Blanc arrangements using two power trans-
former at each line terminal. A four-phase line can continue operating
as a three-phase line after a phase-to-ground fault with 100% and 85%
of the nominal power under short-term and long-duration post-emer-
gency conditions, respectively, improving the reliability of the system
[7,8]. Another example of alternative technology, to increase the power
transmission through long distances, is the High Surge Impedance
Loading Line (HSIL) that is characterized by asymmetrical configuration
of the phase bundled conductors, varying the electric field distribution
in the bundle and increasing the load profile of the transmission system
by up to 25% more than a conventional transmission line [9,10].
In the case of the long-distance power transmission, there is a
constant search for more efficient and less costly alternative solutions.
The half-wavelength technology for point-to-point power transmission
is technically and economically viable for power transmission through
long distances. For AC transmission lines longer than 1500 km, the half-
wavelength line would require less capital investment than an AC
conventional transmission line with capacitive and inductive reactive
compensation. Furthermore, half-wavelength systems have no problems
with the Ferranti effect and excessive line loading current [11].
The recent literature has proved that half-wavelength transmission
lines are technically and economically reliable considering transposed
AC transmission lines under steady state operation [3]. However, some
issues should be concerned during electromagnetic transients, overload
operation and asymmetric faults (e.g. phase-to-ground fault). Although
a few recent references have approached half-wavelength transmission
systems under such specific operation conditions, more details and in-
formation are required for a more comprehensive and reliable analysis
on this emerging transmission technology [4,12]. In this context, this
research proposes a brief review on half-wavelength line theory fol-
lowed by an in depth analysis on possible overvoltages resulted from
unbalanced operation and fault conditions. In addition, the most critical
overvoltage levels are located along the line length as a function of the
fault occurrence location based on an iterative computational proce-
dure in which the voltage values are simulated and registered at each
point through the line varying the fault location. From this proposed
iterative process, an alternative technique for overvoltage suppression
is presented by using line ZnO surge arresters at specific locations along
the half-wavelength transmission line.
Fig. 1 shows line surge arresters installed in parallel with tower
insulators in which one terminal is connected to the phase by shunt
around flex joint and the second is connected to the steel structure of
the tower by means of a ground lead [13]. According to the technical
literature, a transmission line without line surge arresters and ground
wires has probability of flashover of 100% when struck by lightning. A
transmission line without arresters, protected only by shield wires, has
21% of flashover probability whereas a transmission line with on all
2
Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028
phases of every structure has 0% of probability. This information was
extract from statistical analysis in the technical literature, however, this
are referred from analysis involving atmospheric impulses [13,14].
Besides line surge arresters shows to be a very efficient technique
for overvoltage suppression from lightning occurrences, as well ap-
proached in the technical literature, a careful analysis is required in
order to verify if the same protection method is also valid to contain
temporary overvoltage resulted from asymmetric faults in half-wave-
length transmission lines.
Although a great attention has been given to half-wavelength in
recent years, this technology was first approached by Soviet engineers
in 1940s. However, because of low demand of this kind of technology
with such large transmission capacity through long distances, it re-
mained at the stage of a single theoretical research. In recent years, this
technology has aroused general concerns again because of the in-
creasing power demand through continental distances [15]. Thereafter,
a great attention has been given to the development of accurate
methods for detection and location of faults in half-wavelength lines as
well as efficient techniques for suppression of resulted overvoltages
along the line length.
In this context, a few recent methods have been proposed for fault
location in half-wavelength transmission lines. Previous researches
prove that conventional impedance-based fault location methods are
not accurate to identify the fault location even when the line shunt
capacitance effect is considered. Thus, a two-terminal impedance-based
fault location algorithm is proposed considering that the distributed
parameter line model with line shunt capacitances is able to identify
and correct erroneous fault point estimations [16]. This fault location
method shows acceptable accuracy, however, no suppression technique
is proposed to contain eventual voltage surges along the line.
A few recent researches propose the analysis of half-wavelength
transmission lines under balanced faults and during maneuvers. First,
the overvoltages and currents resulted from energization of a half-wa-
velength line are simulated using the Alternative Transient Program —
ATP. The results obtained from switching simulations show that over-
voltage and energy dissipation on the surge arresters, located at the two
line substations, reach very high values at the line terminals [12]. A
second important research described the main characteristics of voltage
response of half-wavelength transmission lines under balanced faults, in
which some possible critical regions that produce severe overvoltage
are identified as well as the main transient characteristics. Finally, a
simplistic mitigation procedure is introduced by using spark gaps at the
middle of the line, i.e. 1300 km from the sending [17]. However, the
overvoltage location along the line varies depending on the fault lo-
cation, which means that it is impossible to mitigate possible over-
voltages along the line using only a few spark gaps at the middle section
of the line. This way, the proposed iterative computational procedure
shows to be a more reliable method because the most critical over-
voltage line sections are located varying the point of the fault occur-
rence through the line length, i.e., an overvoltage mapping is obtained
varying the fault location from the sending end to the receiving end of
the half-wavelength transmission line.
A few researches have been published on differential protection for
half-wavelength transmission systems. The conventional differential
protection is not suitable to these lines because of the effect caused by
the large distributed capacitance current along the line. On the other
hand, the differential protection based on travelling waves between the
line terminals shows to be an efficient solution because it is not affected
by the distributed capacitance current [15]. However, the differential
protection is efficient to contain voltage and current surges at the
sending and receiving ends, eventual overvoltages at middle sections of
the line may not be detected by this protection apparatus.
The proposed overvoltage mapping along the line, varying the fault
point, and strategic inclusion of line surge arresters were not previously
analyzed for half-wavelength transmission lines, proving to be an ori-
ginal solution for overvoltage suppression along the entire length of the
F.P. Albuquerque, et al. Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028

