PHONETICS: NGỮ ÂM HỌC

The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds

+Articulatory phonetics: (Âm vị đó được tạo ra như thế nào, môi, lưỡi, miệng, vị trí cấu âm, âm
hữu thanh , vô thanh, nguyên âm dài ngắn, đôi đơn,…)

+Acoustic phonetics

+Auditory phonetics:

PHONEME: ÂM VỊ (đơn vị ngữ âm nhỏ nhất, nó có tính khuông việt nghĩa)

The smallest unit of speech sound that distinguishes one word from another

Vd: “bed”: gồm có 3 phonemes là b, e và d

Tính khuông việt nghĩa là khi thay phoneme này bằng phoneme khác, nó sẽ tạo ra một nghĩa
khác cho từ (Vd thay “b” trong thành “r” thì từ bed→ red

CHAPTER 1: PHONEMES AND OTHER ASPECTS OF PRONUNCIATIONS

1.1. PHONEMES:

-sounds (vowels and consonants)

Vowel: nguyên âm; consonant: phụ âm

-We can define phonemes by looking at contrast (minimal pairs)

Example:

+The vowels in ‘cat’ and ‘cut’ are two different phonemes.

+The initial consonants in ‘pet’ and ‘bet’ are two different phonemes

- We use special symbols to represent phonemes.

-The symbols are based on IPA (International Phonetic Alphabets)

-Larger units of speech such as the syllable

Syllable: âm tiết

-Aspect of speech such as stress (the relative strength of a syllable) and intonation (the
use of the pitch of the voice to convey meaning)
 Stress: nhấn âm; intonation: ngữ điệu

1.2. ACCENTS AND DIALECTS

-Languages have different accents: they are pronounced differently by people from
different geographical places, from different social classes, of different ages and different
educational backgrounds.

-We use the word dialects to refer to a variety of a language which is different from
others not just in pronunciation but also in such matters as vocabulary, grammar and word
order.

Phân biệt accent và dialects

+Dialects (Phương ngữ) đề cập đến một loạt các ngôn ngữ có chứa các biến thể đặc biệt
về ngữ pháp, cú pháp, từ vựng, vị trí từ vựng và phát âm.

+Accent dùng để chỉ các biến thể trong cách phát âm.

-The accent used in this book is Received Pronunciation (RP), but a preferable name is
BBC pronunciation.

-This accent is typical of broadcasters with an English accent, and there is a useful degree
of consistency in the broadcast speech of these speakers.

-It is the accent that has usually been chosen by British teachers to teach to foreign
learners; it is the accent that has been most fully described; and it has been used as the basis for
textbooks and pronunciation dictionaries.

BẢNG PHIÊN ÂM IPA:

https://www.lexilogos.com/keyboard/ipa.htm?fbclid=IwAR0JWG11uJ6H-wxR-
AiyIlAfEWNoHifLfXH5rga8G5SFvw-pgGc68uLqnEs
 CHAPTER 2

2.1 Articulators above the larynx

2.2 Vowel and consonant

2.3 English short vowels

2.1 ARTICULATORS ABOVE THE LARYNX

Articulators: cơ quan cấu âm

Larynx: thanh quản

Alveolar ridge: nướu răng

Hard palate: phần ngạc cứng

Soft palate(velum): phần ngạc mềm

Pharynx: yết hầu; họng

-Cơ quan cấu âm gồm 11 bộ phận

1. nose 5.lower lip 9.tongue

2.upper teeth 6.alveolar ridge 10.pharynx

3. lower teeth 7.hard palate 11.larynx

4.upper lip 8.soft palate

-States of the soft palate

The soft palate is lowered, and the oral The soft palate is raised, blocking the air to
passage is shut at some point, resulting in the nasal cavity, so the air escapes solely
nasal consonants m, n, ŋ through the mouth.

-Different parts of the tongue

Tip→ blade→front→back→root

2.2 VOWEL AND CONSONANT

Vowel and consonant can be distinguished in terms of:

▪ the way they are produced

Vowels are made with no obstruction to the airflow from the larynx to the lip while
consonants are produced with certain obstruction to the airflow.

▪ their different distributions

Vowels typically occur at the center of the syllable while consonants typically occur at the
margins.

Example:
 +Vowels: typically voiced

+Consonants: can be voiced or voiceless

Vowels are different in terms of:

▪ tongue height: the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the hard
palate

▪ tongue part: which part of the tongue, between front and back, is raised the highest

▪ lip position: whether the lips are rounded, spread, or neutral when producing these
vowels

-Cardinal vowels

- A set of vowels which are arranged in a close-open, front-back diagram.

-They are not the vowels of any particular language.

- These cardinal vowels are a standard reference system that helps us to describe, classify and
compare vowels.

2.3 ENGLISH SHORT VOWELS

▪ The symbols for English short vowels: ɪ, e, æ, ʌ, ɒ, ʊ

Primary cardinal vowels English short vowels
 CHAPTER 3

3.1. Long vowels

3.2. Diphthongs

3.3. Triphthongs

3.1. LONG VOWELS

-Five long vowels in English: iː, ɜː, ɑː, ɔː, uː

-Comparison between long and short vowels

+Short vowels differ from long vowels not only in length but also in quality

Example: compare ɪ with iː

+tongue height: ɪ is more open than iː

+tongue part: the top front part raises highest for iː while part of the tongue near the
center raises highest for ɪ.

+lip position: iː has lip “smiling” while ɪ has lips slightly spread

3.2. DIPTHONGS (NGUYÊN ÂM ĐÔI)

 -Diphthongs are sounds which consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another.

-The most important thing to remember about all diphthongs is that the first part is much
longer and stronger than the second part.

3.3. TRIPHTHONGS (NGUYÊN ÂM BA)

A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly
and without interruption.
 CHAPTER 4:VOICING AND CONSONANTS

4.1 The larynx

4.2 Respiration and voicing

4.3 Plosives

4.4 English plosives

4.5 Fortis and lenis

4.1 THE LARYNX

- The larynx is a structure in the neck which is made of two large cartilages: thyroid
cartilage (sụn khớp) and cricoid cartilage (sụn nhẫn).

- The front of the larynx comes to a point which is commonly called the Adam’s Apple.

-Inside the larynx are the vocal folds (các dây thanh), which are two thick flaps of muscle.

-At the front the vocal folds are joined together and fixed to the inside of the thyroid
cartilage.

-At the back they are attached to a pair of small cartilages called the arytenoid cartilages
so that if the arytenoid cartilages move, the vocal folds move too.

*THE GLOTTIS (THANH MÔN)

-The glottis refers to the opening between the vocal folds.

-Four states of the vocal folds:

: open for normal breathing and voiceless sounds

: Narrow for the fricative sound /h/

 :loosely together and vibrating for voiced sounds

:tightly together as for glottal stop

4.2 RESPIRATION AND VOICING

-The lung provides an essential source of energy for making speech sounds. When we
speak, the air is pushed out of the lung, through the trachea then the larynx, finally out of the
mouth or the nose. This air movement is called egressive pulmonic.

(Phổi cung cấp năng lượng để dòng âm thanh chuyển động

Quá trình khi nói: air đẩy tới phổi → qua trachea → larynx→ thoát ra nose or mouth)

-To make speech sounds, we must obstruct the airflow in some way, and one way is to
bring the vocal folds in the larynx together to create the vocal fold vibration.

-There are many different sources of voicing we can produce: singing, shouting, speaking
quietly, etc.

4.3.PLOSIVE (ÂM NỔ)

-The complete articulation of a plosive consonant, or stop, consists of four phases:

1. The closing phase: two articulators are moved against each other in order to form the
obstruction.

2. The compression phase: the air is compressed behind the obstruction.

3. The release phase: the articulators used to form the obstruction are moved so as to allow
air to escape.

4. The post-release phase: what happens immediately after the release phase.
 4.4.ENGLISH PLOSIVES

4.4.1.Place of articulation (Cơ quan cấu âm): the points at which the closure or
narrowing takes place

-English has six plosive consonants: p, t, k, b, d, g

+fortis: p,t,k

+lenis: b,d,g

p, b: bilabial

t, d: alveolar

k, g: velar

4.4.2.Voicing:

-The plosives p, t, k are always voiceless.

