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English Pronunciation and Phonetics
LESSON 1
THE ORGANS OF SPEECH

I. GENERAL
All the sounds we make when we speak are produced by a flow of air which comes from the
lungs into the throat and then passes through the nose or mouth. This stream of air is
modified (changed) along the passage in order to produced different sounds. The different
parts of the vocal tract that can make changes to the flow of air are called the organs of
speech/ articulators.
II. DESCRIPTION
THE ARTICULATORS
1. The lips, consisting of upper lips and lower lips, can form different shapes, be pressed
together, or brought in contact with the teeth.
2. The teeth (upper and lower) are usually shown in the diagram immediately behind the
lips.
3. The tongue, usually divided into tip, front, middle and back, can be moved into different
places and different shapes.
4. The tooth ridge or the alveolar ridge is just behind the upper teeth.
5. The hard palate is often called the „roof of the mouth‟.
6. The velum or the soft palate is the extreme back of the roof of the mouth. It can be
raised or lowered to open or close the passage to the nasal cavity.
7. The vocal cords or the vocal folds are in the throat (Adam‟s apple). They may open or
close and let the air pass through the opening between them. When they are apart, the
air can pass out freely without the vibration and produce voiceless sounds. When they
close tightly and open rapidly causing vibration, we have voiced sound.
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THE VOCAL CORDS
The word glottis is used to refer to the opening between the vocal folds/ cords. The changes
of the vocal folds and their position (glottis) are often important in speech. In general, vocal
cords can be moved into four different positions.
a. Wide apart for normal breathing and

usually during voiceless consonants
b. Narrow glottis
c. Vocal fold vibration- when the edges of
the vocal folds are touching each other, or
nearly touching, the air from the lungs
pushes them apart so that a little air
escapes. As the air flows quickly past the
edges, the folds are brought together
again, causing the so-called vocal fold
vibration.
d. Closure – the vocal folds are firmly
FOUR DIFFERENT STATES OF THE GLOTTIS pressed together and no air can pass
between them
The seven articulators described above are the main ones used in speech, but there are three
other things to remember. Although these are important in making sounds, they cannot be
described as articulators in the same sense as the lips or the vocal cords.
8. The pharynx is a tube which begins just above the larynx. At its top end it is divided into
two, one part being the back of the mouth and the other being the beginning of the way
through the nasal cavity.
9. The lower jaw can move up or down to change the size of oral cavity.
10. The nose and nasal cavity are important in making nasal sounds such as /m, n/.
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LESSON TWO
VOWELS
I. GENERAL
In the most common view, vowels are voiced sounds in which there is no obstruction to the
flow of air as it passes from the lungs to the lips. Moreover, other important differences
between vowels and consonants are in their different distributions, the different contexts and
positions in which they occur.
All of the vowels are syllabic, for they form the centre of a syllable. Whenever a vowel occurs in
a word, there is a syllable.
There are 20 vowels in the English language: 12 cardinal-single vowels /, , , , , ,,
, , , , / and 8 diphthongs /, , , , , , , /.
II. CLASSIFICATION
It has become traditional to locate cardinal vowels on a four-sided figure to help students learn
a way of describing, classifying and comparing vowels.
RP VOWEL CHART
Cardinal vowels can be classified according to the following principles:
1. The position of the tongue

- When the front of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate, we have front vowels
- When the middle of the tongue is raised toward the hard palate, we have central
vowels
- When the back of the tongue is raised toward the soft palate, we have back vowels.
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2. The height of the tongue

- When the tongue is raised close to the palate and the passage is narrow, we have
close vowels.
- When the tongue is in mid position, we have mid-open vowels. This group
sometimes is considered to include half-close and half-open vowels.
- When the tongue is low and the passage is wide, we have open vowels.
3. Lip position: The lips can have three main shapes: rounded, spread and neutral.
- When the vowel is produced with the corners of the lips brought towards each other
and the lips pushed forwards, it is rounded.
- When the vowel is produced with the corners of the lips moved away from each
other, it is spread.
- When the vowel is produced with lips not noticeable rounded or spread, it is neutral.
4. Length
- When some vowels are produced and sustained over a longer time than others, they
are long vowels.
- The vowels which are relatively short are short vowels.
5. Muscle tension
- When we produce a vowel with great tension of the jaw and the throat, we have a
tense vowel.
- When we produce a vowel with great relaxation of the jaw and the throat, we have
a relaxed vowel.
III. DIPHTHONGS
A diphthong is a combination of 2 vowels produced within one syllable.

- The first element is the nucleus (strong – clear – distinct vowel sound)
- The second element is the glide (weak – short vowel)
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LESSON THREE
FRONT VOWELS
I. DESCRIPTION
It is only the front part of the tongue that is raised or lowered to produce the front vowels.
- When the front part of the tongue is raised close to the palate and the air passage is
narrow, we have // and //. The lips are slightly spread. The sound // is longer
than the sound //.
- When the front part of the tongue is half between its low and high position, we have
//. The lips are slightly spread. The sound is short and relaxed.
- When the front part of the tongue is very low and the air passage is wide, we have
//. The lips are slightly spread. The sound is short is rather tense.
II. DRILL
1. Target sound /  /
A. Listen to the sound.
Listen and repeat the sound.
B. Listen and repeat the words with sound /  /, then the sentences.
sheep Look out for that sheep.
leak Stop it leaking
cheeks What lovely cheeks!
peel This peel‟s got vitamin C in it.
bean Throw out that bean.
leave He‟s going to leave.
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C. Listen to the dialogue and pay attention to the words with the target sound. Then
practice reading it aloud.
IN A CAFÉ: „IT‟S CHEAPER TO EAT AT MARGUERITE‟S‟

CHRISTINA: What would like to eat, Peter? The cheese sandwiches are the cheapest.
PETER: Er … mmm … oh, a cheese sandwich, please, Christina.
CHRISTINA: Cheese … mmm … Janine? Would you like a beef sandwich or a cheese
sandwich?
JANINE: A cheese sandwich, please.
PETER: What about you, Christina? Would you like cheese or beef?
WAITRESS: Are you ready to order? What would you like to eat?
CHRISTINA: Er, we‟ll have one beef sandwich, two cheese sandwiches, and … mmm
tea for me.
JANINE: Tea for me too, please.
PETER: Yes, make that three teas, please.
WAITRESS: (Writing down the order) One beef sandwich, two cheese sandwiches
and three teas.
2. Target sound / /

B. Minimal pairs
/  / / /
sheep ship
leak lick
cheeks chicks
peel pill
bean bin
leave live
Look out for that sheep. Look out for that ship.
Stop it leaking! Stop it licking!
What lovely cheeks. What lovely chicks.
This peel‟s got vitamin C in it. This pill‟s got vitamin C in it.
Throw out that bean. Throw out that bin.
He‟s going to leave. He‟s going to live.
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C. Dialogue: Listen to the following dialogue and complete it with the words in the box.
history festival cinema interesting prize-winning gorilla
Africa gymnastics Olympic excited beginning terrific chimpanzee
THREE INTERESTING FILMS

BILL: Good evening, Mrs. Lee.
GINA: Is Kim in?
BILL: Is he coming to the cinema, Mrs. Lee? It‟s the Children‟s Film (1) ………….
MRS LEE: Kim‟s ill.
BILL: Here he is!
GINA: Hi, Kim!
KIM: Hi, Gina! Hi, Bill!
BILL: Kim, we‟ve got these three free tickets to see three (2) …………films for children.
MRS LEE: Listen, Kim ………
KIM: Is it (3) ………?
GINA: We think it is. First there‟s a short film about gorillas and (4) ………… and (5) ………
in Africa, and ………
BILL: ………… then the next film is about the six best Olympic (5) ………… competitions,
and then ……….
GINA: … then it‟s the big film – The (6) ………… of English Cricket.
KIM: Cricket!
BILL: It‟s a (7) ………… film.
MRS LEE: If you‟re ill, Kim …………
GINA: It would be a pity to miss it.
MRS LEE: Now listen, you kids ………
BILL: And it begins in fifty minutes.
MRS LEE: KIM!
KIM: Quick! Or we‟ll miss the (8) ………… of the gorilla film!
3. Target sound / /
A. Listen to the target sound.

Listen and repeat the target sound
B. Minimal pairs
/ / //
pin pen
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bin Ben
tin ten
pig peg
bill bell
chick cheque
I need a pin. I need a pen.
That‟s my bin. That‟s my Ben.
It‟s a big tin. It‟s a big ten.
Where‟s the pig? Where‟s the peg?
There‟s the bill. There‟s the bell.
She wants a chick. She wants a cheque.
C. Listen to the dialogue and fill the gaps with the correct questions (a – g) below.
a) Can I get you a drink, Adele?
b) Is that better?
c) Was it expensive?
d) Are you listening to the Red Hot Chili Peppers?
e) How did you spend your holiday, Adele?
f) Are you a friend of Emma‟s?
g) Have you met my friend Adele yet, Kevin?
FRIENDS
ADELE: Hi, Emma! Hi, Ben! Hello, Emily! Hello, Eddie! Hi, everybody!
EVERYBODY EXCEPT Hi, Adele!
KEVIN:
EMILY: Nice to see you again, Adele. Kevin, this is Adele. Adele, this is Kevin.
ADELE: Hi, Kevin. (1)…………? It‟s terribly loud.
KEVIN: Yes ...(turns the music down) (2) ………? (Adele nods her head)
(3)…………?
ADELE: Yes.
KEVIN: Emma said she had a friend called Adele.
EDDIE: Help yourself to Mexican food, Adele. It‟s on the kitchen bench.
EMILY: And there‟s French bread on the shelf.
BEN: (4) ……………………?
ADELE: Yes, thanks, Ben. Some lemonade with a bit of ice in it.
EMMA: (5) ……………………?
KEVIN: Yes. I‟ve just met her. She‟s very friendly.
BEN: (6) ……………………………?
ADELE: I went to South America with my best friend Kerrie.
EVERYBODY: Well!
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EMMA: We‟re all jealous.

EDDIE: (7) …………………………
ADELE: Not very. But I spent everything. I haven‟t any money left.
4. Target sound / /

Listen and repeat the target sound.
B. Minimal pairs
// / /
X axe
pen pan
men man
send sand
gem jam
bread Brad
Put the „x‟ here. Put the axe here.
Can I borrow your pen? Can I borrow your pan?
Look at the men. Look at the man.
I‟m sending the table. I‟m sanding the table.
It‟s a lovely gem. It‟s a lovely jam.
We had bread for lunch. We had Brad for lunch.
C. Listen and complete the sentences below. Each missing word has the sound / /.
Then practice reading them aloud. Number one has been done as an example.
1. Aaron works at the Ajax Travel Agency.