Fig. 1. Line surge arresters installed in parallel with the line insulators of the steel towers.

line, different from other studies that have focused efforts on suppres- neglected compared to the inductive reactance (R < < ωL). In these
sing overvoltages only at the line terminals. terms, the propagation constant is ideally expressed only by the phase
delay γ = jβ, without attenuation term α [11,18].
2. Half-wavelength line theory Eq. (1) can be expressed as a function of the voltages and currents at
the sending and receiving ends, as follows in Eq. (4).
Initially, some theoretical issues are introduced in order to provide a
⎡ cosh (γl) Zc sinh (γl) ⎤
background about half-wavelength power transmission systems. First, ⎡Vˆs ⎤ = ⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎡Vˆr ⎤
the voltage and current profiles as a function of the line length can be ⎢ Iˆ ⎥ ⎢ sinh (γl) cosh (γl) ⎥ ⎢ Iˆ ⎥
⎣ s⎦ Z ⎣ r⎦ (4)
obtained from the two-port representation by distributed parameters, as ⎣ c ⎦
expressed in the phasor formulation Eq. (1) [18].
Since R < < ωL and G < < ωC, then α = 0 and the line wave
length is expressed as:
⎡ cosh(γx ) − Zc sinh(γx ) ⎤ ˆ
⎡Vˆ (x ) ⎤ = ⎢ 1 V
⎥ ⎡ s⎤
⎢ Iˆ (x ) ⎥ ⎢− sinh (γx ) cosh(γx ) ⎥ ⎢ Iˆs ⎥ 2π 2π 1
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ λ= = =
⎣ Zc ⎦ (1) β ω LC f LC (5)
The voltage and current phasors Vˆ (x ) and Iˆ (x ) , respectively, are Considering a transmission line with f = 60 Hz, the half wave
expressed as functions of the line length in which the index x is the length is approximately 2500 km [3]. In these terms, Eq. (4) can be
distance from the receiving end along the transmission line. Terms V̂s analytically developed for a half-wavelength transmission line as fol-
and Îs are voltage and current phasors at the sending end of the line,
lows in Eq. (6).
respectively. The line constants Zc and γ are the characteristic im-
pedance and propagation constant, respectively, which are dependent Vˆe = Vˆr cosh (jβl) + Iˆr Zc sinh (jβl)
on the line series impedance Z and admittance Y. These are expressed as 2π λ ⎞ ˆ
follows [18]: ˆ
Ve = cos ⎛
⎝ λ 2⎠ ˆ
Vr → Ve = − Vˆ
(6)
γ= ZY = (R + jωL)(G + jωC ) (2) The development in Eq. (6) shows that the voltages at the receiving
and sending ends are similar and independent of the load. Thus, the
Z (R + jωL)
Zc = = half-wavelength line does not require reactive power compensation at
Y (G + jωC ) (3) the sending and receiving terminals. The relationship between currents
The series impedance is composed of resistance R and series in- at the sending and receiving ends is analogous to the voltage re-
ductance L, as expressed in Eqs. (2) and (3). The admittance Y is lationship in Eq. (6), i.e.:
composed of conductance G and a susceptance as a function of the Iˆe = −Iˆr (7)
shunt capacitance C. The propagation constant is γ = α + jβ, where the
real part is attenuation and the imaginary term is the phase delay or The voltage and current values can be also calculated at each point
also know as phase constant. Usually, high voltage alternating current along the line considering a load impedance ZL connected to the re-
lines are characterized by low losses, i.e., the series resistance is ceiving end (x = 0), such as expressed in Eqs. (8) and (9).