-b, d, g are sometimes fully voiced, sometimes partly voiced and sometimes voiceless.

+ b, d, g may have full voice when they occur in position between voiced sounds, e.g. in
labor, leader, eager, windy, …

+ In initial and especially in final positions, /b, d, g/ may be only partially voiced or
completely voiceless, e.g. in bill, done, game, cub, lid, bag.

+In these positions, /b, d, g/ are devoiced, and they are marked as /b̥, d̥, g̥/

4.4.3.Aspiration (Bật hơi)

-The voiceless series /p, t, k/, when initial in a stressed syllable, are usually accompanied
by aspiration, i.e. a sound like breath created in the post-release phase, e.g. pin, tin, kin [pʰɪn, tʰɪn,
kʰɪn].

-When /l, r, w, j/ follow /p, t, k/ in such positions, the aspiration is manifested in the
devoicing of /l, r, w, j/, e.g. in please, pray, try, clean

[pl̥ iːz, pr̥eɪ, tr̥aɪ, kl̥ iːn]

-In other positions, i.e. preceding a vowel in an unstressed syllable, such aspiration as is
relatively weak, e.g. /p/ in polite, /t/ in tonight, /k/ in career

-In absolute final position, /p, t, k/ may have no audible release, e.g. in words like map,
mat and mack.
 -When a plosive follows /s/ within the same syllable, the resulting plosive is unaspirated,
e.g. spin, stop, skin

4.4.4.Length of preceding sounds:

-When /p, t, k/ are in syllable-final position, they shorten the preceding vowels. The
shortening effect of /p, t, k/ is most noticeable when the vowel is one of the long vowels or
diphthongs.

-Compare: right and ride

/raɪt/ /raɪd/

- Listen to an extract of the recording; pay attention to the length of the vowel.

4.5 .FORTIS AND LENIS

-Fortis and lenis refer to force of articulation.

-/p, t, k/ are produced with more force than /b, d, g/, so the voiceless plosives /p, t, k/ are
sometimes called fortis (meaning ‘strong’) and /b, d, g/ are then called lenis (meaning ‘weak’).
 CHAPTER 5: PHONEMES AND SYMBOLS

5.1 The phoneme

5.2 Symbols and transcription

5.3 Phonology

5.1 THE PHONEME

-When we speak, we produce a continuous stream of sounds which can be divided into
smaller pieces called segments, e.g. the word ‘man’ is pronounced with a first segment m, a
second segment æ, and a third segment n.

-There is an abstract set of units as the basis of our speech. These units are called
phonemes, and the complete set of these units is called phonemic system of the language.

-We can establish the phonemes of a language by looking at minimal pairs.

-For example: the series of words pin, bin, tin, din, kin, chin, gin, fin, thin, sin, shin, win
differs in their initial phonemes. We may symbolize them as /p, b, t, d, k, tʃ, dʒ, f, θ, s, ʃ, w/

-Allophones are two different realizations of the phoneme.

-For example:

(1)The /b/ at the beginning of the word ‘bad’ and at the end of the word ‘cub’ is usually
pronounced with no voicing. However, the /b/ between two voiced sounds as in the word ‘hobby’
and ‘about’ is pronounced with full voice.

(2) The /t/ in the word ‘tea’ is aspirated while the /t/ in the word ‘hat’ is unaspirated.

-Complementary distribution: the separation of places where particular realizations can

occur, e.g. we never find the aspirated realization in the place where the unaspirated realization is
appropriate, and vice verse.

5.2.SYMBOLS AND TRANSCRIPTION

-Symbols for phonemes (phonemic symbols)

-The phonemic system for the BBC accent contains 44 phonemes.

-Phonemic transcription: where every speech sound must be identified as one of the
phonemes and written with the appropriate symbol.
 -Diacritics: marks which modify the symbol in some way

-For example: [tʰiː]: t is aspirated; [kæb̥]: b is devoiced

-Phonetic transcription: contains much more information about the exact quality of
sounds than phonemic transcription.

+ narrow phonetic transcription: contains a lot of information about the exact quality of
sounds

+ broad phonetic transcription: includes a little more information than a phonemic

transcription.

A widely-used convention is to enclose symbols within brackets that show whether they
are phonemic or phonetic: when symbols are used to represent precise phonetic values, rather
than phonemes, they are often enclosed in square brackets [ ]; phonemic symbols are enclosed
within slant brackets / /.

5.3 PHONOLOGY

Some areas that include in the subject of phonology: study of phonemic system; phoneme
sequences and syllable structure; suprasegmental phonology: stress and intonation
 CHAPTER 6: FRICATIVES AND AFFRICATES

6.1 Production of fricatives and affricates

6.2 The fricatives of English

6.3 The affricates of English

6.4 Fortis consonants

6.1 PRODUCTION OF FRICATIVES AND AFFRICATES

-Fricatives are consonants with the characteristic that air escapes through a narrow
passage and makes a hissing sound.

-Fricatives are continuant consonants.

-That the air escapes through a narrow passage is very important in the production of a
fricative.

-For example: the sounds /s/ and /f/ are fricatives.

-Affricates begin as plosives but end as fricatives, e.g. the sound heard at the beginning
and end of the word ‘church’, which is represented as ʧ.

-Not all sequences of plosive plus fricative are classified as affricates. The plosive and
fricative must be homorganic, i.e. they must be made with the same articulators, e.g. t, d and ʃ, ʒ
are made with the tongue blade against the alveolar ridge, so they are homorganic.

-We normally only count ʧ and ʤ as affricate phonemes of English.

6.2 THE FRICATIVES OF ENGLISH

6.2.1.Place of articulation

-f, v: labiodental

(example words: ‘fan’, ‘van’; ‘safer’, ‘saver’; ‘half’, ‘halve’)

The lower lip is in contact with the upper teeth. The fricative noise is never strong and is
scarcely audible in the case of v.
 -θ, ð: dental

(example words: ‘thumb’, ‘thus’; ‘ether’, ‘father’; ‘breath’, ‘breathe’)

The tongue tip touches the inner side of the upper teeth. The air escapes through the gaps
between the tongue and the teeth.

-s, z: alveolar

(example words: ‘sip’, ‘zip’; ‘facing’, ‘phasing’; ‘rice’,‘rise’)

The tongue blade is against the alveolar ridge. The air escapes through a narrow passage
along the centre of the tongue, and the sound produced is comparatively intense.

-ʃ, ʒ: post-alveolar

(example words: ‘ship’; ‘Russia’, ‘measure’; ‘Irish’,‘garage’)

The tongue is in contact with an area slightly further back than that for s, z. If you make s,
then ʃ, you should be able to feel your tongue move backwards.

All the other fricatives (f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ) can be found in initial, medial and final
positions; however, the distribution of ʒ is much more limited.

-h: glottal

+(example words: ‘head’; ‘ahead’, ‘playhouse’)

+The narrowing that produces the friction noise is between the vocal folds.

+Phonetically, h is a voiceless vowel with the quality of the voiced vowel that follows it.

+Phonologically, h is a consonant. It is usually found before vowels.

+In reality, English speakers often omit the h in non-initial unstressed pronunciation of
words such as ‘her’, ‘he’, ‘him’, ‘his’, etc.

+In words such as huge, human, hue, the sound h is treated as h plus j

/hjuːdʒ/; /ˈhjuːmən/; /ˈhjuː/

6.2.2.Voicing

-The lenis fricatives have very little or no voicing in initial and final positions, but may
be voiced when they occur between voiced sounds.

-Vowel-shortening effect
 +The fortis fricatives have the effect of shortening a preceding vowel in the same way as
fortis plosives do.

For example: ‘ice’ aɪs and ‘eyes’ aɪz

The aɪ diphthong in the first word is considerably shorter that aɪ in the second.

6.3 THE AFFRICATES OF ENGLISH

-Two affricate phonemes in English: ʧ and ʤ

+Fortis: ʧ

+Lenis: ʤ

-The voicing characteristics are the same as that of plosives and fricatives.