2. He‟s on holiday in …………
3. His boss is Mrs. …………
4. Aaron left an ………… and ………… on his desk.
5. He ………… to contact Anthony about the ………… of ………… he ………… on ………
6. Aaron has a ………… habit of being ………… from work.
7. Aaron booked a ………… to San ………… with three …………: an anteater,
an…………, and an …………
8. The computer has ………… and Aaron hadn‟t done the ………… up for the …………
programmes. Mrs. Allen is very …………
9. The best advertising ………… have been ………… because of Aaron‟s bad …………
10. Aaron doesn‟t ……… to come ……… to the ……… agency because he‟s been ………
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LESSON FOUR
CENTRAL VOWELS
I. DESCRIPTION
We have central vowels when the very middle part of the tongue is used.
- When the middle part of the tongue is in mid position, we have the sounds / / and
/ /. The lips are neutral. The sound / / is longer and tenser than the sound / /.
- When the middle part of the tongue is low, we have /  /. The lips are neutral. The
sound is short and relaxed.
II. THE “SCHWA”
The most frequently occurring vowel in English is , which is always associated with weak
syllables and weak forms. In quality it is mid and central, relaxed, but the quality of this vowel
is not always the same. However, the variation is not as important as its distribution (where it is
appropriate and where it is not). To do this, we must consider spelling. The following examples
will give us a rough guide to the correct pronunciation of weak syllables.
- Spelt with „a‟; strong pronunciation would have / /: attend, character, barracks
- Spelt with „ar‟; strong pronunciation would have //: particular, monarchy, molar
- Adjective endings spelt „ate‟; strong pronunciation would have //: intimate,
desolate, accurate (exception – private //)
- Spelt with „o‟, strong pronunciation would have /  /: tomorrow, carrot
- Spelt with „or‟, strong pronunciation would have / /: forget, opportunity
- Spelt with „e‟, strong pronunciation would have //:postmen, violet
- Spelt with „er‟; strong pronunciation would have / /: perhaps, superman
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- Spelt with „u‟, strong pronunciation would have / /: autumn, support

- Spelt with „ough‟ (there are, of course, other pronunciation for „ough‟): thorough,
borough
- Spelt with „ous‟ : gracious. callous
III. DRILL
1. Target sound / /
A. Listen to the sounds

Listen and repeat the sounds
B. Minimal pairs
/ / / /
cap cup
hat hut
track truck
ban bun
bag bug
ankle uncle
Where‟s my cap? Where‟s my cup?
There‟s a hat in the garden. There‟s a hut in the garden.
See the tracks on the road. See the trucks on the road.
There‟s a ban on it. There‟s a bun on it.
She‟s got a bag. She‟s got a bug.
My ankle was injured. My uncle was injured.
C. Listen to the dialogue and fill the gaps with the correct words from the box.
worry lovely honey brother other

nothing company wonderful month does
SHE DOESN‟T LOVE HIM
JASMINE: Honey, why are you so sad?

(Duncan says (1) …………………………)
JASMINE: (2) …………………………, why are you so unhappy? I don‟t understand.
DUNCAN: You don‟t love me, Jasmine.
JASMINE: But Duncan, I love you very much!
DUNCAN: That‟s untrue, Jasmine. You love my cousin.
JASMINE: Justin?
DUNCAN: No, his (3)…………………………
JASMINE: Dudley?
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DUNCAN: No. Stop being funny, Jasmine. Not that one. The (4)………… brother. Hunter. You
think he‟s (5)………………………… and I‟m unattractive.
JASMINE: Duncan! That‟s utter rubbish!
DUNCAN: And Hunter loves you too.
JASMINE: No, he doesn‟t.
DUNCAN: Yes, he (6) …………
JASMINE: Duncan, just once last (7) ……… I had lunch with Hunter. You mustn‟t (8) ……… I
like your (9) ……… much better than Hunter‟s. Hunter‟s …
DUNCAN: Oh, just shut up, Jasmine!
JASMINE: But honey, I think you‟re (10) ………
DUNCAN: Oh, shut up, Jasmine.
JASMINE: Now that‟s enough! You‟re just jealous, Duncan. You shut up!
2. Target sound / /
A. Listen to the sounds.

Listen and repeat the sounds.
B. Minimal pair A
/ / / /
four fur
torn turn
warm worm
walker worker
She‟s got four. She‟s got fur.
It‟s a torn sign. It‟s a turn sign.
I wouldn‟t like warm soup. I wouldn‟t like worm soup.
He‟s a fast walker. He‟s a fast worker.
C. Minimal pair B
// / /
ten turn
Ben burn
Bed bird
West worst
The sign says ten. The sign says turn.
Look at it, Ben. Look at it burn.
It‟s a colourful bed. It‟s a colourful bird.
It‟s the west wind. It‟s the worst wind.
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D. Minimal pair C
/ / / /
fun fern
bun burn
bud bird
gull girl
Fabulous fun! Fabulous fern!
Look at that bun. Look at that burn.
That‟s a tiny little bud. That‟s a tiny little bird.
There‟s a gull on the beach. There‟s a girl on the beach.
E. Listen and then practise reading aloud the dialogue below.
THE WORST NURSE

SIR HERBERT: Nurse!
COLONEL BURTON: Nurse! I‟m thirsty!
SIR HERBERT: Nurse! My head hurts!
COLONEL BURTON: Nurse Sherman always wears such dirty shirts.
SIR HERBERT: He never arrives at work early.
COLONEL BURTON: He and … er … Nurse Turner weren‟t at work on Thursday, were they?
SIR HERBERT: No, they weren‟t.
COLONEL BURTON: Nurse Sherman is the worst nurse in the ward, isn‟t he, Sir Herbert?
SIR HERBERT: No, he isn‟t, Colonel Burton. He is the worst nurse in the world!
3. Target sound / /
B. Practice the target sound in the underlined unstressed words and syllables.
a photograph of Barbara a glass of water
a pair of binoculars a photograph of her mother and father
a book about South America Look at the clock.
What‟s the time? It‟s six o‟clock.
It‟s a quarter to seven.
C. Practice the target sound in weak forms of auxiliaries.
Example Was /wz/ she dreaming? – This is the weak form of was.
Yes, she was. – This is a different sound. This is the strong form.
Practice
Was she thinking about South America? Yes, she was.
Were her brothers and sisters asleep? Yes, they were.
Do they like reading? Yes, they do.
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Have you read about South America? Yes, I have.

Does your friend like reading? Yes, he does.
Are we working hard? Yes, we are.
Has your friend been to South America? Yes, he has.
Can you swim? Yes, I can.
D. Read aloud the story and underline the sound / /in unstressed words and
syllables. Then check the answers with your partner.
Barbara spent Saturday afternoon looking at a beautiful book about South America.
„I want to go to South America,‟ she said to herself.
The next morning, when Barbara woke up at six o‟clock, her brothers and sisters were
still asleep. Barbara looked at them, and then closed her eyes again.
Then she quietly got out of bed and started to pack her suitcase.
She took some comfortable clothes out of the cupboard. She packed a pair of binoculars
and her sister‟s camera. She packed a photograph of herself and one of her mother and father.
„I mustn‟t forget to have some breakfast,‟ she said to herself. But then she looked at the
clock. It was a quarter to seven.
„I‟ll just drink a glass of water,‟ she said.
„A glass of water,‟ she said.
„Water,‟ she said, and opened her eyes.
She was still in her bed, and her brothers and sisters were laughing at her.
„Tell us what you were dreaming about,‟ they said to her.
But Barbara didn‟t answer. She was thinking about her wonderful journey to South
America.
E. Listen to the dialogue and circle the sound / /. Then practise reading it aloud.
SHOPPING
A: I‟m going to the library.
B: Can you buy something for me at the newsagent‟s?
A: But the newsagent‟s is a mile from the library.
B: No. Not that newsagent‟s. Not the one that‟s next to the fish and chip shop. I
mean the one that‟s near the butcher‟s.
A: Oh, yes. Well, what do you want?
B: Some chocolates and a tin of sweets and an address book.
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LESSON FIVE
BACK VOWELS
I. DESCRIPTION
- When the back part of the tongue is raised to the highest position, we have /  /
and /  /. The lips are rounded. The sound /  / is longer and tenser than the
sound /  /.
- When the back part of the tongue is in the mid position, we have //.
- When the back part of the tongue is lowered to the lowest position, we have / /
and / /.
II. DRILL
1. Target sound / /

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B. Minimal pair A
/ / / /
cap carp
hat heart
cat cart
ban barn
pack park
What a lovely cap! What a lovely carp!
He touched his hat. He touched his heart.
It‟s a farm cat. It‟s a farm cart.
I‟ll pack the car. I‟ll park the car.
C. Minimal pair B
/ / / /
cup carp
hut heart
cut cart
bun barn
come calm
What‟s a beautiful cup! What a beautiful carp!
There‟s a problem with my hut. There‟s a problem with my heart.
He covered his cut. He covered his cart.
What‟s in that bun? What‟s in that barn?
„Come down,‟ she said. „Calm down,‟ she said.
D. Listen to the dialogue and fill the gaps with the correct adjectives from the
box below.
marvelous fantastic smart attractive fabulous
AT A PARTY
(Margaret and Alana are at the bar. People are laughing in the garden.)
ALANA: What a ………… party this is! I‟m having so much fun, Margaret.
MARGARET: Where‟s your glass, Alana?
ALANA: Here you are. Thanks. That‟s enough.
MARTIN: Alana! Margaret! Come into the garden. Tara Darling and Markus Marsh are
dancing on the grass.
MARGARET: In the dark?
MARTIN: They are dancing under the stars.
ALANA: …………………………! And Bart Jackson is playing his guitar.
MARGARET: Just look at Tara! She can‟t dance but she looks very …………
MARTIN: Look at Markus. What a ………… dancer!
ALANA: What an ………… couple they are! Let‟s take a photograph of them.
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2. Target sound / /
B. Minimal pair
/ / / /
hat hot
cat cot
fax fox
sack sock
tap top
backs box
It‟s hat weather. It‟s hot weather.
He‟s got a white cat. He‟s got a white cot.
Look for the fax. Look for the fox.
Put it in a sack. Put it in a sock.
Turn that tap slowly. Turn that top slowly.
I can see their backs. I can see their box.
C. Listen and fill the gaps with the words you hear.
TV ADVERTISEMENT FOR „ONWASH‟
VOICE A: What‟s wrong with you, Mrs. Bloggs?
MRS. BLOGGS: What‟s wrong with me? I want a holiday from this 1___job of washing socks!
VOICE B: Buy a bottle of „Onwash,‟ Mrs Bloggs!
VOICE C: „Onwash‟ is so 2______ and 3______.
VOICE D: You don‟t want lots of 4______ water with „Onwash‟.
VOICE A: It‟s not a 5 ______ job with „Onwash‟.
VOICE B: Use „Onwash‟ often.
VOICE C: You won‟t be sorry when you‟ve got „Onwash‟.
VOICE D : Everybody wants „Onwash‟.
EVERYBODY: „Onwash‟ is so 6 _________!
3. Target sound / /

B. Minimal pair
/ / / /
Don Dawn
cod cord
shot short
pot port
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fox forks
spot sport
Is your name Don? Is your name Dawn?
This cod was in the sea. This cord was in the sea.
He was shot. He was short.
It‟s a small pot. It‟s a small port.
Look for the fox. Look for the forks.
I don‟t like these spots. I don‟t like these sports.
C. Listen to the report, paying attention to the words with the target sound.
Then practise reading it aloud.
SPORTS REPORT FOR RADIO STATION 4
ANNOUNCER: This morning the Roarers football team arrived back from York. Laura Short is
our reporter, and she was at the airport.
LAURA SHORT: Good morning, listeners. This is Laura Short. All the footballers are walking
towards me. Here‟s George Ball, the goalkeeper. Good morning, George.
GEORGE BALL: Good morning. Are you a reporter?
LAURA SHORT: Yes. George. I‟m Laura Short from Radio Station 4. Tell us about the football
match with York.
GEORGE BALL: Well, it was awful. We lost. And the score was forty-four, four. But it wasn‟t
my fault, Laura.
LAURA SHORT: Whose fault was it, George?
GEORGE BALL: The forwards
LAURA SHORT: The forwards?
GEORGE BALL: Yes. The forwards. They were always falling over or losing the ball!
4. Target sound /  /

B. Minimal pair
/ / /  /
pot put
cod could
lock look
rock rook
box books
Pot the plant in the garden Put the plant in the garden.
How do you spell „cod‟? How do you spell „could‟?
I‟ll lock you up. I‟ll look you up.
The wind blew around the rock. The wind blew around the rook.
Give me the box. Give me the books.
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C. Listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the words with the target sound.
Then practise reading it aloud.
A LOST BOOK
MR. COOK: Could you tell me where you‟ve put my book, Bronwen?
MRS. COOK: Isn‟t it in the bookshelf?
MR. COOK: No. The bookshelf is full of your cookery books.
MRS COOK: Then you should look in the bedroom, shouldn‟t you?
MR. COOK: I‟ve looked you took that book and put it somewhere, didn‟t you?
MRS. COOK: The living room?
MR. COOK: No. I‟ve looked. I‟m going to put all my books in a box and lock it!
MRS. COOK: Look, John! It‟s on the floor next to your foot.
MR. COOK: Ah! Good!
5. Target sound /  /
B. Minimal pair
/  / /  /
look Luke
pull pool
full fool
could cooed
would wooed
Look, a new moon! Luke, a new moon.
The sign said „Pull‟. The sign said „Pool‟.
This isn‟t really full proof. This isn‟t really foolproof.
The bird could. The bird cooed.
„He would, Julie, at the full moon.‟ He wooed Julie at the full moon.
THE TWO RUDEST STUDENTS IN THE SCHOOL

MISS LUKE: Good afternoon, girls.
GIRLS: Good afternoon, Miss Luke.
MISS LUKE: This afternoon we‟re going to learn how to cook soup. Turn on your computers
and look at unit twenty-two.
LUCY: Excuse me, Miss Luke.
MISS LUKE: Yes, Lucy?
LUCY: There‟s some chewing gum on your shoe.
MISS LUKE: Who threw their chewing gum on the floor? Was it you, Lucy?
LUCY: No, Miss Luke, it was Susan.
19
MISS LUKE: Who?