3
F.P. Albuquerque, et al.
Fig. 2. Current profile through the half-wavelength line varying the line loading.
Vˆ
Vˆ (x ) = cosh (jβx ) Vˆr − Zc sinh (jβx ) ⎛⎜ r ⎞⎟
Z (8)
⎝ L⎠
1 Vˆ
Iˆ (x ) = − sinh (jβx ) Vˆr + cosh (jβx ) ⎜⎛ r ⎞⎟
Zc Z
⎝ L⎠
The current magnitude profile and angle can be demonstrated along
the line length x and varying the line load in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively.
Fig. 2 shows that the current at the sending and receiving ends are
intrinsically related to the line loading, which is described in the
technical literature as the Surge Impedance Loading — SIL [18]. The
half-wavelength line should operate with power demand close to the
SIL in order to maintain the current at the terminals in nominal op-
eration conditions, i.e. 1 p.u. This way, the power delivery has to be
constantly monitored and controlled in order to maintain the current
levels at the line terminals in acceptable values. This peculiarity may be
considered as a limitation for these alternative transmission systems.
In addition, the behavior of the current angle is described as follows:
Analogously, the voltage at the sending and receiving ends of the
half-wavelength line have to be properly monitored and controlled in
order to maintain voltage levels along the line acceptable. The voltage
profile through the line and angle are described in Figs. 4 and 5, re-
spectively.
Fig. 4 shows that the voltage level at the terminals and line loading
must to be both rigorously controlled in order to avoid overvoltages in
middle sections of the transmission line. Thus, although half-wave-
length transmission systems do not require substations and reactive
compensation along the line length, both current and voltage at the
terminals as well as line loading have to be constantly monitored and
controlled.
Fig. 3. Current angle through the half-wavelength line varying the line loading.
Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028
3. Half-wavelength transmission system and line surge arrester
modeling
The analytic formulation in Section 2 shows the eventual over-
voltage and current levels in which half-wavelength transmission sys-
(9) tems are subject varying the power demand over the SIL of the line. In
this section, the half-wavelength system is modeled in the time domain
using the commercial software PSCAD in order to analyze the voltage
transients during single-phase fault occurrence [19], which represents
more than 70% of the short circuits on power systems [20].
A three-phase transmission line with length of 2500 km, which re-
presents little longer than half-wavelength at 60 Hz, is modelled by a
cascade with 48 π circuits, i.e. the line is represented by series segments
with approximately 52 km each [3]. The impedance and admittance
parameters are represented by lumped elements in each line segment.
The proposed line comprehend to approximately the same electrical
characteristics and length of the HVDC link from the Madeira hydro-
electric complex to the São Paulo state, connecting the hydroelectric
units of Jirau (3750 MW) and Santo Antônio (3568 MW) to large in-
dustrial areas in the Southeast region by a point-to-point transmission
line [3].
3.1. Half-wavelength transmission system
The half-wavelength system parameters, electromagnetic constants/
parameters and Thevenin impedances at the line terminals are de-
scribed in Tables 1, 2,and 3, respectively [3].
In Table 2, terms α and β are attenuation and phase constants of the
propagation function of the line, respectively. The characteristic im-
pedance and SIL are described as Zc and Pc, respectively. The constant v
is the propagation velocity and λ is the wavelength of the line at 60 Hz.
4
F.P. Albuquerque, et al. Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028