-Place of articulation: post-alveolar

-When ʧ is final in the syllable, it has the effect of shortening a preceding vowel, as do
other fortis consonants.
 CHAPTER 7: NASALS AND OTHER CONSONANTS

7.1 Nasals

7.2 The consonant l

7.3 The consonant r

7.4 The consonant w and j

Other
Plosives Fricatives Affrcates Nasals
consonants
f, θ, s, ʃ
p, t, k
v, ð, z, ʒ ʧ ,ʤ m, n, ŋ l, r, w, j
b, d, g
h

7.1 . NASALS

-The basic characteristic of a nasal consonant is that the air escapes through the nose.

+ The soft palate is lowered.

+ Air does not pass through the mouth; it is prevented by a complete closure in the mouth
at some point.

+ The three types of closure are: bilabials (lips), alveolar and velar.

The distribution of m, n, and ŋ

-The distribution of m and n is quite simple, but that of ŋ is rather unusual.

a. In initial position: we find m, n occurring freely, but ŋ never occurs in this position.

b. In medial position: ŋ occurs quite frequently.

-When we find the letters ‘nk’ in the middle of a word, a k will always be pronounced.

-However, some words with orthographic ‘ng’ in the middle will have a pronunciation
containing ŋg and others will have ŋ without g.

Rule: within a word containing the letters ‘ng’ in the spelling, ŋ occurs without a
following g if it occurs at the end of a morpheme; if it occurs in the middle of a morpheme it has
a following g.

-If words end orthographically with ‘ng’, these always end with ŋ. This ŋ is never
followed by a g.
 -Exception: the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives must be treated as single-
morpheme words and pronounced as ŋg.

-For examples: ‘longer’ ˈlɒŋɡə ‘longest’ ˈlɒŋɡɪst

c. A third way in which the distribution of ŋ is unusual is the small number of vowels it is
found to follow. It rarely occurs after a diphthong or long vowel.

To sum up, the velar nasal consonant ŋ is phonetically simple but phonologically
complex.

7.2 THE CONSONANT L

-The l phoneme is a lateral approximant.

-The air passage through the mouth doesn’t go in the usual way along the centre of the
tongue. Instead, there is a complete closure between the centre of the tongue and the part of the
roof of the mouth, so the only way for the air to escape is along the sides of the tongue.

-We find l initially, medially and finally and its distribution is therefore not limited.

-Allophones of l

+Clear l: occurs only before vowels, e.g. in words such as ‘lion’, ‘delighted’, etc.

+Dark l (ɫ) occurs in:

* word final position, after vowel, e.g. feel, fill, fell, pale, real, etc.

*+ after vowel, before consonant, e.g. help, bulb, salt, cold, milk, etc.

+ Devoiced l (l): when it follows p, k at the beginning of a stressed syllable, e.g. play
[pleɪ], clear [klɪə]

7.3 THE CONSONANT R

-/r/ is post-alveolar approximant.

-The tip of the tongue approaches the alveolar area but never touches it.

-The tongue is usually slightly curled backwards with the tip raised.

-When the /r/ sound is preceded by /p, t, k/, it becomes voiceless and fricative, e.g. in the
words such as ‘press’, ‘tree’, and ‘cream’.

-The lips are slightly rounded.

-The distribution of /r/ sound

 - In BBC accent, /r/ only occurs before vowels.

- For examples:

-Many accents of English do pronounce /r/ in words like those of (ii) and (iii) (e.g. most
Americans, Scots and West of England accents)

-Those accents which have /r/ in final position and before a consonant are called rhotic
accents, while accents in which /r/ only occurs before vowels (such as BBC) are called non-
rhotic.

7.4 THE CONSONANTS J AND W

-They are phonetically like vowels but phonologically like consonants (semi-vowels).

-The articulation of /j/ is practically the same as that of a front close vowel such as [i], but
is very short.

-In the same way, /w/ is closely similar to [u].

-Phonologically, /j/ and /w/ are consonants because they only occur before vowel
phonemes.

-When /j/ and /w/ are preceded by /p, t, k/ at the beginning of the syllable, they lose their
voicing and become fricative, e.g. in words such as ‘pure’ [pjʊə], ‘tune’ [tjuːn], ‘twin’ [twɪn],
‘quick’ [kwɪk]

To sum up,

- In the articulation of oral approximants (l, r, w, j), the airstream escapes through a
relatively narrow passage in the mouth without friction but with voice.

- When they are preceded by voiceless consonants /p, t, k/ at the beginning of a syllable,
they are all devoiced.
 REVIEW (CHAPTERS 1-7)

1. Articulators above the larynx

2. Distinction between vowels and consonants

3. Vowel classification in terms of tongue height, tongue part and lip shape

4. English short vowels (be able to describe these vowels according to vowel classification
criteria)

5. English long vowels (be able to describe these vowels according to vowel classification
criteria)

6. Diphthongs

7. Triphthongs

8. Larynx

9. Four states of the vocal folds

10. Understand important concepts, namely place of articulation, manner of articulation and
voicing

11. Be able to describe all consonants in terms of place of articulation, manner of articulation
and voicing

12. Be able to identify all the phonetic features that happen to each type of consonant
(plosives, fricatives, affricates, nasals, approximants) when they occur at different.
 CHAPTER 8: SYLLABLES

8.1 The nature of the syllable

8.2 The structure of the English syllable

8.3 Syllable division

8.1 THE NATURE OF THE SYLLABLE

-Phonetically defined, syllables are usually described as consisting of a center which has
little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this
center (i.e. at the beginning and end of the syllable), there will be greater obstruction to airflow
and / or less loud sound.

- Syllable (âm tiết) gồm

+center (nguyên âm- ít hoặc ko có cản trở luồng không khí → âm thanh phát ra mạnh
hơn)

+ the beginning and end of the syllable (phụ âm đầu và cuối: có cản trở không khí → âm
thanh phát ra ít hơn)

Syllable components: cấu tạo của âm tiết

-Onset (n) sự bắt đầu

-Centre: trung tâm

-Coda: sự kết thúc

-Phonologically, syllables involve possible combinations of English phonemes. The study

of the possible phoneme combinations of a language is called phonotactics.

Về mặt ngữ âm, âm tiết liên quan đến sự kết hợp có thể có của các âm vị tiếng Anh.
Nghiên cứu về các tổ hợp âm vị có thể có của một ngôn ngữ được gọi là âm vị học.

- A word can begin with a vowel, or with one, two or three consonants. No word begins
with more than three consonants.
 (Phần onset không thể có nhiều hơn 3 phụ âm)

- It can end with a vowel, or with one, two, three or (in a small number of cases) four
consonants. No current word ends with more than four consonants.

(Phần coda không thể có nhiều hơn 4 phụ âm)

8.2 THE STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH SYLLABLE

8.2.1. Syllable onsets

Syllable onsets gồm 1 thành phần

-The first syllable of a word can begin with a vowel (any vowel may occur, though ʊ is
rare). We say that this initial syllable has a zero onset.

Vd: a pen : “a” zero onset

-If the syllable begins with one consonant, that initial consonant may be any consonant
phoneme except ŋ; Ʒ is rare.

(ở vị trí đầu, ŋ ko xuất hiện; Ʒ thì hiếm )

Syllable onsets gồm 2 thành phần

-A group of two or more consonants together is called a consonant cluster.

Vd: stay, smoke: consonant cluster

-Initial two-consonant clusters consist of two sorts: pre-initial and initial or initial and
post-initial

Vd: stay: s: pre-initial; t: initial

Vd: play: p: initial; l: post-initial

Chỉ có “s” là pre-initial

Post initial: l / r / j / w

Syllable onsets gồm 3 thành phần

pre-initial consonant + initial consonant + post-initial consonant

8.2.2. Syllable coda

-If there is no final consonant, we say that there is a zero coda.

Vd: the
 -When there is one consonant only, this is called the final consonant.

-Any consonant might be a final consonant, except h, w, j.

H,w,j: khong được đứng ở vị trí final consonant

-Two sorts of two-consonant final cluster

+ Pre-final consonant (m, n, ŋ, l, s) + final consonant

Example: bump /bʌmp/; bent /bent/, bank /bæŋk/, belt /belt/, ask /ɑːsk/

+ Final consonant + post final consonant (s, z, t, d, θ)

Example: bets /bets/, beds /bedz/, backed /bækt/, bagged /bæɡd/, eight /eɪtθ/

The post-final consonants can often be identified as separate morphemes (although not
always – axe, for example, is a single morpheme and its final s has no separate meaning)

Pronunciation: the release of the first plosive of a plosive-plus-plosive cluster such as the
g (of gd) in bæɡd or the k (of kt) in bækt is usually without plosion and is therefore practically
inaudible.

