1

3rd year

THEORY OF PHONETICS (Philology Department)

Seminar 1

ARTICULATORY AND FUNCTIONAL ASPECTS OF SPEECH SOUNDS

Points for Study

1. The articulatory classification of the English vowels.
a) stability of articulation;
b) tongue positions;
c) lip position;
d) character of vowel end;
e) vowel length.
2. The articulatory classification of the English consonants.
a) degree of noise;
b) manner of articulation;
c) place of articulation.
LITERATURE
Required literature:
Lecture 2, Seminar 1
1. Паращук В.Ю. Теоретична фонетика англійської мови: Навчальний посібник для
студентів факультетів іноземних мов. – Вінниця: НОВА КНИГА, 2005. – pp. 125 –
145.
2. Теоретическая фонетика английского языка: Учеб. Для студ. ин-тов и фак. иностр.
яз. / М.А. Соколова, К.П. Гинтовт и др. – М.: ВЛАДОС, 1996. – С. 59-70, 78-87.
Optional literature:
1. Crystal D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. – 2 nd ed. – Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2003. – pp. 236, 250-251.
2. Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. – 5th ed. Revised by Alan Cruttenden. -Bristol: J W
Arrowsmith Ltd, 1996. – pp. 27-39.
3. Roach P. English Phonetics and Phonology. A practical course. – Cambridge: CUP,
1998. – pp. 8-69.
4. J.D. O’Connor. Phonetics. – London: Penguin Books, 1991. – pp. 125-175.

Schematically the process of articulation of the sound can be represented in the following
way:
retention
on-glide off-glide

During the on-glide stage the articulating organs move to the position necessary for the
articulation of a sound (e.g. for [t]: the contact is formed by the tip of the tongue placed against
the alveolar ridge). During the retention stage the articulating organs are kept in the position for
a certain period of time (e.g. for [t]: the air is compressed behind the closure.
During the off-glide stage the articulating organs return to the position of rest (e.g. for [t]:
the organs forming the obstruction part rapidly and the compressed air escapes abruptly).

● THE ARTICULATORY CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH VOWELS

The first linguist to describe and classify vowels for all languages was a well-known
British phonetician Prof. Daniel Jones. He devised the system of 8 cardinal vowels on
physiological basis (a frame of reference for vowels). The positions for cardinal vowels were
copied from X-ray photographs of the positions of the articulatory organs, e.g. Cardinal V No.1
corresponds to the position of the front part of the tongue raised as close as possible to the palate.
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Note: DANIEL JONES (1881-1967)

DJ, as he was known within the profession, originally studied mathematics at Cambridge, and
trained as a lawyer, but never practiced. He first became interested in language when he took a course in
conversational French at the age of 17, and found he had ‘some aptitude for getting the pronunciation of
French right’. He encountered phonetics after a visit to a language institute in Germany in 1900, studied
the subject under Paul Passy in Paris, and gave his first course in phonetics at University College London,
in 1907. he built up the Department of Phonetics there, becoming professor in 1921.
Although he researched the phonetics of many languages, his name was chiefly associated with
two books, both in English: An English Pronouncing Dictionary (1917) and An Outline of English
Phonetics (1918), both of which (in revised editions) are still used today. DJ served as secretary of the
International Phonetics Association from 1927 to 1949, when he retired from university teaching, and was
president of the Association from 1950 until his death.