Fig. 4. Voltage profile through the half-wavelength line varying the line loading.

The sending and receiving ends of the line; generation and load bus Table 1
bars, respectively; are modeled with the equivalent Thevenin im- Impedance and admittance parameters of the transmission line.
pedance values presented in Table 3. Zero sequence Positive sequence
A single-circuit three-phase transmission line of 2500 km length is
modeled using the software PSCAD, considering a nominal voltage R0 X0 B0 R1 X1 B1
1.0 MV and following the electrical and electromagnetic characteristics (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (μS/km) (Ω/km) (Ω/km) (μS/km)
0.349 1.26 3.335 0.01276 0.2121 7.7642
in Tables 1, 2 and 3 [3]. The detailed voltage and current profiles along
the line can be obtained from the line representation by a cascade of π
sections, such as previously proposed.
Table 2
Electromagnetic constants and parameters of the
3.2. Metal-oxide surge arresters modeling transmission line.
α 3.3515 10−4 dB/km
Surge arresters are basically defined from the previous knowing of β 3.8585 10−5 Np/km
the Continuous Operating Voltage (nominal voltage of the system) and Zc 165.44e−j1.72º Ω
the Maximum Continuous Operating Voltage — MCOV, which is the Pc 6042 MW
v 293623 km/s
maximum designed rms value of power frequency voltage that may be λ 4894 km
applied continuously between the terminals of the arrester. From these λ/2 2447 km
technical specifications, other technical characteristics of the surge ar-
rester can be defined, such as the nominal voltage and power classifi-
cation. However, the surge arrester selection is not a trivial task; other Table 3
technical specification should be taken into account, e.g. the Temporary Zero and positive sequence impedances at the sending and receiving ends of the
Overvoltage Curve — TOV, which comprehend to a graph that shows line.
the power frequency withstand voltage as a function of the time for Terminal Zero sequence Positive sequence
arrester from 10 ms to 100 s [20].
A relationship between the MCOV UC and the nominal voltage of the Sending (S) 0.206 + j14.434 Ω 0.206 + j14.434 Ω
Receiving (R) 1.444 + j28.868 Ω 1.444 + j28.868 Ω
system US is expressed as follows [15]:

US 2
UC ≥ 1.05 Ur ≥ 1.25 UC (11)
3 (10)

The nominal voltage of the surge arrester can be determined as a The half-wavelength transmission system has a nominal operating
function of UC and an empiric constant in Eq. (11). voltage of 1.0 MV. Thus, the MCOV obtained from (10) is

Fig. 5. Voltage angle through the half-wavelength line varying the line loading.

5
F.P. Albuquerque, et al. Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028

Table 5
Current vs. voltage profile of the nonlinear parameters in the surge arrester
equivalent circuit.
Current (kA) A0 (MV) A1 (MV)