ONSET CODA
Pre- Initial Post- Pre- Final Post- Post- Post-
WORD Initial Initial PEAK Final Final 1 Final 2 Final 3
s ŋ, Ʒ l,w,r,j l,m,n, h,w,r,j s,z,t,d,
ŋ,s θ
stay s t eɪ
wished w ɪ ʃ t
eighth eɪ t θ
twefths t w e l f θ s
prompts p r ɒ m p t s

Có 3 cách phát âm –s và –es của danh từ số nhiều: /s/, /z/, /iz/. ==>

/iz/: khi es đứng sau danh từ tận cùng bằng các âm xuýt: /s/, /z/, /ʃ/, /ʒ/, /tʃ/, /dʒ/.

/s/: khi s đứng sau các danh từ tận cùng bằng các âm vô thanh: /p/, /f/, /t/, /k/, / θ /.
 /z/: trường hợp còn lại

Đuôi /ed/ được phát âm là /t/: Khi động từ có phát âm kết thúc là /s/, /f/, /p/, /ʃ/, /tʃ/, /k/.
Đuôi /ed/ được phát âm là /id/: Khi động từ có phát âm kết thúc là /t/ hay /d/.
Đuôi /ed/ được phát âm là /d/ với những trường hợp còn lại.

Present-day analysis of syllable

8.3 SYLLABLE DIVISION

-Phân chia syllabes theo 2 nguyên tắc

1.The maximal onsets principle

- Where two syllable are to be divided, any consonants between them should be attached
to the right-hand syllable, not the left, as far as possible.

2. Phonotactics.

-Phần onset ko được chứa quá 3 phụ âm

-Phần coda ko được chứa quá 4 phụ âm

Ex: ‘morning’ would thus be divided as /ˈmɔː.nɪŋ/.

Ex: Extra: /ˈekstrə/.

Therefore, the rule must state that consonants are assigned to the right-hand syllable as
far as possible within the restrictions governing syllable onsets and codas. The best division of
extra is /ˈek.strə/.

(Theo quy tắc maximal onset: phụ âm dồn về bên phải càng nhiều càng tốt, nên ta có
/ˈe.kstrə/; tuy nhiên theo phonotactics thì bị vi phạm, bởi vì phần onset chứa đến 4 phụ âm
“kstr”. Do đó, cách chia hợp lý hơn là: /ˈek.strə/

Ex:‘better’ /betə/
 Theo quy tắc maximal onset: phụ âm dồn về bên phải càng nhiều càng tốt, nên ta có
/be.tə/ tuy nhiên theo quy tắc đã học ở chương trước, một âm tiết không thể kết thúc bằng một
nguyên âm ngắn, cho nên cách chia như vậy không hợp lý. Cách chia hợp lý là : /bet.ə/

Ex: carry’ kæ.ri or kær.i

-If we divide the word as kæ.ri, we get a syllable –final æ, but if we divide it as kær.i, we
have a syllable-final r, and both of these do not occur in BBC pronunciation.

-We have to decide on the lesser of two evils here, and the preferable solution is to divide
the word as kær.i on the grounds that in many rhotic accents of English, this division would be
the natural one to make.

One further possible solution: when one consonant stands between vowels and it is
difficult to assign the consonant to one syllable or the other – as in “better” and “carry” – we
could say that the consonant belongs to both syllables. This consonant is called ambisyllabic.

Vì æ là nguyên âm ngắn, nên không thể nằm ở cuối âm tiết, do đó, ta có cách chia /kær.i/,
tuy nhiên Tiếng Anh giọng Anh, không chấp nhận “r” đứng cuối một âm tiết, tác giả của giáo
trình đã đưa ra 1 cách giải quyết gọi là ambisyllabic, âm “r” nằm ở giữa thuộc về cả 2 âm tiết.
Và cách chia hợp lý là /kær.i/
 CHAPTER 9: STRONG AND WEAK SYLLABLES

9.1 Strong and weak

9.2 The ə vowel (“schwa”)
9.3 Close front and close back vowels
9.4 Syllabic consonants

9.1 STRONG AND WEAK

Comparison between strong and weak syllables

Phonetically, weak syllables contain vowels which tend to be shorter, less loud, and
different in quality.

In terms of stress, strong syllables are stressed while weak syllables are unstressed.

Any strong syllable will have as its peak one of the vowel phonemes listed in Chapters 2
and 3, but not ə, i, u.

-âm tiết yếu (ə, i, u.)

-nếu âm tiết nào có chứa ɪ, e, æ, ʌ, ɒ, ʊ: thì nó sẽ luôn có coda

-If there is one of ɪ, e, æ, ʌ, ɒ, ʊ, then the strong syllable will always have a coda as well.

-Weak syllables can only have one of a very small number of possible peaks. At the end
of a word, we may have a weak syllable ending with a vowel (i.e. with no coda)

1. the vowel ə (‘schwa’)

2. a close front unrounded vowel in the general area of iː, ɪ, symbolized i

3. a close back rounded vowel in the general area of uː, ʊ, symbolized u.

4. The vowel ɪ can act as a peak without a coda if the following syllable begins with a
consonant.

-nguyên âm ɪ hoạt động như peak ko có coda nếu âm tiết bắt đầu bằng 1 phụ âm

‘architect’ /ˈɑːkɪtekt/

1. Weak syllables in word-final position without a coda.

‘doctor’ /ˈdɒktə/ ‘lazy’ /ˈleɪzi/ ‘you’ /ju/

2. Weak syllables in word-final position with a coda if the vowel is ə

‘candidate’ /ˈkændɪdət/ ‘stomach’/ˈstʌmək/

3. Weak syllables inside a word without a coda

‘photograph’ /ˈfəʊtəɡrɑːf/; ‘radio’ /ˈreɪdiəʊ/; ‘influence’/ˈɪnfluəns/

9.2 THE ə VOWEL (“SCHWA”)

-Many weak syllables contain ə.

-We can look at spelling to pronounce weak syllables with ə correctly.

1. Spelt with ‘a’; strong pronunciation would have æ

‘attend’ /əˈtend/ ‘character’ /ˈkærəktə/

2. Spelt with ‘ar’; strong pronunciation would have ɑː

‘particular’ /pəˈtɪkjələ/ ‘monarchy’/mɒnəki/

(chỗ nào có ə sẽ ko đc nhấn)

3.Adjectival endings spelt ‘ate’; strong pronunciation would have eɪ

‘intimate’/ˈɪntɪmət/ ‘accurate’/ˈækjərət/

4. Spelt with ‘o’; strong pronunciation would have ɒ or əʊ

‘potato’ /pəˈteɪtəʊ/ ‘carrot’ /ˈkærət/

5. Spelt with ‘or’; strong pronunciation would have /ɔː/

‘forget /fəˈɡet/ ‘opportunity /ˌɒpəˈtjuːnəti/

6. Spelt with ‘e’; strong pronunciation would have e

‘postmen’ /ˈpəʊstmən/ ‘violet’ /ˈvaɪələt/

7. Spelt with ‘er’; strong pronunciation would have ɜː

‘perhaps’ /pəˈhæps/ ‘superman’/ˈsuːpəmæn/

8. Spelt with ‘u’; strong pronunciation would have ʌ

‘autumn’ /ˈɔːtəm/ ‘support/səˈpɔːt/

9. Spelt with ‘ough’

‘thorough’/ˈθʌrə/ ‘borough’ /ˈbʌrə/

10. Spelt with ‘ou’; strong pronunciation might have aʊ

 ‘gracious’ /ˈɡreɪʃəs/ ‘callous’/ˈkæləs/

9.3 CLOSE FRONT AND CLOSE BACK VOWELS

In weak syllables, it is not easy to distinguish iː from ɪ or uː from ʊ.