LUCY: Susan Duke.
SUSAN: It wasn‟t me, stupid. It was Julie.
JULIE: It was you!
SUSAN: It wasn‟t me! My mouth‟s full of chewing gum. Look, Miss Luke!
JULIE: Stop pulling my hair, Susan. It was you!
SUSAN: YOU!
JULIE: YOU!
MISS LUKE: Excuse me! If you two continue with this rudeness, you can stay after school
instead of going to the pool.
20
LESSON SIX
DIPHTHONGS
I. DESCRIPTION
Diphthongs are sounds which consist of a movement or glide from one vowel to another. The
first vowel is much longer and stronger than the second. As the glide happens, the loudness of
the sound decreases, so the last part of English diphthongs is shorter and quieter. In term of
length, diphthongs are like long vowels.
There 8 diphthongs divided into three groups:
a/ The fronting diphthongs glide toward //

- // The starting point is at the position of / /
- // The starting point is between front and back, which is quite similar to / /.
- // The starting point is the same as for / /.
// // //

b/ The centering diphthongs glide towards the vowel / /
- /  / The starting point is a little bit closer than /  /.
- /  / The starting point is the same as for / /.
- / / The starting point is slightly closer than / /
/  / /  / / /
c/ The retracting diphthongs glide towards /  /
- /  / This diphthong starts at the position of the vowel /  /. The lips may be
noticeably rounded.
21
- / / This diphthong begins with a vowel similar to /  / but a little more front.
There is only slight lip-rounding.
/  / / /
II. DRILL
1. Target sound //

B. Minimal pair
/ / //
pen pain
shed shade
edge age
wet wait
pepper paper
What an awful pen! What an awful pain!
The dog‟s in the shed. The dog‟s in the shade.
It‟s a difficult edge. It‟s a difficult age.
Just wet. Just wait.
Test this food. Taste this food.
That‟s too much pepper. That‟s too much paper.
AT THE RAILWAY STATION

(Mr Grey is waiting at the railway station for a train.)
MR. GREY: This train‟s late! I‟ve been waiting here for ages.
PORTER: Which train?
MR. GREY: The 8.18 to Baker Street.
PORTER: The 8.18? I‟m afraid you‟ve made a mistake, sir.
MR. GREY: A mistake? My timetable says: Baker Street train – 8.18.
PORTER: Oh no. The Baker Street train leaves at 8.08.
MR. GREY: 8.08?
22
PORTER: They changed the timetable at the end of April. It‟s the first of May today.
MR. GREY: Changed it? May I see the new timetable? What does it say?
PORTER: It says: Baker Street train – 8.08.
MR. GREY: Oh no, you‟re right. The train isn‟t late. I am.
2. Target sound //

B. Minimal pair
/ / //
bar buy
bark bike
Pa pie
R eye
cart kite
heart height
That was a good bar. That was a good buy.
What a noisy bark. What a noisy bike.
He loves his Pa. He loves his pie.
It‟s got two R‟s. It‟s got two eyes.
It‟s a cart. It‟s a kite.
Check the heart. Check the height.
C. Listen to the dialogue and fill the gaps with the correct words from the box.
bike nice type iced mobile climbing spider

Friday library tonight
HEIDI, CAROLINE AND NIGEL

(Heidi and Caroline are both typing.)
HEIDI: (Stops typing. She‟s smiling.) Hi, Nigel.
NIGEL: Hi, Heidi. Hi, Caroline. You‟re looking 1 _______, Caroline.
(Silence from Caroline. She keeps typing.)
NIGEL: Would you like some 2 _______ coffee, Caroline?
CAROLINE: (Keeps on typing.) No thanks, Nigel. I‟m busy typing. I have 99 pages to
3_______ by Friday.
NIGEL: Never mind. Do you like motor 4 _______ riding, Caroline?
CAROLINE: Sometimes. (Mobile phone rings.) … My 5 ______! … Hello … (Smiles) … Hi, Riley!
Mmmm! … (Laughs) … I‟d like that … Mmmm … at five … at the 6______ … it‟s 19
High Street … bye bye! (Caroline puts away her mobile and starts typing.)
NIGEL: Would you like to come rididng with me 7______, Caroline?
23
CAROLINE: Not tonight, Nigel. I‟m going for a drive with Riley. (Smiles to herself and keeps
typing.)
NIGEL: What about 8 ________?
CAROLINE: Friday? I‟m going 9_________ with Miles.
NIGEL: All right then. Bye.
HEIDI: Caroline, Nigel‟s put something behind your computer.
CAROLINE: Is it something nice, Heidi?
HEIDI: No.it‟s a 10__________
3. Target sound //

B. Minimal pair
// //
all oil
ball boil
corn coin
tore toy
roar Roy
It‟s all there. It‟s oil there.
It‟s a ball on his head. It‟s a boil on his head.
Look at that golden corn. Look at that golden coin.
The paper tore. The paper toy.
Hear the engine roar. Hear the engine, Roy.
ROYAL‟S ROLLS ROYCE

(Joyce Royal takes her noise Rolls Royce to the mechanic employed at the garage, a young boy
named Roy Coyne. Roy loves Rolls Royces.)
ROY COYNE: What a terrible noise, Mrs. Royal!
JOYCE ROYAL: Isn‟t it annoying, Roy? It‟s out of oil.
ROY COYNE: A Rolls Royce! Out of oil? … And look! (pointing) … The water‟s boiling!
Perhaps you‟ve spoilt the motor. Or even destroyed it. How disappointing! It‟s
such a beautiful Rolls Royce! … (raising his voice) … AND A ROLLS ROYCE
ISN‟T A TOY!
JOYCE ROYAL: How disappointing! I‟ll be late for my appointment.
4. Target sound / /
24
B. Minimal pair
/ / / /
car cow
bar bow
bra brow
grass grouse
arch ouch
It‟s the best car. It‟s the best cow.
It was a long bar. It was a long bow.
Her bra was wrinkled. Her brow was wrinkled.
There‟s beautiful grass here. There‟s beautiful grouse here.
„Arch!‟ he said loudly. „Ouch!‟ he said loudly.
C. There are six items to change in the dialogue. Listen to the dialogue and
make the words the same as the recording.
A MOUSE IN THE HOUSE

MRS. BROWN: Ow! You‟re shouting too loudly. Sit down and don‟t frown.
MR. BROWN: (sitting down) I‟ve found a mouse in the house.
MRS. BROWN: A town mouse?
MR. BROWN: Yes. A little round mouse. It‟s running around in the lounge.
MRS. BROWN: On the ground?
MR. BROWN: Yes. It‟s under the couch now.
MRS. BROWN: Well, get it out.
MR. BROWN: How?
MRS. BROWN: Turn the couch upside down. Get it out somehow. We don‟t want a mouse in
our house. Ours is the cleanest house in the town!
5. Target sound /  /

B. Minimal pair 1
/  / /  /
burn bone
fern phone
Bert boat
work woke
flirt float
It‟s a large burn. It‟s a large bone.
It‟s a green fern. It‟s a green phone.
That‟s my Bert. That‟s my boat.
25
I work early. I woke early.

He likes flirting. He likes floating.
C. Minimal pair 2
/  / /  /
caught coat
nought note
bought boat
jaw Joe
ball bowl
Gino‟s caught. Gino‟s coat.
It‟s a nought. It‟s a note.
We had a bought picnic. We had a boat picnic.
It‟s my jaw. It‟s my Joe.
Give me the ball. Give me the bowl.
D. Listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the words with the target sound.
SNOW IN OCTOBER
(Joe Jones is sleeping, but Joanna woke up a few minutes ago.)
JOANNA: Joe! Joe! JOE! Hello, wake up, Joe!
JOE: (groans) Oh! What is it, Joanna?
JOANNA: Look out of the window.
JOE: No. My eyes are closed, and I‟m going to go to sleep again.
JOANNA: Oh! Don‟t go to sleep, Joe. Look at the snow!
JOE: Snow? But it‟s only October. I know there‟s no snow.
JOANNA: Come over to the window, Joe.
JOE: You‟re joking, Joanna. There‟s no snow.
JOANNA: OK. I‟ll put my coat on and go out and make a snowball and throw it at your nose,
Joe Jones!
6. Target sound /  /

Listen and repeat the sounds
B. Minimal pair.
/  / /  /
E ear
bee bear
tea tear
pea pier
bead beard
26
That E‟s too big. That ear‟s too big.

It‟s a small bee. It‟s a small beer.
This tea tastes salty. This tear tastes salty.
It‟s an old pea. It‟s an old pier.
He has a black bead. He has a black beard.
C. Listen to the dialogue and fill the gaps with the words you hear. Each missing
word has the target sound.
A BEARDED MOUNTAINEER
(Mr. and Mrs. Lear are on holiday in Austria.)
MR. LEAR: Let‟s have a 1 _____ here, dear.
MRS. LEAR: What a good idea! They have very good beer here. We came here last 2_______
MR. LEAR: The atmosphere here is very 3 ________
MRS. LEAR: But it‟s windier than last year.
MR. LEAR: (speaking to the waiter) Two beers, please.
MRS. LEAR: Look, dear! Look at that 4 _________ drinking beer.
MR. LEAR: His 5 _________ is in his beer.
MRS. LEAR: Hs beard has nearly disappeared into his 6 _________
MR. LEAR: Sh! He might 7 ____________
WAITER: (bringing the beer) Here you are, sir. Two beers.
MR. LEAR: Thank you. (drinking his beer) Cheers!
MRS. LEAR: 8 _________ ! Here‟s to the bearded mountaineer!
7. Target sound /  /
B. Minimal pair
/  / /  /
ear air
beer bear
pier pear
hear hair
tear tear
Cheers! Chairs
The ear isn‟t good. The air isn‟t good.
It‟s a sweet beer. It‟s a sweet bear.
That‟s an old pier. That‟s an old pear.
How do you spell „hear‟? How do you spell „hair‟?
That‟s a tear. That‟s a tear.
„Three cheers!‟ he said. „Three chairs!‟ he said.
27
A PAIR OF HAIRCLIPS
MARY: I‟ve lost two small hairclips, Claire. They‟re a pair.
CLAIRE: Have you looked carefully everywhere?
MARY: Yes. They‟re nowhere here. They just aren‟t anywhere.
CLAIRE: Have you looked upstairs?
MARY: (getting impatient) Upstairs! Downstairs! Everywhere! They just aren‟t there!
CLAIRE: Hm! Are they square, Mary?
MARY: Yes. Why?
CLAIRE: Well, you‟re wearing one of them in your hair!
MARY: Oh! Then where‟s the other one?
CLAIRE: It‟s over there under that chair.
MARY: Hm!
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LESSON SEVEN
TRIPHTHONGS
I. DESCRIPTION
A triphthong is a glide from one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and
without interruption. The triphthong can be looked upon as being composed of the fronting and
retracting diphthongs with added /  / on the end. Thus we get:
- With fronting diphthongs
/  /+ / / = // /  / + / / = /  / / / + / / = //
- With retracting diphthongs
/ / + / / = / / /  / + / / = //
II. DRILL
1. /  / fire, hire, tyre, buyer, wire, flyer, empire, iron, tired, trial, quiet, lion
2. /  -  / fire – far, tyre – tar, buyer – bar, hired – hard
3. /  / flowers, power, tower, shower, sour, flour, coward, towel, vowel,
showery, allowance
4. /  -  / tower – tar, towering – tarring, cower – car, coward – card
5. / - / tower – tyre, dowry – diary, flour – flyer, trowel – trial
6. // greyer, player, layer, prayer, payer
7. / / slower, lower, grower, sower, mower, sewer, followers
8. // employer, destroyer, royal, loyal, employers, annoyance
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LESSON EIGHT
THE ENGLISH CONSONANTS