0.01 1.5925 –
0.1 1.7527 1.40
1.0 1.9110 1.5470
2.0 1.9802 1.6271
4.0 2.0475 1.6835
6.0 2.0712 1.7072
8.0 2.1276 1.7400
Fig. 6. Equivalent electric circuit of metal-oxide surge arresters. 10.0 2.1622 1.7636
12.0 2.1949 1.7745
14.0 2.2404 1.7982
UC ≥ 857.32 kV. However, half-wavelength lines present abrupt vol- 16.0 2.2750 1.8091
tage surges due to variations in the line loading. This way, a higher 18.0 2.3314 1.8200
MCOV of 923 kV and nominal voltage of 1.154 MV are determined for 20.0 2.3897 1.8291
the line surge arresters of the half-wavelength system. These values are
also calculated based on the nominal discharge current, which varies
from 1.5 kA up to 20 kA, and discharge class that is associated with the Fig. 8 shows the leakage current through the modeled surge arrester
arrester capacity to dissipate energy during switching and lightning applying the nominal phase voltage of 800 kV.
surges [20,21]. The nominal voltage and MCOV are defined in the first The peak leakage current is approximately 17 mA in nominal op-
region of the TOV curve that is characterized by a low leakage current eration condition in steady state, which is in accordance with conven-
with capacitive nature. tional values for transmission systems over 500 kV.
Since the electrical parameters of the surge arresters are calculated
based on available information in the manufacturer’s datasheet and the 4. Temporary overvoltage and suppression using line surge
transmission system, the line surge arresters can be modeled by means arresters
of the equivalent electric circuit in Fig. 6 [22].
The nonlinear behavior of the leakage current as a function of the The three-phase transmission system was modeled following the
residual voltage on the metal-oxide arrester is represented by the characteristics presented previously in Tables 1, 2 and 3 by means of a
variable resistances A0 and A1. These two nonlinear resistances are cascade with 48 π circuits and constant lumped parameters R, X and B.
connected with two RL filters composed of R0, R1, L0 and L1. An iterative procedure was carried out for simulation of phase-to-
The nonlinear elements are calculated based on the circuit response ground faults along the line length. This type of fault corresponds more
from a current signal 8/20 μs and peak of 10 or 20 kA, depending of the than 70% of the faults in distribution and transmission systems. Thus,
energy class of the surge arrester. The resistances and inductances are phase-to-ground faults, also known in the technical literature as single-
calculated using analytic formulation based on constructive character- phase faults, are analysed during this research. Several simulations
istics of the surge arresters, such as: height and quantity of varistor were carried out in different points along the line length, registering the
columns [14,23]. maximum overvoltage and respective locations through the line. This
The capacitance C is also calculated from an analytic formulation way, the highest overvoltage points are located as a function of the fault
and represents the capacitive leakage current when the surge arrester is occurrence along the line length. According with the technical litera-
operating in region 1, i.e., in steady state and nominal voltage levels of ture, acceptable temporary overvoltage in UHV transmission systems
the transmission system [23]. are from 1.8 up to 1.9 p.u. [21].
Thus, the line surge arresters are modeled based on the transmission Since the most critical overvoltage are predicted, ZnO surge ar-
system specifications, MCOV and nominal voltage, as established in the resters can be included in such points of the line in order to suppress the
technical literature [14,20,21]. The constant parameters of the modeled eventual temporary overvoltages. All cases were simulated considering
circuit in Fig. 6 are described in Table 4. On the other hand, the re- constant voltage at the line terminals and SIL at 1 p.u., which is in fact a
lationship of current versus voltage on the nonlinear elements A0 and premise for stable operation of half-wavelength transmission systems,
A1 is described in Table 5. All these terms were calculated specially to as demonstrated in Section 2.
attend the technical and electrical characteristics of the proposed 1.0- The most critical situation was observed in phase-to-ground fault
MV transmission system. occurred around 1770 km from the sending end of the line. Overvoltage
The modeled line surge arrester is firstly validated using the Heidler levels higher than 2.2 p.u. were observed during simulations at 625,
function to apply an atmospheric impulse of 10 kA 8/20 μs. The re- 730 and 830 km from the sending end on the same faulty phase. To
sidual voltage should not exceed 1.82 p.u., such as specified in the content these excessive voltage levels, line surge arresters are included
technical literature [14,21]. Thus, Fig. 7 shows that the residual voltage in these critical points of the line in order to maintain the temporary
on the modeled arrester is no more than 0.4% of the recommended overvoltage no more than 1.9 p.u. The voltage profile, with and without
voltage value, which validate the line surge arrester modeling for the line arresters, and leakage current are described in Figs. 9–11.
1.0-MV half-wavelength transmission system. Figs. 9 and 10 show that the line surge arrester suppresses the
overvoltage at 625 and 730 km from the sending end of the line during
Table 4 a phase-ground fault on the same phase at 1770 km from the sending
Constant parameters calculated for the end. The overvoltage levels without surge arresters are over 2.2 p.u.
surge arrester equivalent circuit. whereas with insertion of line arresters at these critical line sections, the
R0 7.6 μH voltage is maintained approximately 1.6 p.u., which is in agreement
with the insulation coordination standards for UHV transmission sys-
L0 3800 Ω tems [21].
C 2.63 ρF
Fig. 11 describes the voltage profile with and without line arresters
R1 2470 Ω
L1 0.57 mH at 830 km from the line sending end, and the leakage current profile of
the line surge arrester during the overvoltage suppression.