For examples:
1. Which vowels do you hear in the second syllables of words such as ‘easy’ and ‘busy’?
2. Which vowel comes in ‘to’ in ‘I want to’?
There is really no possibility of a phonemic contrast between iː and ɪ, or between uː and
ʊ when they precede a pause.

So a final vowel in a weak syllable that might be /iː/ or ɪ should be transcribed as /i/ (a
symbol that represents both vowels).
A final vowel in a weak syllable that might be /uː/ or /ʊ/ should be transcribed as /u/ (a
symbol that represents both vowels)

▪ We define phonemes by looking at contrasts (minimal pairs)

▪ For example: /e/ and /æ/ are two different phonemes because the words ‘bet’ and ‘bat’
have different meanings.
▪ We need also to look at the distribution of sounds.
▪ English short vowels normally do not occur in open syllables; that means you can’t have
an English syllable such as /be/ or /sæ/.
▪ There are two possible exceptions: /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ can occur in an open syllable if they are
unstressed. So the word funny can end in /ɪ/.
▪ Now we can find a possible minimal pair, but it uses two words that are very rare in
English: the word ‘putty’ and ‘puttee’

WHERE “i” IS FOUND?

In word-final position in words spelt with final ‘y’ or ‘ey’ happy

after one or more consonant letters /ˈhæpi/

In morpheme-final position when such words have suffixes happier

beginning with vowels /ˈhæpiə/

In a prefix (tiền tố) such as those spelt ‘re’, ‘pre’, ‘de’ if it React /riˈækt/
precedes a vowel and is unstressed. create /kriˈeɪt/

In the suffixes (hậu tố) spelt ‘iate’, ‘ious’ when they have two Appreciate
syllables /əˈpriːʃieɪt/

In the following words when unstressed: ‘he’, ‘she’, ‘we’, He /hi/

‘me’, ‘be’ and the word ‘the’ when it precedes a vowel. She /ʃi/
 WHERE “u” IS FOUND?

Weak syllables with close back rounded vowels are not so commonly found.

We find u most commonly in the words ‘you’, ‘into’, ‘to’, Không có phụ âm đứng
‘do’, when they are unstressed and are not immediately trước từ :you, into, to, do
preceding a consonant. →u
We find it in ‘through’, ‘who’ in all positions when they ‘through’, ‘who’ khi
are unstressed. nó unstress→ u

This vowel is also found before another vowel within a Trong từ 2,3 âm tiết, chữ
word, as in: u đứng trước nguyên âm
evacuation /ɪˌvækjuˈeɪʃn/ →u
influenza /ˌɪnfluˈenzə/

9.4 SYLLABIC CONSONANTS

Syllabic consonants: m, n, ŋ, l, r (người Anh ko sử dụng “r”)

Syllabic cosonants là những phụ âm có khả năng tạo ra âm tiết

9.4.1.SYLLABIC “L”

Syllabic l can be found in words that end with one or more consonant letters followed by ‘le’.

1. with alveolar consonant preceding cattle /ˈkætl̩ /

bottle /ˈbɒtl̩ /
wrestle/ˈresl̩ /
muddle/ˈmʌdl̩ /

with non-alveolar consonant preceding couple /ˈkʌpl̩ /

trouble/ˈtrʌbl̩ /
These words usually lose their final letter ‘e’ when a suffix beginning with a vowel is
attached, but the l usually remains syllabic
bottle – bottling /ˈbɒtl̩ / /ˈbɒtl̩ ɪŋ/
muddle – muddling /ˈmʌdl̩ / /ˈmʌdl̩ ɪŋ/

Syllabic l is also found in words spelt, at the end, with one or Pedal /ˈpedl̩ /
more consonant letters followed by ‘al’ or ‘el’. parcel /ˈpɑːsl̩ /
 9.4.2.SYLLABIC “N”

Weak syllables which are phonologically composed of a tonight

plosive or a fricative consonant plus ən are uncommon except /tənaɪt/
in initial position in the words. canary
/kəneəri/
fanatic
/fənætɪk/
sonata
/sənɑːtə/

If ən occurs medially and finally, we find much more threaten /ˈθretn̩/

commonly a syllabic n̩. threatening
/ˈθretn̩ɪŋ/

We do not usually find syllabic n̩ after l, tʃ, dʒ. sullen /ˈsʌlən/

Christian/ˈkrɪstʃən/
Syllabic n̩ after non-alveolar consonants are not so wagon
widespread. /ˈwæɡən/
When the syllable following a velar consonant is spelt ‘an’ or
‘on’, the syllabic n̩ is rarely heard.

After bilabial consonants, it is equally acceptable to happen

pronounce the word with syllabic n̩ or with ən. /ˈhæpn̩/or/ˈhæpən/

After velar consonants like k, syllabic n is possible, but ən is thicken/ˈθɪkn̩/

also acceptable or/ˈθɪkən/

After f, v, syllabic n is more common than ən. seven

/ˈsevn̩/

If n is preceded by l and a plosive, both syllabic n and ən are Wilton

possible. /ˈwɪltn̩/
/ˈwɪltən/
+ If s precedes, a final syllabic nasal is less frequent. Boston /ˈbɒstən/

Clusters formed by nasal + plosive + syllabic nasal are very Minton/ˈmɪntən/

unusual.
Other nasals also discourage a following plosive plus syllabic Camden/ˈkæmdən/
nasal.
 9.4.3.SYLLABIC m AND ŋ

Syllabic m and ŋ happen as a result of processes such as assimilation and elision that are
introduced later.

+ ‘happen’ /ˈhæpm/

+ ‘thicken’ /ˈθɪkŋ/

9.4.2.SYLLABIC “R”

▪ Syllabic r is less common in BBC pronunciation.

▪ It is found in weak syllables such as the second syllable of ‘preference’ prefr̩əns.

▪ In most cases where it occurs there are acceptable alternative pronunciations without the
syllabic consonant.

Hungary /ˈhʌŋɡr̩i/ /ˈhʌŋɡəri/

COMBINATIONS OF SYLLABIC CONSONANTS

It is not unusual to find two syllabic consonants together.

national /ˈnæʃn̩l̩ /

literal /ˈlɪtrl̩̩ /

veteran /ˈvetrn̩/
 CHAPTER 10: STRESS IN SIMPLE WORDS

10.1 Nature of stress

10.2 Levels of stress

10.3 Placement of stress within a word

Two-syllable words

Three-syllable words

10.1 NATURE OF STRESS

Stress can be studied in terms of production and perception.

+ In the production of stress, the speaker uses more muscular energy than is used for
unstressed syllable.

+ In terms of perception, all stressed syllables have one characteristic in common, which
is prominence.

-Four factors make a syllable prominent

1.Loudness 2.Length 3.Pitch 4.Quality

-Generally these four factors work together in combination, although syllables may
sometimes be made prominent by means of only one or two of them.

These factors are not equally important:

+ The strongest effect is produced by pitch.

+ Length is also a powerful factor.

+ Loudness and quality have much less effect.

10.2 LEVELS OF STRESS

10.2.1.Primary stress

-Is the strongest type of stress

-There is a movement of pitch from a higher to a lower level.

 We marked a stressed syllable in transcription by placing a small vertical line (ˈ) high up,
just before the syllable it relates to.

Examples: consider /kənˈsɪdə/

theory /ˈθɪəri/

10.2.2.Secondary stress

-Is a type of stress that is weaker than primary stress but stronger than that of the first
syllable in words such as ‘around’ and ‘react’.

-The first syllable in words like ‘photographic’ and ‘anthropology’ carries secondary
stress.

-It is usually presented in transcription with a low mark (ˌ).

Examples: photographic /ˌfəʊtəˈɡræfɪk/

anthropology/ˌænθrəˈpɒlədʒi/

-Secondary stress usually applies to longer words of three or more syllables.

10.2.3.Unstressed syllables

-The absence of any recognizable amount of prominence

- It is worth noting that the unstressed syllables containing ə, ɪ, i, u, or a syllabic

consonant will sound less prominent than an unstressed syllable containing some other vowels.

poetic /pəʊˈetɪk/

pathetic /pəˈθetɪk/

-In some polysyllabic words, it is possible to suggest a tertiary level (third level).

indivisibility /ˌɪndɪ vɪzəˈbɪləti/ /ˌɪndɪˌvɪzəˈbɪləti/

10.3 PLACEMENT OF STRESS WITHIN A WORD

 In order to decide on stress placement, it is necessary to make use of the following
information:

1. Whether the word is morphologically simple, or whether it is complex as a result either

of containing one or more affixes (i.e. prefixes or suffixes) or of being a compound word.