I. DESCRIPTION
In the production of consonants, the air stream from the lung is stopped or obstructed
obstruction of the air stream formed in the mouth by the articulators.
As being compared with vowels, the consonants are different from vowels in three aspects.
ASPECTS VOWELS CONSONANTS
Manner of articulation Without any obstruction With stoppage or restriction of the air
stream
Voicing All vowels are voiced Some are voiced whereas others are
sounds voiceless
Distribution Syllabic (forming the core All but some nasal and plosives are not
of a syllable) syllabic; they cannot form the center of a
syllable.
II. CLASSIFICATION
A/ PRINCIPLES:
1. Place of articulation
- Sounds made with both lips (bilabial): The obstruction of the air stream occurs at
the lips; these sounds are made with the two lips coming together.
- Sounds made with the lower lip and the upper teeth (labio-dental): The obstruction
occurs because the lower lip and the upper teeth come together.
- Sounds made with the tip of the tongue and the teeth (dental): The obstruction of
the air stream occurs because the tip of the tongue is between the teeth or touches
the area just behind the upper teeth.
- Sounds made with the tip of tongue and the tooth ridge (alveolar): The obstruction
occurs when the tip of the tongue touches the tooth ridge or alveolar ridge.
- Sounds made with the blade of tongue and the area slightly further back (palato-
alveolar): These sounds are made when the blade of the tongue approaches the
area just behind the tooth ridge.
- Sounds made with the blade of the tongue and the hard palate (palatal): In the
pronunciation of this sound, the blade of the tongue approaches the hard palate.
- Sounds made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate (velar): In producing
these sounds, the back of the tongue touches the soft palate, causing an obstruction
to the air stream.
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- Sounds made with the narrowing opening between the vocal folds (glottal)
BILABIAL POSITION LABIO-DENTAL POSITION DENTAL POSITION
ALVEOLAR POSITION PALATO-ALVEOLAR POSITION PAPLATAL POSITION
VELAR POSITION
2. Manner of articulation – the way in which the air stream is obstructed

- Complete obstruction of the air stream (stops)
- Partial obstruction of the air stream (fricatives)
- Complex consonants sounds (affricatives) – a combination of a stop followed by a
fricative
- Sounds made with the air escaping along the sides of the tongue (lateral)
31
- Sounds made when the articulators approach each other but do not get completely
closed (approximants)
3. Voicing – whether there is vibration of the vocal cords

- Sounds made with the vocal folds vibrating (voiced): /, , , , , , , ,
, , , , , , /
- Sounds made with no vibration of the vocal folds (voiceless): /, , , , , , ,
, /
 FORTIS and LENIS
- The voiceless consonants are sometimes called fortis (meaning „strong‟) and voiced
are then called lenis (meaning „weak‟). When they are in final position, the
difference between them is primarily the fact that vowels preceding voiceless are
shorter. The shortening effect of the voiceless sounds is most noticeable when the
vowel is one of the long vowels or diphthongs.
B/ CONSONANT CHART
Articulators Bilabial Labio- Dental Alveolar Palato- Palatal Velar Glottal

Manners of dental alveolar
articulation
Plosive (stop)      
Fricatives         
Affricatives  
Nasal   
Lateral 
Approximants   
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LESSON NINE
PLOSIVE CONSONANTS
I. DESCRIPTION
Plosive consonants are produced when the air stream is stopped completely at some point in
the mouth, then released suddenly with an explosive sound. The production of plosive
consonants consists of four phases:
i. The first phase is when the articulator(s) move to form the stricture for the plosive. We
call this the closure phase.
ii. The second phase is when the compressed air is stopped from escaping. We call this the
hold phase.
iii. The third phase is when the articulator(s) used to form the stricture are moved so as to
allow air to escape. This is the release phase.
iv. The fourth phase is what happens immediately after (iii) so we call it the post-release
phase.
II. LISTING
English has six plosive consonants /p, b, t, d, k, g/.
1. Bilabial plosive consonants: when the lips are pressed together, we have /p/ and/ b/.
To make the /p/ or /b/ sound:
1. Close and slightly tense your lips and relax your

tongue.
2. Build up air pressure behind your lips and hold it

for a moment.
3. Release the air using no voice for /p/.

Release the air while producing voice for /b/.
Fig. 1
33
2. Alveolar plosive consonants: when the tip of tongue is pressed against the alveolar ridge, we
have /t/ and /d/.
To make the /t/ or /d/ sound:
1. Open your mouth slightly and relax your lips.
2. Place the tip of your tongue on the gum (alveolar)

ridge just behind your upper teeth.
3. Build up the air pressure in the space between your

tongue and the top of your mouth.
4. + Suddenly release the pressure by dropping your

tongue, do not use voice for /t/.
Fig. 2 + Suddenly release the pressure by dropping

your tongue, use voice for /d/.
3. Velar plosive consonants: when the back of tongue is pressed against the area where the
hard palate ends and the soft palate begins, we have /k/ or /g/
To make /k/ or /g/ sound
1. Press the back of your tongue up against you soft

palate.
2. Build up the air pressure behind this
3. + Release the pressure, using no voice for /k/
+ Release the pressure, using voice for /g/

Fig. 3
NOTES:
+ /b – d – g/ are unaspirated in all positions whereas /p – t – k/ are aspirated in initial and final
positions
+ In initial position, /b/, /d/, and /g/ cannot be preceded by any consonant, but /p/, /t/ and /k/
may be preceded by /s/. When one of /p/, /t/, /k/ is preceded by /s/, it is unaspirated.
+ When there are double plosive consonants, only one explosion can be heard but for double
length, which is referred to as Incomplete Explosion.
*Aspiration refers to a noticeable burst of air on the release of a voiceless plosive consonant.
34
III. DRILL
1. Bilabial plosive consonants: /b/ and /p/
1.1 Target sound /p/
A Listen to the sound /p/

Listen and repeat the sound /p/.
B Listen and repeat the words with sound /p/, then the sentences.
pin It's a useful pen.

pen Pen, please.
pear Look at the yellow pear!
cap It's an old cap.
pup What a lively pup!
poppy Do you like Poppy?
C Dialogue
PASSPORT, PLEASE.
(Mr and Mrs Tupman are the airport. They have just got off the plane from Paris.)
Official: Passport please!
Mr Tupman: Poppy! Poppy! I think I've lost the passport!
Mrs Tupman: How stupid of you, Peter! Didn't you put them in your pocket?
Mr Tupman: (emptying his pocket) Here's a pen .... a pencil ... my pipe ... a postcard
... an envelope with a stamp ... a pin ...
Mrs Tupman: Oh, stop taking things out of your pockets. Perhaps you put them in the
plastic bag.
Mr Tupman: (emptying the plastic bag) Here's a newspaper ... an apple ... a pen ... a
plastic cup .... a spoon .... some paper plates ... a piece of potato pie .... a
pepper pot ...
Mrs Tupman: Oh, stop pulling things out of the plastic bag, Peter. These people are
getting impatient.
Mr Tupman: Well help me, Poppy.
(to official) We've lost our passports. Perhaps we dropped them on the
plane.
Official: Then let the other passengers pass, please.
Mr Tupman: Poppy, why don't you help? You aren't being very helpful. Put the things in
the plastic bag
Official: Your name, please?
Mr Tupman: Tupman
Official: Please go upstairs with this policeman, Mr Tupman.
35
1.2 Target sound /b/
A. Listen to sound /b/

Listen and repeat the sound /b/
B Minimal pairs
/p/ /b/
pin bin
pen Ben
pear bear
cap cab
pup pub
Poppy Bobby
It‟s a useful pin. It‟s a useful bin.
Pen, please! Ben, please!
Look at the yellow pear. Look at the yellow bear.
It‟s an old cap. It‟s an old cab.
What a lively pup! What a lively pub!
Do you like Poppy? Do you like Bobby?
C Dialogue
BOB: Hi, Barbara!

BARBARA: Hi, Bob. It's my birthday today.
BOB: Oh, yes! ... Your birthday! ...err ... Happy birthday, Barbara!
BARBARA: Thanks, Bob. Somebody gave me this blouse for my birthday.
BOB: What a beautiful blouse! It's got ... err ... blue butterflies on it.
BARBARA: And big black buttons.
BOB: Did ... err...mm.. Ruby buy it for you?
BARBARA: Yes. And my brother gave me a book about birds.
BOB: I didn't remember your birthday, Barbara. I'm terribly sorry. I've been so busy
with my new job. I left my old job. The one in the pub. Guess what? I'm driving
a cab.
BARBARA: A cabbie! Congratulations! Don't worry about the birthday present, Bob. But
remember that proverb: "Better late than never".
2 Alveolar plosive consonants: /t/ and /d/
2.1 Target sound /t/
A Listen to the sound /t/.

Listen and repeat the sound /t/.
36
B Sound /t/
too You too?

sent You sent the emails?
cart Is hers the red cart?
write Can he write well?
train Does this train smell?
trunk Is there a trunk here?
C Dialogue
CUSTOMER 1: I want to buy a skirt.

ASSISTANT: Skirts are upstairs on the next floor.
CUSTOMER 2: Where can I get some Thai food?
ASSISTANT: The cafeteria is on the first floor.
CUSTOMER 3: Where's the fruit juice please?
ASSISTANT: The next counter on your left.
CUSTOMER 4: Tins of tomatoes.
ASSISTANT: Try the supermarket in the basement.
CUSTOMER 5: Could you tell me where the em.. travel agent's is?
ASSISTANT: Yes. It's right next to the restaurant on the third floor.
CUSTOMER 6: I want to buy a cricket bat. How do I get to the ... the ...um...sports
equipment?
ASSISTANT: Take the lift to the sports department. It's on the top floor.
CUSTOMER 7: Where's the telephone, please?
ASSISTANT: It's on the next floor opposite the photographer's.
CUSTOMER 8: What's the time please?
ASSISTANT: It's exactly twenty-two minutes to ten.
2.2 Target sound /d/
A Listen to the sound /t/

Listen and repeat the sound /d/
B Minimal pairs
/t/ /d/
too do
sent send
cart card
write ride
train drain
trunk drunk
You too? You do?
You sent the emails? You send the emails?
Is the red cart hers? Is the red card hers?
37
Can he write well? Can he ride well?

Does this train smell? Does this drain smell?
Is there a trunk outside? Is there a drunk outside?
C Dialogue
A DAMAGED TELEPHONE LINE
DAISY: Hello. This is 22882228.