6
F.P. Albuquerque, et al.
Fig. 7. Residual voltage on the surge arrester modeled using the equivalent circuit.
Fig. 8. Leakage current through the surge arrester on nominal voltage operation.
These three figures describe the overvoltage profiles with and
without line surge arresters for only one specific case where the highest
overvoltages were detected at three different points along the line
length. The fault is modeled by a phase-to-ground short circuit with
shunt resistance of 5 Ω that occurs after 0.05 s of simulation. The
leakage current profile through the line surge arresters can be observed
after the fault occurrence, with current peaks around 120 up to 150 A.
Since the residual voltage and leakage current values are known,
another very important issue that must be evaluated is the Line
Discharge Class — LDC of the surge arresters. This classification defines
the capacity of the surge arrester to absorb energy without compromise
its functional and constructive characteristics [20]. The LDC is de-
termined based on the voltage level of the system, nominal discharge
current and energy dissipation, as described in Table 6.
From Table 6, it is possible to determine that line surge arrester with
LDC 5 are indicated based on the line voltage level. However, further
analyses are required about the energy dissipation on the line surge
arresters during switching and sustainable overvoltages in half-wave-
length transmission lines.
5. Temporary overvoltages along the half-wavelength line during
fault occurrences
The analysis in the prior section was carried out only for a single
faulty point located at 1770 km from the sending end of the half-wa-
velength transmission line. From this specific case, three different
overvoltage points along the line were identified with voltage levels
higher than 1.8 p.u., as presented in Fig. 9–11. Furthermore, the
modeled line surge arrester proves to be efficient during simulations of
overvoltage suppression occurred from a phase-ground fault. However,
7
Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028
a more comprehensive analysis is required varying the fault location in
order to map the highest overvoltages along the line length at any
point. Thus, an iterative algorithm is developed varying the fault lo-
cation along the line from the sending end to the receiving end. Several
fault simulations are then performed in which the fault location and
respective highest overvoltage locations are identified. The highest
voltage levels along the line are registered as a function of the fault
location, as shown in Fig. 12.
Fig. 12 shows the highest voltage level in the half-wavelength
transmission line as a function of the fault location. Curve (a) is the
highest voltage level varying the fault location without line surge ar-
resters at the maximum overvoltage points, which are always different
of the fault point. Curve (b) shows the same maximum voltage points
through the line including line surge arresters close to these same cri-
tical points. The dash line means the maximum temporary overvoltage
level for the modeled half-wavelength line that is approximately 1.8
p.u.
The most critical overvoltages are observed for faults occurred from
1400 km up to 2500 km of the sending end of the line, as demonstrated
by curve (a). Since all highest overvoltage points are mapped varying
the fault occurrence along the line, the same line surge arresters mod-
eled in Section 3.2 are inserted close to these same overvoltage points.
The maximum overvoltage levels as a function of the fault occurrence
are significantly reduced for acceptable values, as well described in
curve (b).
6. Conclusion
Half-wavelength transmission systems prove to be a reliable tech-
nology for electric power transmission through long distances,
F.P. Albuquerque, et al. Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028

Fig. 9. Voltage profile with and without line arresters and leakage current of the surge arresters at 625 km from the sending end of the line.