(affxes: phụ tố; prefixes: tiền tố; suffixes: hậu tố)

2. What the grammatical category of the word is (noun, verb, adjective, etc.).

3. How many syllables the word has.

4. What the phonological structure of those syllables is.

-English syllables have two basic categories: strong and weak.

-One component of a syllable is the rhyme, which contains the syllable peak and the coda.

-A strong syllable has a rhyme with:

+ a syllable peak which is a long vowel or diphthong, with or without a following

consonant (coda)

‘die’ /daɪ/; ‘heart’ /hɑːt/ ; see /siː/

+a syllable peak which is a short vowel, one of ɪ, e, æ, ʌ, ɒ, ʊ, followed by at least one

consonant.

‘bat’ /bæt/; ‘much’/mʌtʃ/; ‘pull’ /pʊl/

A weak syllable has a syllable peak which consists of one of the vowels ə, i, u and no
coda except when the vowel is ə. Syllabic consonants are also weak.

sofa /ˈsəʊfə/ ; lazy/ˈleɪzi/

happen /ˈhæpən/ sudden /ˈsʌdn̩/

The vowel ɪ may also be the peak of a weak syllable if it occurs before a consonant that is
initial in the syllable that follows it.

event /ɪˈvent/ become /bɪˈkʌm/

Only strong syllables can be stressed; weak syllables are always unstressed.

10.3 PLACEMENT OF STRESS WITHIN A WORD

10.3.1.Single-syllable words
 If they are pronounced in isolation, they are said with primary stress.

10.3.2.Two-syllable words

-In the case of simple two-syllable words, either the first or the second syllable will be
stressed – not both.

-There is a general tendency for verbs to be stressed nearer the end of a word and for
nouns to be stressed nearer the beginning.

(Verb: nhấn âm cuối, Noun: nhấn âm đầu)

decide (v) /dɪˈsaɪd/ invest (v) /ɪnˈvest/

project (n) /ˈprɒdʒekt/ children (n) /ˈtʃɪldrən/

conduct (v) /kənˈdʌkt/ conduct (n) /ˈkɒndʌkt/

protest (v) /prəˈtest/ protest (n) /ˈprəʊtest/

Two-syllable VERBS

If the final syllable is weak, then the first syllable is stressed.

answer (v) /ˈɑːnsə/ enter (v) /ˈentə/

open (v) /ˈəʊpən/ envy (v) /ˈenvi/

-A final syllable is also unstressed if it contains əʊ.

borrow (v) /ˈbɒrəʊ/ follow (v) /ˈfɒləʊ/

If the final syllable is strong, then that syllable is stressed even if the first syllable is also
strong.

apply (v) /əˈplaɪ/ attract (v) /əˈtrækt/

maintain (v) /meɪnˈteɪn/ rotate (v) /rəʊˈteɪt/

Two-syllable simple ADJECTIVES

Two-syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the same rule as verbs.

lovely /ˈlʌvli/ even /ˈiːvn/

correct /kəˈrekt/ alive /əˈlaɪv/

Two-syllable simple NOUNS

 -Stress will fall on the first syllable unless the first syllable is weak.

money /ˈmʌni/ larynx /ˈlærɪŋks/

product /ˈprɒdʌkt/ parent /ˈpeərənt/

-If the first syllable is weak, and the second one is strong; then the stress will fall on the
second syllable.

divan /dɪˈvæn/ balloon /bəˈluːn/

-Other two-syllable words such as adverbs seem to behave like verbs and adjectives.

10.3.3.Three-syllable words

Three-syllable VERBS

-In simple verbs, if the final syllable is strong, then it will receive primary stress.

entertain /ˌentəˈteɪn/ resurrect /ˌrezəˈrekt/

-If the last syllable is weak, then it will be unstressed, and stress will be placed on the
preceding syllable if that syllable is strong.

encounter /ɪnˈkaʊntə/ determine/dɪˈtɜːmɪn/

-If both the second and the third syllables are weak, then the stress falls on the initial
syllable.

parody /ˈpærədi/ monitor /ˈmɒnɪtə/

Three-syllable NOUNS

-Nouns require a slightly different rule. The general tendency is for stress to fall on the
first syllable unless it is weak.

quantity /ˈkwɒntəti/ custody /ˈkʌstədi/

-However, in words with a weak first syllable, the stress comes on the next syllable

potato /pəˈteɪtəʊ/ disaster /dɪˈzɑːstə/

-When a three-syllable noun has a strong final syllable, that syllable will not usually
receive the main stress.

intellect /ˈɪntəlekt/ marigold /ˈmærɪɡəʊld/

Three-syllable ADJECTIVES
 -Adjectives seem to need the same rule, to produce stress patterns such as:

opportune /ˈɒpətjuːn/ insolent /ˈɪnsələnt/

derelict /ˈderəlɪkt/ anthropoid /ˈænθrəpɔɪd/

TÓM TẮT: Two-syllable words

NOUN VERB ADJ ÀDV

Ưu tiên âm tiết ĐẦU Ưu tiên âm tiết CUỐI
Nhấn âm đầu nếu âm đầu Nếu âm cuối yếu, nhấn âm
không yếu đầu
Nếu âm đầu yếu, cuối mạnh, Âm cuối luôn ko nhấn, nếu GIỐNG GIỐNG
nhấn âm cuối có có əʊ VERB VERB
Nếu âm cuối mạnh , âm đầu
mạnh→ nhấn âm cuối

TÓM TẮT: Three-syllable words

NOUN VERB ADJ ÀDV

Ưu tiên âm tiết ĐẦU Ưu tiên âm tiết CUỐI
Nhấn âm đầu nếu âm đầu Nếu âm cuối mạnh, nhấn âm
không yếu cuối
Nếu âm đầu yếu, cuối mạnh, Nếu âm cuối yếu, nhấn âm 2 GIỐNG GIỐNG
nhấn âm cuối VERB VERB
Nếu âm cuối và âm 2 đều
yếu, nhấn âm đầu
 CHAPTER 11: COMPLEX WORD STRESS

11.1 Complex words

11.2 Suffixes

11.3 Prefixes

11.4 Compound words

11.5 Variable stress

11.6 Word-class pairs

11.1 COMPLEX WORDS

-Two major types:

-Words made from a basic word form (called stem), with the addition of an affix

-Compound words, which are made of two (or occasionally more) independent English
words (e.g. ‘ice cream’, ‘armchair’)

-Stem is what remains after affixes are removed.

employee → stem: employ comfortable → stem: comfort

-Affixes have one of three possible effects on word stress

1.The affix itself receives the primary stress.

‘semi-’ + ‘circle’ ˈsɜːkl → ‘semicircle’ ˈsemisɜːkl

‘person’ ˈpɜːsn + ‘-ality’ → ‘personality’ ˌpɜːsnˈæləti

2. The affixes do not change the stress of the stem.

‘pleasant’ ˈpleznt ‘unpleasant’ ʌnˈpleznt

‘market’ˈmɑːkɪt ‘marketing’ ˈmɑːkɪtɪŋ

3. The stress remains on the stem, not the affix, but is shifted to a different syllable.

‘magnet’ ˈmæɡnət ‘magnetic’ mæɡˈnetɪk

11.2.SUFFIXES (HẬU TỐ)

11.2.1.Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves

 ee refugee’ ˌrefjuˈdʒiː
eer mountaineer’ ˌmaʊntəˈnɪə
ese portuguese’ ˌpɔːtʃʊˈɡiːz
ette cigarette’ ˌsɪɡrˈet
esque ‘picturesque’ ˌpɪktʃrˈesk

➢ The primary stress is on the first syllable of the suffix.