On the articulatory level vowels differ: 1) in the stability of articulation; 2) in the tongue
position позиція язика; in the lip position; 3) in the character of the vowel end.
1. STABILITY OF ARTICULATION
- monophthongs/pure vowels. The articulation is almost unchanging. Органи мовлення
знаходяться в одній позиції [e], [A], [P] [V], [I], [ə] [α:], [3:], [o:] [æ].
- Diphthongs: [eI], [OI], [aV], [əV], [aI], [Iə], [εə], [Və]. The organs of speech glide from one
vowel position to another within one syllable. Язик (тж. губи) плавно зміщується від позиції
для одного голосного звуку до іншої позиції. The starting point, the nucleus, is strong and
distinct. Ядро вимовляється потужно та чітко. The glide is very weak. Глайд дуже слабкий,
це навіть не сам звук [I], [V], [ə], а перехід до нього.
- Diphthongoids: [i:], [u:]. The articulation is slightly changing but the difference between the
starting point and the end is not so distinct as it is in the case of diphthongs. Язик дещо змінює
свою позицію, але різниця між початковою та фінальною позиціями не така чітка, як у
випадку з дифтонгами.
2. TONGUE POSITIONS
The tongue may move forward (→) and backward (←), up (↑) and down (↓), thus
changing the quality of vowel sounds. Язик може рухатися вперед та назад, вверх та вниз по
ротовій порожнині, змінюючи якість голосного звуку.
● When the tongue moves forward and backward, various parts of it may be raised in the
direction of the palate. Коли язик рухається вперед та назад, різні його частини можуть бути
підняті у напрямку твердого або м’якого піднебіння.
a) When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth and the front part of it is raised to the hard
palate a front vowel (голосний переднього ряду) is pronounced: [e], [æ], [i:].
b) When the tongue is in the front part of the mouth but slightly retracted (відсунутий назад),
and the part of the tongue nearer to the centre than to the front is raised, a front-retracted vowel
(голосний переднього відсунутого назад ряду) is pronounced: [I].
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c) When the front of the tongue is raised towards the back part of the hard palate the vowel is
called central/mixed (голосний середнього/змішаного ряду): [A], [ə], [3:].
d) When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth and the back of it is raised towards the soft
palate a back vowel (голосний заднього ряду) is pronounced: [u:], [o:], [P], [α:].
e) When the tongue is in the back part of the mouth but slightly advanced and the central part of
it is raised towards the front part of the soft palate a back-advanced vowel (голосний заднього,
просунутого вперед ряду) is pronounced: [V].
●Moving up and down in the mouth various parts of the tongue may be raised to different
height towards the roof of the mouth (верхня частина ротової порожнини).
a) When the front or the back of the tongue is raised high towards the palate the vowel is called
close (високого підйому): [i:], [I], [u:], [V].
b) When the front or the back of the tongue is as low as possible in the mouth open (низького
підйому) vowels are pronounced: [æ], [α:], [P], [O:], [A], [a].
c) When the highest part of the tongue occupies the position intermediate between the close and
the open one, mid (середнього підйому) vowel is pronounced: [ε], [ə], [3:], [e].
To make the classification more precise точною (e.g.: [i:] and [I] are both close vowels,
but for [I] the front of the tongue is not so high in the mouth as for [i:]), it is necessary to
distinguish broad and narrow variants (широкий та вузький варіанти) of close, mid and open
vowels.
Close vowels Narrow variant [i:], [u:]
Broad variant [I, [V]
Mid vowels Narrow variant [e], [3:]
Broad variant [ə], [ε]
Open vowels Narrow variant [A], [O:]
Broad variant [æ], [α:], [P], [a]
3. LIP POSITION
When the lips are neutral or spread the vowels are called unrounded.
When the opening between the lips is more or less round the vowel is called rounded: [O:],
[P], [V], [u:].
NB: When the Ukrainian/Russian rounded vowels are pronounced the lips are somewhat
protruded.
4. CHARACTER OF VOWEL END
The quality of all English monophthongs in the stressed position is strongly affected by the
following consonant of the same syllable. If a stressed vowel is followed by a fortis voiceless
consonant, it is cut off (відсікається) by it. In this case the end of the vowel is strong and the
vowel is called checked. Such vowels are heard in stressed closed syllables ending in a strong
voiceless consonant (better, cart).
If a vowel is followed by a lenis voiced consonant or by no consonant at all, the end of it is
very weak. In this case the vowel is called free (before, money, begger, bead).
NB: All Ukrainian/Russian vowels are free.
4. VOWEL LENGTH
Vowels can be pronounced during a longer or a shorter period.
a) short monophthongs; b) long monophthongs.
NB: The vowel [æ] is not included in the category of short vowels because of its specific length.
In stressed position all English vowels are fully long when they are final (see, bar, sore, fur,
play, toy, fear).
They are almost as long as that when a lenis/weak voiced consonant follows them (seed,
arm, form, bird, big, bed, song, played, toys, fears).
They are considerably shorter before fortis/strong voiceless consonants (seat, lark, look,
first, bit, set, plate, voice, fierce).
In diphthongs variations of length affect mainly the nucleus, not the glide, like play – plays
– plate.
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All English vowels are longer when they are stressed, esp. primary stress (compare: inform
– uniform - granddaughter).
All English vowels are longer in the nuclear syllable: It is six o’clock now. They are only
six.
NB: In similar phonetic contexts (у схожому фонетичному оточенні) long vowels are always
longer than short ones (see – sin, calm – come, cord – cod).
NB: All Ukrainian/Russian vowels are equally long in similar phonetic contexts.