Fig. 10. Voltage profile with and without line arresters and leakage current of the surge arresters at 730 km from the sending end of the line.

8
F.P. Albuquerque, et al. Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028

Fig. 11. Voltage profile with and without line arresters and leakage current of the surge arresters at 830 km from the sending end of the line.

Table 6 Another important issue about this non-conventional transmission

Line discharge classes of surge arresters. technology is the possible overvoltages along the line, which are re-
LDC Line voltage level Nominal voltage discharge Energy (kJ/kV)
sulted from asymmetrical operation conditions and fault occurrences.
The observed overvoltage levels during some fault conditions are more
1 ≤ 245 kV 10 kA 1.8–2.2 than 2.2 p.u. at some points of the line, such as demonstrated in this
2 ≤ 300 kV 10 kA 4.5–5.5 paper. The most critical fault points, which lead to highest overvoltages
3 ≤ 420 kV 10 kA 8.0
4 ≤ 550 kV 20 kA 11.0
along the line, are located from 1400 to 2500 km from the sending end
5 ≤ 800 kV 20 kA 15.0 of the line, as presented in Fig. 12. In this context, the inclusion of line
surge arresters in possible overvoltage points shows to be an efficient
method to maintain acceptable voltage levels (less than 1.6 p.u.) during
therefore representing an alternative to the well-established point-to- asymmetrical fault occurrences at some critical line sections.
point LCC-HVDC transmission systems. However, as discussed in sec- A meticulous analysis was carried out scanning the entire line length
tion II, half-wavelength transmission systems require some additional for identification of possible overvoltage points varying the fault loca-
attention in voltage and power/load control at the sending and re- tion. Since the iterative algorithm simulates several asymmetrical fault
ceiving ends of the line. occurrences from the sending end to the receiving end, all possible

Fig. 12. Highest voltage levels along the half-wavelength line varying the fault location.