If the stem consists of more than one syllable, there will be a secondary stress on one of
the syllables of the stem. This cannot fall on the last syllable of the stem and is, if necessary,
moved to an earlier syllable

11.2.2.Suffixes that do not affect stress placement

able comfort comfortable

age anchor anchorage
al refuse refusal
en wide widen
ful wonder wonderful
ing amaze amazing
like birl birlike
less power powerless
ly hurried hurriedly
ment punish punishment

11.2.3.Suffixes that influence stress in the stem

When the suffixes ‘-ance’, ‘-ant’ and ‘-ary’ are attached to single-syllable, the stress is
almost placed on the stem.

‘guidance’ ˈɡaɪdns ‘sealant’ ˈsiːlənt

When the stem has more than one syllable, the stress is on one of the syllables in the stem.

+ If the final syllable of the stem is strong, that syllable receives stress.

‘importance’ ɪmˈpɔːtns ‘centenary’ senˈtiːnri

Otherwise the syllable before the last one receives the stress:

‘inheritance’ ɪnˈherɪtəns ‘military’ ˈmɪlɪtri

11.3. PREFIXES (TIỀN TỐ)

The effect of prefixes on stress does not have the comparative regularity, independence
and predictability of suffixes.
 ‘disagree’ ˌdɪsəˈɡriː ‘disqualify’ dɪsˈkwɒlɪfaɪ
‘disable’ dɪsˈeɪbl ‘disappear’ ˌdɪsəˈpɪə

There is no prefix of one or two syllables that always carries primary stress.

‘autofocus’ ˈɔːtəʊfəʊkəs ‘autobiography’ ˌɔːtəbaɪˈɒɡrəfi

‘autochanger’ ˈɔːtəʊtʃeɪndʒə ‘autodidact’ ˌɔːtəʊˈdaɪdækt
‘anti-hero’ ˈænti hɪərəʊ ‘anti-personnel’ ˌænti pɜːsəˈnel

Stress in words with prefixes is governed by the same rules as those for polysyllabic
words without prefixes.

11.3. STRESS IN COMPOUND WORDS

-Compound words are words made up of two or more independent words.

-Compound words are written in different ways:

+ written as one word (e.g. ‘armchair’, ‘sunflower’, ‘handbag’

+ separated by a hyphen (e.g. ‘open-minded’, ‘cost-effective’

+ separated by a space (e.g. ‘desk lamp’, ‘battery charger’)

-Rules

-Compound words which combine two nouns normally have the stress on the first noun.

‘typewriter’ ˈtaɪpraɪtə ‘teacup’ ˈtiːkʌp

-Compounds with an adjectival first element and the –ed morpheme at the end have stress
on the second element, and the first elements often have secondary stress.

‘bad-tempered’ ˌbæd ˈtempəd

-Compounds in which the first element is a number in some form also tend to have final
stress.

‘three-cornered’ ˌθriː ˈkɔːnəd

-Compounds functioning as adverbs are usually final-stressed.

‘North-East’ ˌnɔːθ ˈiːst

‘downstream’ ˌdaʊnˈstriːm

-Compounds which function as verbs and have an adverbial first element take final stress.
 ‘downgrade’ ˌdaʊnˈɡreɪd

11.5 VARIABLE STRESS

Stress position may vary for one of two reasons:

1.as a result of the stress on other words occurring next to the word in question.

The main effect is that the stress on a final-stressed compound tends to move to a
preceding syllable and change to secondary stress if the following word begins with a strongly
stressed syllable.

ˌbad-ˈtempered but a ˌbad-tempered ˈteacher

ˌhalf-ˈtimbered but a ˌhalf-timbered ˈhouse

2. Not all speakers agree on the placement of stress in some words.

controversy ˈkɒntrəvɜːsi kənˈtrɒvəsi

ice cream ˈaɪs kriːm ˌaɪs ˈkriːm

11.6. WORD-CLASS PAIRS

-Pairs of two-syllable words with identical spelling differ from each other in stress
placement, apparently according to word class (noun, verb, or adjective)

-The stress is placed on the second syllable of the verb but on the first syllable of the
noun or adjective.
 CHAPTER 12: WEEK FORM

Rules for using strong forms

1.Weak form words occur at the end of a sentence.

‘Chips are what I’m fond of.’ ‘I’m fond of chips.’

2.When a weak form word is being contrasted with another word.

‘The letter’s from him, not to him.’

A coordinated use of prepositions

‘I travel to and from London a lot.’ ‘A work of and about literature’

3.When a weak-form word is given stress for the purpose of emphasis

‘You must give me more money.’

4. When a weak-form is being “cited” or “quoted”

‘You shouldn’t put “and” at the end of a sentence.’

When weak-form words whose spelling begins with ‘h’ (e.g. ‘her’, ‘have’) occur at the
beginning of a sentence, the pronunciation is with initial h, even though this is usually omitted in
other contexts.
 CHAPTER 14: ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH

14.1 Rhythm

14.2 Assimilation

14.3 Elision

14.4 Linking

14.1RHYTHM

-Rhythm involves some noticeable event happening at regular intervals of time.

-Examples: rhythm of the heartbeat, the ticking clock, etc.

-English speech is said to be rhythmical, and that the rhythm is detectable in the regular
occurrence of stressed syllable.

-English has stress-timed rhythm, which means that the times from each stressed
syllable to the next one will tend to be the same, irrespective of the number of intervening
unstressed syllable.

Ex

-In this sentence, the stressed syllables are given numbers: syllables 1 and 2 are not
separated by any unstressed syllables, 2 and 3 are separated by one unstressed syllable, 3 and 4
by two, and 4 and 5 by three.

-The unit of rhythm is the foot.

-The foot begins with a stressed syllable and includes all following unstressed syllables
up to (but not including) the following stressed syllable.

-This sentence is divided into 5 feet, and all the feet are supposed to be of roughly the
same duration.

-In a stress-timed language, the stressed syllable in a certain word can move or change
depending on how the word is used in a sentence, or what other stressed syllables may be near it.
 Compact kəmˈpækt but compact disk ˈkɒmpækt ˈdɪsk

thirteenθɜːˈtiːn but thirteen place ˈθɜːtiːn ˈpleɪs

Wesminterwestˈmɪnstə but Wesminter Abbey ˈwestmɪnstə ˈæbi

14.2 ASSIMILATION (changing sounds

A phoneme is pronounced differently as a result of being near some other phoneme

belonging to a neighboring word.

Example:

white paper /waɪt ˈpeɪpə/ → /waɪp ˈpeɪpə/

bright color /braɪt ˈkʌlə/ → /braɪk ˈkʌlə/

Assimilation is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in careful
and slow speech.

If Cf changes to become like Ci in some way, then the assimilation is called regressive
(the phoneme that comes first is affected by the one that comes after it).

If Ci changes to become like Cf in some way, then the assimilation is called progressive.

Coalescence of /t, d, s, z/ with /j/

REASONS FOR CHANGES

▪ Differences in place of articulation (vị trí cấu âm)

▪ Differences in manner of articulation (phương thức cấu âm)

▪ Differences in voicing

14.2.1.Assimilation of place of articulation

-When Cf is alveolar, Ci is not.

-Examples:

+ In rapid, casual speech the t will become p before a bilabial consonant.

‘that person’ ðæp ˈpɜːsn ‘that man’ ðæp mæn

+Before a dental consonant, t will change to a dental plosive t̪

‘that thing’ ðæt̪ θɪŋ ‘get those’ ɡet̪ ðəʊz

 + Before a velar consonant, the t will become k.

‘that case’ ðæk keɪs ‘bright colour’ braɪk ˈkʌlə ‘quite good’ kwaɪk ɡʊd

+ In similar context, d would become b, d̪, and g respectively.

‘good boy’ ɡʊb bɔɪ ‘bad thing’ bæd̪ θɪŋ ‘card game’ kɑːg ɡeɪm

+n would become m, n̪,

‘green paper’ ɡriːm ˈpeɪpə ‘fine thought’ faɪn̪ θɔːt ‘ten girls’ teŋ ɡɜːlz

+ s becomes ʃ when followed by ʃ

‘this shoe’ ðɪʃ ʃuː

+ z becomes Ʒ when followed by j

‘those years’ ðəʊƷ jɪəz

14.2.2.Assimilation of manner of articulation

This is only found in the most rapid and casual speech.

- The tendency is for regressive assimilation.

- The change in manner is most likely to be towards an “easier” consonant.