● THE ARTICULATORY CLASSIFICATION OF THE ENGLISH CONSONANTS

On the articulatory level the consonants change:
d) in the degree of noise;
e) in the manner of articulation;
f) in the place of articulation.
THE DEGREE OF NOISE
According to the degree of noise English consonants are divided into two big classes:
Class A. Noise consonants.
Class B. Sonorants.
Noise consonants vary:
(1) in the work of the vocal cords (voiced/voiceless),
(2) in the degree of force of articulation (lenis/fortis).
According to the work of vocal cords they may be voiced and voiceless.
When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice. Voiced consonants
are: [b, d, g, v, z, ð, Z , dZ].
If the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the consonants are
voiceless. Voiceless consonants are: [p, t, k, f, s, θ, S, tS].
Voiced consonants are not fully voiced in all word positions, in word final position, for
example, they are partly devoiced.
The degree of noise may vary because of the force of articulation. Strong noise
consonants are produced with more muscular energy and stronger breath effort. Weak noise
consonants are produced with a relatively weak breath effort.
Strong noise consonants are: [p, t, k, f, s, θ, S, tS]. Weak noise consonants are: [b, d, g, v, z, ð,
Z, dZ].
English phoneticians call the weak consonants lenis and the strong consonants fortis.
Sonorants (or sonorous consonants) are made with tone prevailing over noise because of
a rather wide air passage. They are: [m, n, ŋ, l, r, w, j].

THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION

The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The
obstruction may be complete and incomplete. When the obstruction is complete the organs of
speech are in contact and the air stream meets a closure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the
production of [p, b, t, d, k, g, tS, dZ, m, n, ŋ].
In the case of an incomplete obstruction the active organ of speech moves towards the
point of articulation and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the
production of the [f, v, s, z, h, w, l, r, j, Z ,θ, S, ð].
According to the manner of articulation consonants may be of three groups:
1) occlusive; змичні;
2) constrictive; щілинні;
3) occlusive-constrictive. змично-щілинні.
1) OCCLUSIVE consonants are sounds in the production of which the air stream meets a
complete obstruction in mouth. Occlusive consonants are called stops because the breath is
completely stopped at some point of articulation and then it is released with a slight explosion,
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that is why, they are also called plosives. According to the work of the vocal cords stops may be
voiced and voiceless.
Occlusive voiced consonants are: [b, d, g]. Occlusive voiceless consonants are: [p, t, k].
According to the force of articulation English voiced stops are weak (lenis), voiceless are
strong (fortis).
The particular quality of a sonorant depends on the position of the soft palate. Occlusive
sonorants are also made with a complete obstruction but the soft palate is lowered and the air
stream escapes through the nose, so they are nasal. The English occlusive nasal sonorants: [m, n,
ŋ].
2) CONSTRICTIVE consonants are those in the production of which the air stream meets an
incomplete obstruction in the mouth cavity (which acts as a resonator), so the air passage is
constricted. Both noise consonants and sonorants may be constrictive.
Constrictive noise consonants are called fricatives (the consonant sounds in the
articulation of which the air passage is constricted and the air escapes through the narrowing
with friction.
Th fricatives: [f, v, s, z, h, ð, θ, S, Z] (friction – тертя, повітря проходить через щілину з
тертям).
Fricatives may also differ:
- In the work of the vocal cords.
- In the degree of force of articulation.
According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiced and voiceless.
The voiced fricatives are: [v, z, ð, Z]. The voiceless fricatives are: [f, s, h, θ, S].
According to the force of articulation English voiced consonants are weak (lenis),
voiceless are strong (fortis).
Constrictive sonorants are also made with an incomplete obstruction but with a rather wide air
passage; so the tone prevails over noise. Constrictive sonorants: [w, r, l, j]. They are all oral
(ротові), because in their production the soft palate is raised.