DAVID: Hello, Daisy. This is David.
DAISY: Oh, hi darling.
DAVID: What did you do yesterday, Daisy? You forgot our date, didn't you?
DAISY: Well, it rained all day, David ... and ... I had a bad cold, so I .. er ...decided to
stay at home.
DAVID: Did you? ... I phoned twenty times and nobody answered.
DAISY: Oh the telephone line was damaged. They repaired it today.
DAVID: Well ... Daisy!
DAISY: What, David?
DAVID: Oh! don't worry about it! What did ... er ... Donald do yesterday? Did he and
Diane go dancing?
DAISY: No, they didn't yesterday. They just stayed at home and played cards.
DAVID: What did you do? Did you play cards too?
DAISY: No Jordan and I listened to the radio and ..er .. studied. What did you do
yesterday, David?
DAVID: I've just told you, Daisy. I tried to phone you twenty times!
2.3 Verbs ending in -ED
/ d / after a vowel or voiced consonant played, cleaned, snowed, closed, filled, stayed
/t/ after an unvoiced consonant brushed, laughed, pushed, watched, danced, walked
/d / after the sound / t / or / d / waited, painted, shouted, wanted, landed, departed
Practice
Work with a partner, talking about these pictures.
Example: stayed awake / snored
A: He stayed awake, didn‟t he?
B: No, he didn‟t. He snored.
38
combed his hair cried a lot painted a room emptied his glass
brushed it laughed a lot cleaned it filled it
closed a door walked away washed the TV pulled his car

opened it waited a long time watched it pushed it
departed at noon whispered it danced at night rained all day

landed shouted it played cards snowed
3. Velar plosive consonants: /k/ and /g/
3.1 Target sound /k/
A Listen to the sound /k/

Listen and repeat the sound /k/
B Sound /k/
coat It's a hairy coat

curl He's got a lovely curl.
class It's a brilliant class.
back She's got a strong back.
crowing It's crowing
39
C Dialogue
KAREN COOK: Would you like some cream in your coffee, Mrs Klark?
KATE KLARK: Call me Kate, Karen.
KAREN COOK: Ok, cream Kate?
KATE KLARK: No thanks Karen. But I like a little milk. Thanks.
KAREN COOK: Would you like some little cream cakes, Kate?
KATE KLARK: Thank you. Did you make them?
KAREN COOK: Yes, take two. Here's a cake fork and here's a ...
KATE KLARK: Excuse me, Karen. But what's that next to your bookshelf? Is it a clock?
KAREN COOK: It's an electric cuckoo clock. It's American.
KATE KLARK: Is it plastic?
KAREN COOK: Oh no, Kate. It's a handmade wooden clock. It was very expensive.
KATE KLARK: Well, it's exactly six o'clock now and it's very quiet. Doesn't it say
cuckoo?
KAREN COOK: Of course it does, Kate ...Look!
CLOCK: Cuckoo, Cuckoo, Cuckoo, Cuckoo, Cuckoo, Cuckoo!
KATE KLARK: Fantastic! How exciting! What a clever clock!
3.2 Target sound /g/
A Listen to the sound /g/

Listen and repeat the sound /g/
B Minimal pairs
/k/ /g/
coat goat
curl girl
class glass
back bag
crowing growing
It‟s a hairy coat. It‟s a hairy goat.
He‟s got a lovely curl. He‟s got a lovely girl.
It‟s a brilliant class. It‟s a brilliant glass.
She‟s got a strong back. She‟s got a strong bag.
It‟s crowing. It‟s growing.
C. Listen to the sentences and fill the gaps with the correct words from the box below.
computer Maggie postcard Glasgow beginning games weekend

Portugal Greece grass catch guess cut camp
August girls gossip couple Carol garden Craig
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CRAIG AND MAGGIE‟S ANSWERING MACHINE
1. Greg and Carol want to stay for a _____ of days at _____ and ______‟s house in ____
2. They‟re coming to ____ at the _____ of _______.
3. _______ is always giggling. She wants to _______ up on all the _______.
4. The last time they got together, Greg and Craig played _______ while the two _______
went shopping.
5. Carol says, „I _______ you‟ve gone away for the _______.‟
6. Craig and Maggie sent a _______ from _______, but they‟re going to go to Greece.
7. While Craig and Maggie are in _______, Greg and Carol are going to _______ in their
_______.
8. Greg says they‟ll be very grateful and they‟ll _______ the _______.
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LESSON TEN
FRICATIVES
I. DESCRIPTION
Fricatives are consonants produced with the air escaping through a small passage and making a
hissing sound. In order to create this narrow passage, the speech organs are to move close
together yet not firmly against each other.
Fricatives are continuant sounds, which means that you can continue making them without
interruption as long as you have enough air in your lungs.
II. LISTING
The fricatives of English include 9 members / , , , , , , , ,  /
1. Labio-dental fricative consonants /, /- the lower lip is in contact with the upper teeth.
To make the target sounds / ,  /
1. Touch your upper teeth with your lower lip.
2. Blow out air between your lip and your teeth.
3. + Don‟t use your voice for sound / /

+ Use your voice for sound //
2. Dental fricative consonants /, / - the tongue is sometimes described as being placed
between the teeth; however, the tongue is normally placed inside the teeth with the tip
touching the inside of the lower front teeth and the blade touching the inside of the
upper teeth.
To make the target sounds /, /

1. Put your tongue between your teeth.
2. Blow out air between your tongue and your top teeth.
3. + Don‟t use voice for sound //
+ Use voice for sound / /
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3. Alveolar fricative consonants /, /- the tip of the tongue touches the tooth ridge.
To make the target sounds /  / and /  /:
1. Touch your top teeth with the sides of your tongue.

2. Put the tip of your tongue forward to nearly touch the
roof of your mouth.
3. + Don‟t use your voice for / /
+ Use your voice for /  /
4. Palato-alveolar fricative consonants /, / - the tongue is in contact with an area slightly
further back than the alveolar ridge.
To make the target sounds /  / and /  /:

1. Put the tip of your tongue a little back behind tooth ridge
2. Push air through the gap between the tongue and the
tooth ridge.
3. + Don‟t use your voice for / /
+ Use your voice for /  /
5. Glottal fricative consonant /  / - the narrowing is between the vocal folds.
To make the target sound / /
1. Make a small gap at the back of your mouth.
2. Push a lot of air out very quickly through the small gap.
3. Do not touch the roof of your mouth with your tongue.
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III. DRILL
1. Labio-dental fricative consonants
1.1 Target sound /  /

B. Minimal pairs (1)
/ / //
pin fin
peel feel
pork fork
pull full
snip sniff
palm farm
It‟s a sharp pin. It‟s a sharp fin
Peel this orange. Feel this orange.
There‟s no pork here. There‟s no fork here.
The sign said „Pull‟. The sign said „Full‟.
Snip these flowers. Sniff these flowers.
He showed his palm. He showed his farm.
C. Minimal pairs (2)

/ / //
hold fold
heat feet
hill fill
heel feel
honey funny
hole foal
Hold this paper. Fold this paper.
I like heat on the back. I like feet on the back.
That sign said „Hill‟. That sign said „Fill‟.
This heel‟s different. This feels different.
This is honey. This is funny.
It‟s got a little hole. It‟s got a little foal.
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D. Practise these six requests in the box below with the intonation going up to make them
sound more polite. Then fill the gaps in the dialogue with them. Check the answers with your
partner before listening to the dialogue for the final check.
1. Please phone my office after five days, Mrs. Phillips.

2. Please give a friendly laugh.
3. Please use this felt-tipped pen, Mrs. Phillips.
4. Please look …er … soft and beautiful.
5. Please sit on this sofa.
6. Please fill in this form.
A FUNNY PHOTOGRAPHER
PHOTOGRAPHER: Good afternoon. How can I help you?
FRED: I‟m Fred Phillips. I want a photograph of myself and my wife Phillippa.
PHOTOGRAPHER: Certainly, Mr. Phillips. (a) ……………………………………………
PHILLIPPA: I‟ll fill it in, Fred.
PHOTOGRAPHER: (b) ……………Mr. Phillips, do you prefer a full front photograph or a profile?
FRED: A full front, don‟t you think, Phillipa?
PHILLIPPA: Yes. A full front photograph.
FRED: Full front.
PHILLIPPA: (hands in the form) It‟s finished.
PHOTOGRAPHER: Thank you, Mrs. Phillips. (c) …………Is it comfortable?
PHILLIPPA: Yes. It feels fine.
PHOTOGRAPHER: Mr. Phillips, (d) …………
FRED: That‟s difficult. If you say something funny I can laugh.
PHOTOGRAPHER: And, Mrs. Phillips, (e) ………
FRED: (laughs)
PHOTOGRAPHER: That‟s it finished.
FRED: Finished?
PHOTOGRAPHER: Finished, Mr. Phillips.
PHILLIPPA: Will the photograph be ready for the fifth of February?
PHOTOGRAPHER: Yes. (f) …………
1.2 Target sound /  /


// //
safe save
fine vine
fail veil
few view
fast vast
ferry very
Safe here? Save here?
45
Fine in the garden? Vine in the garden?

It‟s a fail? It‟s a veil?
This room has a few. This room has a view.
They need a fast ship? They need a vast ship?
Ferry late? Very late?

// //
bet vet
best vest
ban van
bolt volt
boat vote
berry very
They‟re good bets. They‟re good vets.
He wore his best. He wore his vest.
Can they lift that ban? Can they lift that van?
We need more bolts. We need more volts.
Jones won the boat. Jones won the vote.
It‟s a berry red colour. It‟s a very red colour.
D. Listen to the dialogue, paying attention on the different intonations of questions and
statements. Then practise reading it aloud with your partner.
A FINE VIEW
VIVIENNE: Has the Vander family lived here for very long, Victor?
VICTOR: Five and a half years, Vivienne. We arrived on the first of February.
VIVIENNE: What a lovely view you have!
VICTOR: Yes. It‟s fabulous.
VIVIENNE: Look! You can see the village down in the valley.
VICTOR: Yes. We just love living here because of the view.
2. Dental fricative consonants /, /
2.1 Target sound /  /

46

// //
first thirst
fin thin
half hearth
He‟s got a first. He‟s got a thirst.
A fin soup, please. A thin soup, please.
I‟d like a half. I‟d like a hearth.

// //
tree three
tanks thanks
sheet sheath
It‟s a big tree. It‟s a big three.
The president sends his tanks. The President sends his thanks.
The knife was hidden in a sheet. The knife was hidden in a sheath.
D. Minimal pairs (3)
// //
mouse mouth
sum thumb
sick thick
sink think
pass path
What a sweet little mouse! What a sweet little mouth!
Is this sum OK? Is this thumb OK?
It‟s very sick. It‟s very thick.
He‟s sinking. He‟s thinking.
There‟s a mountain pass. There‟s a mountain path.
E. Identify the most important word in each numbered line of the dialogue below. Then
exchange the answers with a partner before listening to the dialogue and checking them.
GOSSIPS
CATHERINE: Samantha Roth is only thirty.

RUTH: (1) Is she? I thought she was thirty-three.
CATHERINE: Samantha‟s birthday was last Thursday.
RUTH: (2) Was it? I thought it was last month.
CATHERINE: The Roths‟ house is worth six hundred thousand.
RUTH: (3) Is it? I thought it was worth three hundred thousand.
CATHERINE: Ross Roth is the author of a book about moths.
47
RUTH: (4) Is he? I thought he was a mathematician.

CATHERINE: I‟m so thirty.
RUTH: (5) Are you? I thought you drank something at the Roths‟.
CATHERINE: No. Samantha gave me nothing to drink.
RUTH: (6) Shall I buy you a drink?
CATHERINE: Thank you.
2.2 Target sound /  /

Listen and repeat the target sound.