- For example: a final plosive becomes a fricative or nasal but not vice-versa.

‘that side’ ðæs saɪd ‘good night’ ɡʊn naɪt

- Progressive assimilation of manner: when a word-initial ð follows a plosive or nasal at

the end of a preceding word, it is very common to find that the Ci becomes identical in
manner to the Cf but with dental place of articulation.

‘in the’ ɪn ðə → ɪn̪n̪ə

‘get them’ ɡet ðəm → ɡe̪ tt̪ əm

‘read these’ riːd ðiːz → riːd̪d̪iːz

14.2.3 Assimilation of voice

- Only regressive assimilation of voice is found across word boundaries.

- If Cf is a lenis (voiced) consonant and Ci is fortis (voiceless), we often find that the lenis
consonant has no voicing.
 ‘I have to’ aɪ hæv tu → aɪ hæf tu

‘chessecake’ ˈtʃiːzkeɪk → ˈtʃiːskeɪk

- Progressive assimilation of voice across morpheme boundaries.

+ When a verb carries a third person singular ‘-s’ suffix, or a noun carries an ‘-s’ plural suffix
or an ‘-’s’ possessive suffix, that suffix will be pronounced as s if the preceding consonant is
fortis (voiceless) and as z if the preceding consonant is lenis (voiced).

‘cats’ kæts ‘dogs’ dɒɡz

‘jumps’ dʒʌmps ‘runs’ rʌnz

‘Pat’s’ pæts ‘Pam’s’ pæmz

14.2.4. Coalescence

▪ Coalescence of /t, d, s, z/ with /j/

/t/ + /j/ - What you want /wɒtʃu: wɒnt/

/d/ + /j/ - Would you? /wʊdʒuː/

/s/ + /j/ - In case you need it /ɪŋ keɪʃuː niːd ɪt/

/z/ + /j/ - Has your letter come? /hæʒɔː ˈletə kʌm/

14.3 ELISION

▪ Under certain circumstances, sounds disappear.

▪ As with assimilation, elision is typical of rapid, casual speech.

▪ Examples:

1. Loss of weak vowel after p, t, k

potato pəˈteɪtəʊ → pʰˈteɪtəʊ tomato təˈmɑːtəʊ → tʰˈmɑːtəʊ

canary kəˈneəri → kʰˈneəri perhaps pəˈhæps → pʰˈhæps

Weak vowel + n, l, r becomes syllabic consonant.

‘tonight’→ tnaɪt ‘police’→ pliːs

3. Avoidance of complex consonant clusters.

‘George the Sixth’s throne’ dʒɔːdʒ ðə sɪksθ θrəʊn

 → sɪksθrəʊn /sɪksrəʊn/

- In clusters of three plosives or two plosives plus a fricative, the middle plosive may
disappear.

‘acts’ ækts → æks ‘looked back’ lʊkt bæk → lʊk bæk

-Loss of final v in ‘of’ before consonants

‘lots of them’ lɒts ə ðəm

‘waste of money’ weɪst ə ˈmʌni

Pronunciation of contracted forms (see textbook page 114)

14.4 LINKING

-Linking r

- The phoneme r does not occur in syllable-final position in the BBC accent, but when the
spelling of a word suggests a final r, and a word beginning with a vowel follows, the
pronunciation is to pronounce with r.

‘here’ hɪə but ‘here are’ hɪər ə

‘four eggs’fɔː but ‘four eggs’ fɔːr egz

-Intrusive r

- BBC speakers often use r in a similar way to link words ending with a vowel, even
when there is no ‘justification’ from the spelling.

‘Formula A’ ˈfɔːmjələr eɪ

‘Australia all out’ ɒˈstreɪliər ɔːl aʊt

media event’ ˈmiːdiər ɪˈvent

1b 2d 3d 4a 5c 6a 7a 8d 9d 10a 11a 12b 13a 14b 15b 16d 17b 18c 19c 20d 21a 22c 23d
24b
 TEST 1: CHAPTER 1 → CHAPTER 7

1. Which features do /b, p, m/ have in common?

A.Labio-dentals C.Plosives

B.Bilabials D.Fricatives

2. When you pronounce /f, v, s, z/, you can continue making them without
interruption as long as you have enough air in your lung. These sounds are ______.

A. nasal C. obstruent

B. sonorant D.continuant

3. The ____________ can be lowered, allowing air to escape through the nose.

A. hard palate C. tongue

B. uvula D.velum

4. After the initial voiceless /p, k,t/ the realization of the sound /l/ is the _________.

A. devoiced C. clear

B. dark D.A,B,C are correct

5.The place of articulation of the initial sound in the word “thought” is __________.

A. biblabial C. dental

B. velar D. alveolar
6. The teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard and soft palate and the tongue belong to
the ______________

A. oral capvity C. larynx

B. nasal capity D. pharynx

7.In the production of ____________, as the tongue moves closer to the roof of the
mouth, there is at the same time a rounding movement of the lips.

A. əʊ,aʊ C. eə,ʊa

B. eɪ,aɪ D. ɔɪ, ɪə
 8. When you place the back of the tongue against the velum to shut off the oral
cavity and lower the velum to let the air escape through the nose, you can produce the
sound ____________

A. m C. n

B. j D. ŋ

9.The symbol for long, close, back, rounded vowel is _____________.

A. ʊ C. ɔ:

B. ɒ D. u:

10. Which of the following phonetic variations may happen to the lateral /l/ in the
word “mile”?

A. /l/ becomes dark at word-final position

B. /l/becomes devoiced at word-final position

C. /l/ becomes clear before vowel

D. /l/ becomes syllabic

11. The symbol for long, fully open, back neutral vowel is ___________.

A. ɑː C. ə

B. ʌ D. ɜː

12. When you hold the tongue blade very close to the back part of the alveolar ridge
and the front part of the hard palate and your lips are slightly rounded, the possible sound
produced is _____________.

A./h/ C. /p/

B. /ʃ/ D. /z/

13. A ___________ is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish
two words.

A. phoneme C. phonetics

B. minimal pair D. distinctive feature

 14. The correct pronunciation of the word “longer” is _______________

A. /ˈlɒnə/ C. /ˈlɒɡə/

B. /ˈlɒŋɡə/ D. /ˈlɒŋə/

15. In which of the following words is /p/ aspirated?

A. sharp C. spend

B. poor D. stop

16. When pronouncing “bat” and “bad”, speakers make “bat” different from “bad”
by ________________

A. making the final voiceless plosive aspirated

B. making the initial voiced plosive devoiced

C. making the vowel longer

D. making the vowel shorter

17. In the production of plosives, the first phase is the ___________ phase.

A. compression B. closing

C. post-release D. release

18. The voiced plosives in final position are often _____________.

A. partly voiced C. devoiced

B. unspirated D. aspirated

19. Among /eɪ, aɪ, ɔɪ, ɪə, aʊ/ …. is NOT a closing diphthong

A. eɪ C. ɪə

B. aʊ D. ɔɪ

20. In English, the sound ____________ never occurs in the initial position of a word.

A. /h/ C. /j/

B. /w/ D. /ŋ/
 21. Which feature do /f, ʃ,ʧ,k,s/ have in common?

A. They shorten the preceding vowels

B. They are all lenis plosives

C. They are all fortis fricatives

D. They are all fortis affricates.

22. We can classify vowels in terms of _______________.

A. Tongue height C. Frontness and backness

B. Lip rounding D. A,B,C

23. The manner of articulation of the final phoneme in the word “tomb” is ________.

A. affricate C. fricative

B. plosive D. nasal

24. The glottis is the opening between the vocal cords. When the glottis is_________,
the air passing through it can cause vibration, resulting in voiced sounds.

A. open C. tightly closed

B. loosely closed D. narrowed

TRUE OR FALSE

25. Consonants are sounds produced by partially or completely blocking the air in its
passage from the lung to the vocal tract. T

26. Sounds made by pressing the two lips together are called labiodentals T

27.In the production of English plosives, the velum is lowered T

28. Initial fortis consonants /p, t, k/ make their following /l, r, w, j/ lose their voicingT

29. /m/ is a dental, nasal, voiced consonant F

30. In the production of a lateral approximant, the air escapes along the side of the tongue