3) OCCLUSIVE-CONSTRICTIVE consonants or AFFRICATES are noise consonant sounds

produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released and the air escapes from the
mouth with some friction. There are only two occlusive-constrictives: [tS, dZ]. [dZ] is voiced
(in certain positions) and weak (lenis); [tS] is voiceless and strong (fortis).
THE PLACE OF ARTICULATION
The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of
articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci
when active organs of speech contact with two points of articulation. In the first case consonants
in the first case consonants are called unicentral, in the second they are bicentral. Місце
артикуляції визначається позицією активного органу мовлення відповідно до місця
артикуляції. Може бути одне місце артикуляції або фокус , або два, коли активний орган
мовлення контактує з двома точками артикуляції.
The fricatives [S, Z] and affricates [tS, dZ] are bicentral, being articulated with the front part
of the tongue raised towards the hard palate. This secondary focus is front (the primary focus is
formed by the tip of the tongue against the teeth ridge). Наприклад, вказані звуки є
двофокусними: перший фокус – кінчик язика наближений до альвеол, другий – передня
частина язика піднята у напрямку твердого піднебіння.
According to the position of the active organ of speech against the place of articulation
consonants may be:
1. labial, лабіальні/огублені 2. lingual, язикові 3. glottal фарингальні.
1. LABIAL consonants are made by the lips. They may be bilabial губно-губні and labio-
dental губно-зубні. Bilabial consonants are produced when both lips are active. They are:
[b, p, m, w], labio-dental Cs are [f, v].
2. LINGUAL consonants are classified into forelingual передньоязичні, mediolingual
середньоязичні and backlingual задньоязичні.
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●Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. They
differ in the position of the tip of the tongue. According to its work they may be:
- Apical, if the tip of the tongue is active as in the case of the [t, d, s, z, n, l, S, Z , θ, ð,
tS, dZ].
- Cacuminal, if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but a depression
is formed in the blade of the tongue as in the case of the English [r].
According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be:
Interdental. міжзубні Alveolar. альвеолярні Post-alveolar. заальвеолярні
Palato-alveolar. піднебінно-альвеолярні
Interdental consonants or interdentals are made with the tip of the tongue projected
between the teeth: [θ, ð].
Alveolar consonants or alveolars are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth
ridge: [t, d, s, z, n, l]. Post-alveolar consonants or post-alveolars are made with the tip or the
blade of the tongue just behind the back part of the teeth ridge: [r].
Palato-alveolar consonants or palato-alveolars are made with the tip of the blade of the
tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus
having two places of articulation or foci (front secondary focus); both narrowing are flat: [tS,
dZ].
●Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are
always palatal. Palatal consonants or palatals are made with the front part of the tongue raised
high to the hard palate: [j].
●Backlingual consonants are also called velar, because they are produced with the back
part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate (Lat. Velum). They are: [k, g, ŋ].
3. The GLOTTAL consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis.