// / /
dan than
day they
dare there
doze those
Ida either
Smith is bigger, Dan Jones. Smith is bigger than Jones.
Day arrived. They arrived.
Jim dares his friend. Jim, there‟s his friend.
Doze after lunch. Those after lunch.
I don‟t know her sister, Ida. I don‟t know her sister, either.

/ / / /
close clothe
breeze breathe
boos booth
size scythe
The shop sig said „Closing.‟ The shop sign said „Clothing.‟
Breeze means air moving. Breathe means air moving.
The boos echoed loudly. The booth echoed loudly.
That‟s a large size. That‟s a large scythe.
D. Listen. Then practise reading aloud the dialogue below, paying attention to the words with
the target sound.
THE HAT IN THE WINDOW

MISS BROTHERS: I want to buy the hat in the window.
ASSISTANT: There are three hats together in the window, madam. Do you want the one
with the feathers?
MISS BROTHERS: No. The other one.
ASSISTANT: The small one for three hundred and three euros?
48
MISS BROTHERS: No. Not that one, either. The one over there. The leather one.
ASSISTANT: Ah! The leather one. Now this is another leather hat, madam. It‟s better
than the one in the window. It‟s smoother leather.
MISS BROTHERS: But I‟d rather have the one in the window. It goes with my clothes.
ASSISTANT: Certainly, madam. But we don‟t take anything out of the window until three
o‟clock on Thursday.
3. Alveolar fricative consonants /,  /
3.1 Target sound /  /

B. Practise the target sound in these words and sentences.
Sue That Sue was amazing.

bus I heard a bus.
C It‟s pronounced / /
piece I want the big piece.
sip Sip it slowly.
price What‟s the price?
C. Practise the dialogue, paying attention the words with the target sound.
IT‟S EXPENSIVE
SAM: Let‟s go to the seaside on Saturday, sweetie.

SUE: Yes! Let‟s go sailing and water-skiing. That‟s exciting.
SAM: It‟s expensive, sweetie. Let‟s just sit in the sun and go swimming instead.
SUE: Let‟s stay in the Six Star Hotel and spend Sunday there too.
SAM: Be sensible, Sue. It‟s too expensive. Let‟s sleep outside instead.
SUE: Sleep on the sand? You never want to spend more than the smallest possible sum of
money, Sam Smith – you‟re such a cheapskate!
A cheapskate: a person who only wants to spend to smallest amount of money.
3.2 Target sound / /

49
B. Minimal pairs
// //
Sue zoo
C Z
sip zip
bus buzz
piece peas
price prize
That Sue was amazing. That zoo was amazing.
It‟s pronounced / /. It‟s pronounced /  /.
Sip it slowly. Zip it slowly.
I heard a bus. I heard a buzz.
I want the big piece. I want the big peas.
What‟s the price? What‟s the prize?
C. Listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the /  / and /  / sounds. Then practise reading
it aloud.
SURPRISES IN THE POST OFFICE
SUSAN: This parcel smells, Mrs. Lazarus.

ZENA: Call me Zena, Susan.
SUSAN: Yes … Zena … Something‟s written on it. What does it say?
ZENA: It says: „This parcel contains six mice‟.
SUSAN: Aw! Isn‟t that awful, Zena! Poor animals!
ZENA: And listen, Susan! What‟s in this sack?
SUSAN: It‟s making a strange hissing noise.
SACK: (hisses) Ssssssssss!
SUSAN: Zena! It‟s a sack of snakes!
ZENA: So it is! … and what do you think‟s in this box, Susan?
SUSAN: It‟s making a buzzing sound.
BOX: (buzzes) Zzzzzzzz!
SUSAN: Those are bees.
ZENA: A parcel of mice … and a sack of snakes … and a box of bees. What do you think
about this, Susan, on your first day in the parcels office? Isn‟t it surprising?
SUSAN: Amazing! This isn‟t a post office. It‟s a zoo.
D. –S endings (plurals, 3rd person singular, possessive case, contractions)
// after an unvoiced /  / after a voiced / / after /, , , ,

sound sound ,  /
plurals snakes, sacks, units, animals, parcels, arms, purses, fridges,

artists, zips legs houses, churches
50
// after an unvoiced /  / after a voiced / / after /, , , ,

sound sound ,  /
3rd person singular makes, thinks, wants, smells, contains, sees, misses, wishes, uses,
repeats draws watches, engages
„s what's, it‟s,Kate‟s (hat) something‟s, Susan‟s George‟s, Rose‟s, Max‟s
* Practice for this point is supposed to be designed by the teacher-in-charge. A

recommendation is Unit 26 in Mark Hancock – English Pronunciation in Use (Intermediate).
4. Palato-alveolar fricative consonants / ,  /

4.1 Target sound /  /
B. Minimal pairs
// //
C she
Sue shoe
sip ship
ass ash
sew show
puss push
C is third. She is third.
I like Sue‟s. I like shoes.
Sip it carefully. Ship it carefully.
He won‟t sew it. He won‟t show it.
„Puss!‟ he shouted. „Push!‟ he shouted.
C. Listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the words with the target sound. Then practise
reading it aloud with your partner.
A SPECIAL WASHING MACHINE

MRS. MARSH: Does this shop sell washing machines?
MR. SHAW: Yes. This is the latest washing machine.
MRS. MARSH: Is it Swedish?
MR. SHAW: No, madam. It‟s English.
MRS MARSH: Could you show me how it washes?
MR. SHAW: Shall I give you a demonstration? This one is our special demonstration
machine. It‟s so simple. You take some sheets and shirts. You put them in the
machine. You shut this door. And you push this button.
MRS MARSH: The machine shouldn‟t shake like that, should it?
MR SHAW: Washing machines always shake, madam … Ah! It‟s finished now.
51
MRS MARSH: But the sheets have shrunk, and so have the shirts.
MR. SHAW: Do you wish to buy this machine, madam?
MRS MARSH: … I‟m not sure.
4.2 Target sound /  /

B. Listen and repeat the words and sentences below.

casual Michelle has a job in a shop selling casual shoes.
massage She also has a casual job doing sports massage.
occasionally She does sports massage occasionally, not every day.
collision Yesterday Michelle saw a collision outside the she shop.
measure She was measuring a shoe for a customer.
casualty An ambulance took two injured people to casualty.
C. Read the television programmes below. Talk about which of them you would like to watch.
Also ask each other about what shows you usually watch.
TELEVISION PROGRAMMES: CHANNEL 5

+ 7.00 – Children‟s film: Treasure Island
+ 7.45 – News update: An Unusual Collision
+ 8.00 – Fashion show: Casual Clothes
+ 8. 30 – Travel film: Crossing Asia
+ 9.00 – Do-it-yourself show: How to Measure a New Garage
+ 9.30 – Variety show: It‟s a Pleasure
5. Glottal fricative consonant /  /

B. Minimal pairs
//
ill hill
eel heel
and hand
old hold
ear hear
islands highlands
Is Tom ill in hospital? Is Tom Hill in hospital?
That‟s a beautiful eel. That‟s a beautiful heel.
Put your head and heart into it. Put your head, hand, heart into it.
52
Old Mrs. Smith‟s hand. Hold Mrs. Smith‟s hand.

She‟s lost her earring. She‟s lost her hearing.
I love the islands. I love the islands.
C. Fill in the gaps in the dialogue below with the words from the box. Then listen to the
dialogue and check your answers.
having ambulance all hospital heard accident how he unhappy hit

Helena ice-cream injured operation
A HORRIBLE ACCIDENT
EMMA: Hi, Holly.
HOLLY: Emma, have you 1 __________? There‟s been a horrible 2___________
EMMA: Oh, dear! What‟s happened?
HOLLY: Helena‟s husband has had an accident on his horse.
EMMA: 3 _____________ awful! Is he 4______________________?
HOLLY: Yes. He‟s been taken to 5____________ in an 6____________
EMMA: How did it happen?
HOLLY: He was 7______ by an 8 ________van. It was on the crossing just behind his house.
EMMA: How horrible!
HOLLY: He‟s 9_____an emergency 10 _____in hospital now. Poor 11___! She‟s so 12 ______
EMMA: Perhaps 13_____‟ll be 14_________ right, Holly.
HOLLY: I hope so.
53
LESSON ELEVEN
AFFRICATIVES
IV. DESCRIPTION
Affricatives are rather complex consonants. The production of these sounds is similar to that of
plosives, but the release of the air is less sudden, so that it sounds like a plosive consonant
followed by a fricative one. In other words, affricatives begin as plosives and end as fricatives.
Yet, we would not class all sequences of plosive plus fricative as affricates. The plosive and the
following fricative must be homorganic (made with the same articulators). Affricatives are
usually regarded as single, independent sounds.
V. LISTING
The affricatives of English include 2 members /, / palato-alveolar affricative consonants.
- Tip of tongue touches the back part of
the tooth ridge.
- The tongue tip moves away from the
tooth ridge little way, and the whole
tongue is then in /,  / position.
- The friction for /, / is not so long as
for /,  / alone
+ Don‟t use your voice for /  /
+ Use your voice for /  /
VI. DRILL
1. Target sound /  /

B. Minimal pair
// /  /
ship chip
sheep cheap
sherry cherry
shop chop
cash catch
wash watch
We like ships. We like chips.
This is a sheep farm. This is a cheap farm.
It‟s a sherry trifle. It‟s a cherry trifle.
I‟ll buy this shop. I‟ll buy this chop.
54
I couldn‟t cash it. I couldn‟t catch it.

He‟s washing the television. He‟s watching the television.
C. Dialogue
Listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the words with the target sound. Then practise
reading it aloud with your partner.
AT THE BUTCHER‟S SHOP

(Charles Cheshire is a very cheerful, charming butcher.)
CHARLES: Good morning, Mrs Church.

MRS. CHURCH: Good morning, Charles. I‟d like some chops for the children‟s lunch.
CHARLES: Chump chops or shoulder chops, Mrs Church?
MRS CHURCH: I‟ll have four shoulder chops, and I want a small chicken.
CHARLES: Would you like to choose a chicken, Mrs Church?
MRS CHURCH: Which one is cheaper?
CHARLES: This one‟s the cheapest. It‟s a delicious chicken.
MRS CHURCH: How much is all that? I haven‟t got cash. Can I pay by credit card?
CHARLES: Of course, Mrs Church.
2. Target sound /  /