9
F.P. Albuquerque, et al.
overvoltage locations were mapped as a function of the fault point.
Thus, line surge arresters can be inserted at these points to maintain
acceptable temporary overvoltage levels during faults occurrences. This
conclusion was proved in this research, which shows that the voltage
stability can be properly maintained during fault occurrences as well as
by controlling the voltage level and load demand at the half-wavelength
line terminals, such as described in Fig. 12.
Although the inclusion of line surge arresters shows to be an effi-
cient method to suppress fault overvoltage in middle sections of half-
wavelength transmission lines, some complementary analysis are re-
quired to determine some technical characteristics of such surge ar-
resters. Besides the protection levels, line voltage level for continuous
operation and temporary overvoltage stress are correctly evaluated in
this research, further analyses on energy absorption are also essential to
determine the line discharge class of the surge arresters, which varies
from 1 (1.8 to 2.2 kJ/kV) to 5 (15.0 kJ/kV). Nevertheless, it is possible
to conclude that the proposed overvoltage suppression technique was
correctly dimensioned based on the leakage current through the line
arresters, which shows to be in agreement the electrical characteristics
of conventional line surge arrester in discharge class 5.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare there is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgment
Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo —
FAPESP,Brazil (Grants 2016/16078-7 and 2018/10952-2).
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico -
CNPq, Brazil (Grant 302677/2018-6)
Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior —
CAPES, Brazil.
References
[1] A.J.G. Pinto, E.C.M. Costa, S. Kurokawa, J. Pissolato, Analysis of the electrical
characteristics of an alternative solution for the Brazilian-Amazon transmission
system, Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 9 (2011) 1424–1436.
[2] S. Kurokawa, E.C.M. Costa, A.J.G. Pinto, J. Pissolato, Analysis of electric char-
acteristics of high-elevation stretches of the Tucuruí–Macapá–Manaus connection,
10
Electric Power Systems Research 178 (2020) 106028
J. Control Autom. Electr. Syst. 24 (2013) 714–724.
[3] M.L. Santos, J.A. Jardini, R.P. Casolari, R.L.V. Arnez, G.Y. Saiki, T. Sousa,
G.L.C. Nicola, Power transmission over long distances: economic comparison be-
tween HVDC and half-wavelength line, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 29 (2014)
502–509.
[4] R.G. Fabian, M.C. Tavares, Faulted phase selection for half-wavelength power
transmission lines, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 33 (2017) 992–1001.
[5] R. Itiki, S.G. Di Santo, E.C.M. Costa, R.M. Monaro, Methodology for mapping op-
erational zones of VSC-HVDC transmission system on offshore ports, Int. J. Electr.
Power Energy Syst. 93 (2017) 266–275.
[6] V.A.L. Freitas, D.V. Coury, R.M. Monaro, LCL filter design for VSC-HVDC systems
supplying passive grids, Electr. Power Syst. Res. 152 (2017) 160–167.
[7] G. Mazzanti, S. Quaia, Four-phase AC connections: an alternative possibility for the
expansion of transmission grids, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 25 (2) (2010)
1010–1018.
[8] S. Kurokawa, E.C.M. Costa, I.S. Brandt, J. Pissolato, New approach to four-phase
transmission systems: analysis of the transient response and the possible voltage
surges, IET Gener. Trans. Distri. 6 (2012) 387–394.
[9] A.S. Farag, J.M. Bakhashwain, A. Al-Shehri, Y. Gao, Bundled conductor config-
uration optimization for compact transmission lines incorporating electromagnetic
fields management, Electr. Power Syst. Res. 39 (10) (1998) 1053–1071.
[10] J.S. Acosta, M.C. Tavares, Methodology for optimizing the capacity and costs of
overhead transmission lines by modifying their bundle geometry, Electr. Power
Syst. Res. 163 (2018) 668–677.
[11] F.J. Hubert, M.R. Gent, Half-wavelength power transmission lines, IEEE Trans.
Power App. Syst. PAS-84 (10) (1965).
[12] E.A. Silva, F.A. Moreira, M.C. Tavares, Energization simulations of a half-wave-
length transmission line when subject to three-phase faults — application to a field
test situation, Electr. Power Syst. Res. 138 (2016) 58–65.
[13] J. Woodworth, What is a transmission line arrester, ArresterWorks 17 (2009) 1–7.
[14] IEEE Std C62.22-2009, IEEE Guide for the Application of Metal-Oxide Surge
Arresters for Alternating-Current Systems, (2009).
[15] L. Tang, X. Dong, A travelling wave differential protection scheme for half-wave-
length transmission line, Int. J. Electr. Power Energy Syst. 99 (2018) 376–384.
[16] F.V. Lopes, B.F. Küsel, K.M. Silva, D. Fernandes Jr., W.L.A. Neves, Fault location on
transmission lines little longer than half-wavelength, Electr. Power Syst. Res. 114
(2014) 101–109.
[17] J. Santiago, M.C. Tavares, Analysis of half-wavelength transmission line under
critical balanced faults: voltage response and overvoltage mitigation procedure,
Electr. Power Syst. Res. 166 (2019) 99–111.
[18] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control, McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[19] Manitoba Hydro International Ltd, User’s Guide on the use of PSCAD, Winnipeg,
MB, Canada, 2018.
[20] IEC 60099-4. Surge Arresters — Part 4: Metal-Oxide Surge Arresters without Gaps
for a.c. Systems, 2nd ed., 2004-2005.
[21] IEC 60060-1. High-Voltage Test Techniques — Part 1: General Definitions and Test
Requirements, 2nd ed., 2009-2010.
[22] F.P. Albuquerque, L.F.N. Lourenço, E.C.M. Costa, S. Kurokawa, Surge arrester
modeling for electromagnetic transient analysis in power systems, International
Symposium on Lightining Protection – XIV SIPDA, Natal, RN, Brazil, 2017.
[23] IEEE Working Group on Surge Arrester Modeling, Modeling of Metal Oxide Surge
Arresters, IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 7 (1) (1992) 302–309.