REVIEW QUESTIONS:
Check your understanding of the discussed theoretical issues by answering the following
questions.
1) What does the articulation of sound consist of?
2) What is an articulatory classification of speech sounds?
3) What is the phonemic system of a language?
4) Explain the interrelationship between a phoneme and an allophone.
5) Speak on the phoneme as a bundle of features. Comment on distinctive vs. non-
distinctive features.
6) How can phonemes be discovered? What is a minimal pair? Give examples.
7) Why is the phoneme material, real and objective?
8) How can allophones of the same phoneme be classified? Examples.
9) Why is the phoneme an abstraction?
10) Speak on the functions of the phoneme.
11) According to what are speech sounds divided into vowels and consonants?
12) What differences are there between V and C?
13) What are cardinal vowels?
14) What criteria are used for the classification of the English vowels?
15) What articulatory features of consonants are considered essential from the classificatory
point of view?
PRACTICAL TASKS
1. Fill in the following tables featuring the articulatory classification of the English vowels
and consonants (RP).
RP VOWELS
1. Stability of Monophthongs-, diphthongoids Diphthongs -
articulation

2. Length of Long- Short - I-glide:

articulation ə -glide:
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3. Degree of muscular Lax - V-glide:

tension Tense-
4. Lip participation Rounded (labialized) Unrounded (non-
labialized)
5, Vertical movement 6. Horizontal movement of the tongue
of the tongue
variety fully front front central back fully back
retracted (mixed) advanced
High (close) narrow
broad

Mid (mid- narrow

open) broad

Low narrow
(open) broad

RP CONSONANTS
Active organ, Labial Lingual Pharyngal
place of Forelingual Medio Back
obstruction - lingua
lingua l
Type of l
obstruction, bilabial inter- alve- post- palato palatal velar glottal
manner of the labio-dental dental olar alve- -
production of olar alve-
noise olar

Occlu plos- -
sives ives
nasal
sonants
Con- fric-
stric- atives
tives
sonants

Affric-
ates

3. Give examples of minimal pairs matching the given oppositions of consonants, and
vowels

Classificatory principle Opposition Example

CONSONANTS
1. Active organ of speech
and the place of articulation
2. Manner of the production
a. labial vs. lingual
b. lingual vs. pharyngal
c. labial bilabial vs. labio-dental
a. occlusive (stops) vs.

of noise
3. Work of the vocal chords
and the force of exhalation
4. Position of the soft palate
VOWELS
1. Position of the
tongue(horizontal movement)
2. Position of the tongue
(vertical movement)
3. Degree of tenseness
4. Position of the lips
5. Stability of articulation
8
constrictive
b. constrictive - affricates
c. occlusive noise vs. sonants
a. voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis
a. oral vs. nasal
a. front vs. central
b. back vs. central
a. close(high) vs. mid-open(mid)
b. open(low) vs. mid-open(mid)
a. tense vs. lax
a. rounded vs. unrounded
a. monophthongs vs. diphthongs
b. diphthongs vs. stable vowels

4. Match the words below to obtain the minimal pairs

Catch, pip, cheap, he, jail, sap, lap, pair, say, sink, rip, fail, lass, Sam, mink, cap, she, lay, heap,
match
=

5. Give examples to prove that the following features of the English consonants and vowels
are distinctive
l.Voicelessness-voicedness __________________________________
2. Tenseness - laxness .__________________________________
3. Orality – nasality __________________________________
4. Frontness – backness __________________________________

6. Match classificatory principles and groups of minimal pairs given below (the consonants
opposed initially)
1. labial bilabial vs. lingual backlingual 3 pin — bin, pack — back, tie -
die
2. forelingual apical vs. forelingual _ fee - wee, fell - well
postalveolar
3. voicelss fortis vs. voiced lenis _ pole — coal, bait — gait
4. labial labio-dental vs. labial bilabial _ pity - city, pay - say, pail - sail
5. occlusive vs. constrictive _ sob — rob, sole — role, sight —
right
7. What minimal distinctive feature (or features) makes these oppositions phonologically
relevant?
a) cap-cab sent-send leak-league voiceless fortis vs. voiced lenis
b) pee-fee tie-sigh do-zoo ___________vs._________
c) till—chill day-jay share-chair ___________vs._________
d) save-shave presser-pressure mass-mash ___________vs._________
8. State allophonic differences of the /t/, /k/ phonemes in the initial positions
/t/ tea, tip, tar, took, two, term, tobacco, twelve
/k/ key, core, cool, cut, contain, queen, care