B. Minimal pairs
/  / //
cheap jeep
choke joke
riches ridges
cherries Jerry‟s
larch large
H age
It‟s a cheap type of car. It‟s a jeep type of car.
Are you choking? Are you joking?
A land full of riches. A land full of ridges.
Do you like cherries? Do you like Jerry‟s?
I want a larch tree. I want a large tree.
Do I write „H‟ here? Do I write age here?
C. Dialogue
Read the dialogue below and fill the gaps (1-8) with the correct words from the box below.
Then listen and check your answers before practising it with a partner.
jokes bridge village damaged manager passenger January dangerously
A DANGEROUS BRIDGE
JERRY: Just outside this (1) …… there‟s a very dangerous bridge.
JOHN: Yes. Charles told me two jeeps crashed on it in (2)………………………… What happened?
55
JERRY: Well, George Churchill was the driver of the larger jeep, and he was driving very
(3) ………………………
JOHN: George Churchill? Do you know George Churchill?
JERRY: Yes. That ginger-haired chap. He‟s the (4) …………… of the travel agency in Chester.
JOHN: Oh, yes. I remember George. He‟s always telling jokes. Well, was anybody injured?
JERRY: Oh, yes. The other jeep went over the edge of the (5) …………, and two children and
another (6) ……………… were badly injured.
JOHN: Oh dear! Were both the jeeps (7) ……………………?
JERRY: Oh, yes
JOHN: And what happened to George?
JERRY: George? He‟s telling (8) ……………………… in jail now, I suppose!
D. Joining sounds
Notice that when these two affricatives /, / come together, we usually say both sounds.
e.g. large (// //) cherries
Listen and repeat

large cherries orange juice How much cheese
which job village jail watch chain
rich child teach German large gentleman
which chair college chess huge jumbo jet
The speaker made mistakes with these sounds in the sentences below. Write what
they meant to say.
EXAMPLE Does she tea Chinese in the school?  teach Chinese
1. I don‟t know which air to sit on.  ……………………………………
2. Everyone at the match ears when their team scores.  ……………………………………
3. I never what chat shows on the TV.  ……………………………………
4. The actor on stay joked with the audience.  ……………………………………
5. Foxes sometimes come to the farm and cat chickens.  ……………………………………
6. Do you want to chain jackets before we go out? ……………………………………
Now you will hear both the incorrect and correct pairs of words from the exercise.
Repeat, making the difference clear.
56
LESSON TWELVE
APPROXIMANTS
I. DESCRIPTION
An approximant is a type of consonants with an articulation in which the articulators approach

each other but do not get sufficiently close to each other to produce a complete consonant such
as a plosive, nasal or fricative. They are gliding sounds in which the organs of speech start at or
near a close vowel and immediately move away to some other vowels. Therefore, they only
occur before vowels.
II. LISTING
The affricatives of English include 3 members /, ,  /.
1. Bilabial approximant / w /
- The back of the tongue approaches the soft palate, in a

closely similar position to that of the back vowels / : ,  /.
- The lips must be rounded quite firmly.
- A quick glide from vowels /: / or /  / to the following

vowels.
2. Alveolar approximant / r /
- The tip of the tongue is pointing towards the hard palate

without touching it, slightly curled back in the mouth.
- The lips are slightly rounded.
- When there is no vowel following it, /r/ is usually silent in

BE (British English) accent.
3. Palatal approximant /  /
- The blade of the tongue approaches the hard palate.

- The articulation of / / is practically the same as that of a
front close vowel such as /: /
- It can be considered a quick glide from vowel /:/ or / /
to the following vowels
- Most American speakers do not use /  / in words where
it would follow /----- / while the Englishmen do.
57
III. DRILL
1. Target sound / w /

B. Minimal pair
/v/ /w/
V we
vest west
vet wet
vine wine
veil whale
V didn‟t come before U. We didn‟t come before you.
That‟s the vest. That‟s the west.
The dog‟s vet. The dog‟s wet.
This is my best vine. This is my best wine.
It‟s a blue veil. It‟s a blue whale.
C. Dialogue
Listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the target sound. Then practise reading it aloud.
A WALK IN THE WOODS

VIRGINIA: I saw …… William again on Wednesday, Winona.
WINONA: Oh? William again … (Winona laughs.) … Well, what happened?
VIRGINIA: We went for a lovely walk in the woods.
WINONA: Oh? In the wet? Wasn‟t it very wet on Wednesday?
VIRGINIA: It was very cold and wet. But we were wearing very warm clothes and we walked
quickly to keep warm.
WINONA: Is that the woods next to the railway? It‟s not very quiet.
VIRGINIA: Yes. But further away from the railway it was very quiet and there were wild
squirrels everywhere. We counted twenty squirrels
WINONA: Twenty squirrels? What did you do for lunch? A picnic with the squirrels?
VIRGINIA: It was too wet. Afterwards we went to a restaurant. It was twelve o‟clock. We had
walnut cake and sweet white wine. It was wonderful.
WINONA: So? William again … Well?
VIRGINIA: Well? (Virginia and Winona laugh.)
2. Target sound / r /
B. Minimal pair
// /r/
long wrong
light right
load road
58
jelly Jerry
fly fry
glass grass
It‟s the long road. It‟s the wrong road.
Is it light? Is it right?
It‟s a long load. It‟s a long road.
Do you like jelly? Do you like Jerry?
I‟d like to fly it. I‟d like to fry it.
There‟s some glass. There‟s some grass.
C. Dialogue.
Listen to the dialogue below, paying attention to the target sound. Then practise reading it
aloud with a partner.
A PROUD PARENT
LARA: Are all the children grown up now, Ruth?
RUTH: Oh, yes, Lara. Ruby is the cleverest one. She‟s a librarian in the public library.
LARA: Very interesting. And what about Laura?
RUTH: She‟s a secretary at the central railway station.
LARA: And what about Rose? She was always a very pretty child.
RUTH: Rose is a waitress in a restaurant in Paris. She‟s married to an electrician.
LARA: And what about Jerry and Roland?
RUTH: Jerry drives a lorry. He drives everywhere in Europe.
LARA: Really? Which countries does he drive to?
RUTH: France and Austria and Greece and Russia.
LARA: And does Roland drive a lorry too?
RUTH: Oh, no. Roland is a pilot, Lara.
LARA: Really? Which countries does he fly to?
RUTH: Australia and America.
IMPORTANT NOTES FOR LISTENING:
+ In many accents in England, the letter R is not pronounced after a vowels. In other places,
the R is pronounced, for example in North America. Listen to the following words with the R
pronounced, as in North America:
shirt were heard worst birth hurt born short door four war more
+ In words without R, some American speakers pronounce the sound /:/ instead of /:/. Listen
to these words:
ball caught law talk bought
PRACTICE:
A. Listen to these sentences. Is the accent from Britain or America? Write B or A.
e.g.: The girl‟s first birthday. A___
1. It‟s hard work, of course. _______ 6. He was born on Thursday the thirty-first. ______
2. Are you sure? _______ 7. She taught German. _______
3. Law and order. _______ 8. I learned to surf in Brazil. _______
4. I walk to work. _______ 9. „Caught‟ and „court‟ sound the same
5. I saw the bird fall. _______ in my accent. _______
59
B. Listen to these sentences. Is the accent from North America or South East England? Write
Am or Eng.
e.g.: He asked her to dance. Eng .
1. We started in March. _________ 5. It stops and starts. _________
2. It‟s a fast car. _________ 6. A glass of beer. _________
3. My heart‟s strong _________ 7. Was his hair dark or fair? _________
4. Where‟s the bar? _________
3. Target sound / /
B. Minimal pair
// / /
joke yolk
juice use
jam yam
jess yes
jeers Years
That‟s a wonderful joke. That‟s a wonderful yolk.
There‟s no juice. There‟s no use.
Would you like jam? Would you like yam?
Jess, I love you. Yes, I love you.
He sang over the jeers. He sang over the years.
C. Dialogue
Read the dialogue below and fill the gaps (1-8) with the correct words from the box below.
Then listen to the recording and check your answers before practising it with a partner.
music knew New tubes stupid university tuba Europe
NOT SO STUPID
JOHN YEE: Excuse me. Did you use to live in York?
JOE YOUNG: Yes.
JOHN YEE: Did you use to be a tutor at the (1) …………?
JOE YOUNG: Yes. For a few years.
JOHN YEE: Do you remember Hugh Yip? He was a (2) ………… student.
JOE YOUNG: Hugh Yip? Did he use to have a huge yellow jeep?
JOHN YEE: Yes. And he used to play beautiful tunes on the (3) …………
JOE YOUNG: Yes, I (4) ………… Hugh. He used to be a very stupid student. Do you have any
news of Hugh?
JOHN YEE: Yes. He‟s a millionaire now in (5) ………… York.
JOE YOUNG: A millionaire? Playing the tuba?
JOHN YEE: Oh, no. He produces jam in (6) …………, and tins of onion stew, and sells them
in (7) ………… I read about Hugh in the newspaper yesterday.
JOE YOUNG: Oh! Well, he wasn‟t so (8) …………
60
LESSON THIRTEEN
NASAL CONSONANTS
I. DESCRIPTION
In the production of nasal consonants, the breath is completely stopped at some point in the
mouth (as for the plosive consonants); but it is then permitted to escape through the nose as
the velum is lowered.
II. LISTING
There are three nasal consonants in regard to the three places of articulation where the air can
be stopped.
1. Bilabial nasal voiced consonant /  /
- The air is obstructed by two lips ( as for /b – p /)
- The air goes out through the nose
voiced air
2. Alveolar nasal voiced consonant / /
- The tip of tongue touches the alveolar ridge and obstructs the air
flow
- The air goes out through the nose.
voiced air
SYLLABIC CONSONANTS
This is the case of syllables in which no vowel is found. Instead, a consonant, either /  /, /  /
or a nasal, stands as the center of the syllable.
Examples: cattle  nation  particular ‟ (American accent)
NASAL PLOSION
When a stop appears before /  / or / /, either in the same word or between words, the stop
is not released in the usual way. The air pressure that is built up behind the stop closure is
released through the nose by the lowering of the soft palate for the nasal consonant. This
phenomenon is known as nasal plosion.
Examples: sudden, sadden, happen, kitten, good night, take mine, (a) big man
61
3. Velar nasal voiced consonant / /
- The back of tongue touches the velar and obstructs the air
stream.
- The air goes out through the nose.
voiced air
IMPORTANT NOTES:
+ This velar nasal never occurs in initial position. In other words, it never starts a syllable.
+ /  / changes to / / when the next sound after it is / k / or / g /. For example: thin / / but
think / /, fin / / but finger //
+ The g is not pronounced after  at the end of a morpheme, for example sing - // and
singer //, hang // and hanger //, but anger / /, hungry/ /, except for
the comparative and superlative suffixes; therefore, long // but longer / / and longest /
//
III. DRILL
1. Target sound //
Listen and repeat the target sound
B. Practice these words and sentences, paying attention to the target sound.
mile mine mummy comb name
The mile is very old. He loves his mummy. He‟s proud of his name.
This is mine. I want a comb.
C. Dialogue
Read the dialogue and fill in the missing words with the sound // from the box below. Then
listen to the recording and check your answers before practising the dialogue with a partner.
The first one has been done for you as an example.
time Mum met come make
home maybe manners tomorrow remember
MUM‟S MUFFINS
MALCOLM: Mum, may Tim Mitcham come (1) home with me for tea tomorrow?
MRS MACCALUM: Of course, Malcolm. Have I (2) ___________ Tim before?
MALCOLM: You met him in the summer. He‟s very small.
MRS MACCALUM: Oh, yes. I (3) ___________ Tim. He‟s very smart. And he has charming
(4)_________________Does his family (5)_________ from Cambridge?
MALCOLM: Yes. And … Oh, Mum!..... Will you (6) ________________ some home-
made muffins, tomorrow?
MRS MACCALUM: Mm. (7) _________________ If I have (8) _______________
62
MALCOLM: I told Tim about your muffins, (9) _______ That‟s why he‟s coming for tea
(10)________________
2. Target sound / /

B. Minimal pair
// / /
mile Nile
mine Nine
mummy Money
comb Cone
name Mane
The mile is very old. The Nile is very old.
This is mine. This is nine.
He loves mummy. He loves money.
I want a comb. I want a cone.
He‟s proud of this name. He‟s proud of this mane.
C. Dialogue
First fill the gaps (1 – 8) in the dialogue below by choosing eight words with syllabic / / from
the following list. Then listen to check your answers before practising the dialogue with a
partner.
often station oven accommodation prison eleven forbidden
television certainly thousand Nelson garden agency
AT AN ACCOMODATION AGENCY
MARTIN: Good morning. My name is Martin Nelson. Are you the manager?
MANAGER: Yes, I a,. How can I help you, Mr (1) _______________?
MARTIN: I want an apartment in central London.
MANAGER: (2) __________________, Mr Nelson. How much rent do you want to pay?
MARTIN: No more than £1,000 a month.
MANAGER: £1,000 a month? We don‟t often have apartments as inexpensive as that. Not in
central London. We have one apartment for £2,179 a month in Notting Hill. It‟s
down near the (3) _______________in Northend Avenue.
MARTIN: Is it furnished?
MANAGER: No, it‟s unfurnished. The kitchen has no (4) _____. It‟s forbidden to use the (5)
_____ No friends in the apaprtment after (6) ______ in the evening. No
noise and no (7)_______after 11.15p.m. No ……
MARTIN: No, thank you! I want an apartment, not a (8) ______
3. Target sound / /
B. Minimal pairs
63
/ / / /
win wing
thin thing
ban bang
ran rang
run rung
Ron Wrong
What a win! What a wing!
Why this thin? Why this thing?
Ban the book. Bang the book.
They ran for an hour. They rang for an hour.
She has never run before. She has never rung before.
Is it Ron? Is it wrong?
// / /
wink wing
sink sing
rink ring
stink sting
bank bang
I‟ll give you a wink. I‟ll give you a wing.
He‟s sinking. He‟s singing.
The rink was a perfect circle. The ring was a perfect circle.
What a terrible stink! What a terrible sting!
Bank it quickly. Bang it quickly.
C. Dialogue
Listen to the dialogue, paying attention to the target sound. Then practise it with your
partner.
NOISY NEIGHBOURS
(Duncan King is lying in bed trying to sleep. Sharon King is standing near the window
watching the neighbours, Angus and Susan Lang.)
DUNCAN KING: (angrily). Bang! Bang! Bang! Sharon! What are the Langs doing at nine
o‟clock on Sunday morning?
SHARON KING: Well, Angus Lang is talking, Duncan.
DUNCAN KING: Yes, but what‟s the banging noise, Sharon?
SHARON KING: (looking out of the window) Angus is standing on a ladder and banging
some nails into the wall with a hammer. Now he‟s hanging some strong
string on the nails
DUNCAN KING: And what‟s Susan Lang doing?
SHARON KING: Susan‟s bringing something interesting for Angus to drink. Now she‟s
putting it under the ladder, and … Ohh!
DUNCAN KING: What‟s happening?
SHARON KING: He‟s holding the string in his fingers and he‟s shouting to Susan.
DUNCAN KING: And is Susan helping him?
SHARON KING: No. She‟s running to our house. Now she‟s ringing our bell.
BELL: RING! RING! RING!
DUNCAN KING: I‟m not going to answer it. I‟m sleeping.
64
LESSON FOURTEEN
LATERAL
I. DESCRIPTION
A lateral consonant is made with a complete closure between the tip of the tongue and the
alveolar ridge; the only way for the air to escape is along the sides of the tongue.
II. LISTING
The only member of this group is /  /, yet the realization of this sound occurs in different
contexts:
+ Clear [  ] appears in initial position and only before vowels, never

before a consonant or before a pause.
+ In the production of this sound, the tip of tongue spreads across

tooth ridge, so the air escapes from both sides of tongue.
- Dark [  ] never occurs before vowels, usually in final position and

before consonants.
- In the production of this sound, the front and back of tongue are
very low and there is a firm contact made by the tip of tongue
and the tooth ridge.
LATERAL EXPLOSION
When an alveolar stop [] or [] occurs before a lateral [], the air pressure that is built up
during the stop is released by lowering the sides of the tongue, and the effect is called lateral
explosion. As in the case of words with nasal plosion, the lateral is itself syllabic.
III. DRILL

B. Minimal pair
// //
no low
night light
nine line
Jenny jelly
snap slap
We need no tables. We need low tables.
65
It‟s a bright night. It‟s a bright light.

That nine is too long. That line is too long.
I love Jenny. I love jelly.
That‟s a snapping noise. That‟s a slapping noise.
C. Dialogue
Fill in the gaps (1-10) in the following dialogue with the words from the box below. Then
listen and check your answers before practising the dialogue with your partner.
glass left lamb slice o‟clock
early salad really jelly olives
EARLY FOR LUNCH AT THE OFFICE CANTEEN

(Lesley is the cook. Lily Carpello is nearly always early for lunch.)
LILY: Hello, Lesley.
LESLEY: Hello, Mrs. Carpello. You‟re very (1) …………… for lunch. It‟s only eleven (2) ……
LILY: When I come later, there‟s usually nothing (3) ……………………
LESLEY: What would you like, Mrs. Carpello?
LILY: Leg of (4) ……………………, please.
LESLEY: And would you like a plate of (5) ………………? It‟s lettuce with black (6) ………………
LILY: Mm. Lovely. I (7) ……………… like olives.
LESLEY: A (8) ……………… of lemonade?
LILY: Yes, please. I‟d like that. And I‟d love a (9) ……………… of melon and some of that
yellow (10) ………………
D. Practice of dark [] and syllabic //
+ [] at the end of a word
Bill tell I‟ll Paul fall pull small
+ [] before a consonant
help difficult fault spoilt child holding salesman
myself always
+ Syllabic [] – each // sound is a syllable
little uncle careful special bycicle sensible beautiful gentleman
E. Dialogue
Read the following dialogue and fill the gaps (1 – 6) by choosing the correct words from the
list of words with syllabic //. Then listen to the recording and check your answers before
practising the dialogue with a partner.
A SPOILT LITTLE BOY IN A BICYCLE SHOP
PAUL: What a (1)…………… bicycle!
UNCLE BILL: Paul! Be (2)……………!
SALESMAN: Excuse me, sir. This child is too small to ride this bicycle. It‟s a very difficult
bicycle to ……
UNCLE BILL: Be careful, Paul!
PAUL: You always tell me to be careful. Don‟t help me. I won‟t fall.
SALESMAN: But, sir. This is a very (3)…………… bicycle. It‟s ……
PAUL: Don‟t pull the bicycle, Unlce Bill. I‟ll do it myself.
UNCLE BILL: Be (4)……………, Paul. This (5)…………… says it‟s a ………
(Paul falls)
PAUL: It was Uncle Bill‟s fault. He was holding the (6)……………
66
LESSON FIFTEEN
CONSONANT CLUSTERS
I. DESCRIPTION
When we have two or more consonants together, we call them a consonant cluster. The
numbers of permitted combinations of consonants in initial and final clusters are limited. The
permissible initial and final consonant clusters of English are listed in the tables below. An
inability to produce many of these clusters can lead to incomprehensibility.
INITIAL CLUSTERS
A. Initial two-consonant clusters
Table 1: Initial two-consonant clusters beginning with a stop
cluster example cluster example cluster example

 play  clean
 pray  tree  cream
 pure  tune  cute
 twin  queen
 blue  gleam
 brew  dream  green
 beautiful  due  gules (archaic)
(rare) dwindle  gwen
Table 2: Initial two-consonant clusters beginning with a fricative
cluster example cluster example cluster example cluster example

 flew  slow
 fry  three  Sri Lanka  shriek
 few  thew(archaic)  suit
(rare) thwart  switch
 spit
 stone
 school
 smile
 snow
 sphere
 (rare) view
67
Table 3: Initial two-consonant clusters beginning with a nasal
cluster example cluster example

 music  news
Table 4: Initial two-consonant clusters beginning with //

 hue  whether
B. Initial three-consonant clusters

There are only a few initial clusters of three consonants. They all begin with an // followed by
//, //, or // followed in turn by //, //, / / or //.
Table 5: Initial clusters of three consonants

 splice  sclerosis
 spring  string  screw
 spew  stew  skew
 squirt
FINAL CLUSTERS
A. Final clusters of two consonants

Table 6: Final clusters of two consonants beginning with a nasal
 bump  rant  think
 triumph  hand
 tense
 tenth
 wrench
 strange
Table 7: Final clusters of two consonants beginning with / / or / /.

cluster example cluster example cluster example cluster example
 help  harp  wealth  hearth
 bulb  curb  else  course
 welt  art  Welsh  marsh
 old  cord  belch  arch
 milk  cork  bulge  barge
 morgue  film  arm
 elf  scarf  kiln  barn
 shelve  serve  girl
68
Table 8: Final clusters of two consonants beginning with a fricative or stop

 wasp  apt
 trust  depth
 ask  lapse
 rift  eighth
 fifth  rites
 act
 tax
 adze
B. Final clusters of three consonants

Table 9: Final three-consonant clusters
 text  exempt  waltz
 sixth  glimpse  corpse
 prince  quarts
 against  first
 world
 Charles
 warmth
EXERCISES
1. The following list contains nonsense words, some of which are possible English words
and some are not. Identify those which are possible English words and those which are
not. In each case explain your reasoning.
a. // g. //
b. // h. /:/
c. // i. //
d. // j. //
e. // k. //
f. // l. //
2. How would you predict the difficulty a Vietnamese would have pronouncing the
following words?
cream stripped pride fit mind extra
match mistake edge confirm past company
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LESSON SIXTEEN
SYLLABLE AND STRESS

VII. SYLLABLE
Syllables are usually described as consisting a centre which has little or no obstruction to airflow
and which sounds comparatively loud; before and after this centre, there will be greater
obstruction to airflow and/or less loud sound. It will be noticed that there must be a vowel in
the centre of the syllable. The structure of a syllable is the following
syllable
rhyme
onset peak coda
We will now look at some examples

1. What we might call a minimum syllable would be a single vowel in isolation or some
isolated consonants: are /:/, or /:/, err /:/, um //, shh //
2. Some syllables have an onset: bar /:/, key /:/, more /:/
3. Some syllables may have no onset but a coda: am //, ought /:/, ease /:/
4. Some syllables have onset and coda: run //, sat //, fill //
5. There is a special case, that is syllabic consonants: sudden //, table //, bottle
//
SYLLABIC CONSONANTS
They are the consonants that can stand as the centre of a syllable instead of vowels.
1. Syllabic / / - dark l
It occurs after another consonant. The sides of the tongue, which are raised for the preceding consonant,
are lowered to allow the air to escape over them. This is called lateral release.
It is often found in a word ending with one or more consonant letters followed by „-le‟, for example cattle,
struggle, knuckle. When a suffix beginning with a vowel is attached, the // usually remains syllabic,
for example, bottle – bottling, struggle - struggling .
2. Syllabic //
It occurs after another consonant. The articulation of the preceding consonant is nasally released with air
escaping through the nose. This syllabic consonant is most common after alveolar plosives and fricatives;
it is not so widespread after bilabial, velar consonants and ladio-dental fricatives. Some examples are:
sudden, often, listen
3. Syllabic /, /
Both can occur as syllabic, but only as a result of process such as assimilation and elision, for example:
broken, happen
70
4. Syllabic //
In American accent, this syllabic consonant is very common. It is less common in RP, and in most
cases where it occurs there are perfectly acceptable alternative pronunciations without this syllabic
consonant. Some examples are history, secretary, butter.
VIII. STRESS
A. DEFINITION
Stress is the degree of prominence with which a sound or a word is pronounced.
B. KINDS OF STRESS
There are three kinds of stress: word stress, phrase stress, and sentence stress.
Word stress is fixed whereas phrase stress and sentence stress vary with the context in which
they are found.
C. LEVELS OF STRESS
1. In words
In all the words with two syllables up, all stressed syllables are more prominent than unstressed
syllables. Prominence, then, is produced by four main factors: (1) loudness, (2) length, (3) pitch
and (4) quality. Generally, these four factors work together in combination, though syllables
may sometimes be made prominent by means of only one or two of them. Moreover, these
factors are not equally important; the strongest effect is produced by pitch, and length is also a
powerful factor. Loudness and quality have much less effect.
Two levels of stress have been identified in words: primary (the strongest), secondary (weaker
than primary but stronger than unstressed) as well as a third level (unstressed) regarded as
being the absence of any recognizable amount of prominence.
1.1 Stress in simple words

1.1.1 Stress in two-syllable simple words
+ Most two-syllable nouns and adjectives have stress on the first syllable. For example, the
nouns and adjectives in this sentence all have the stress pattern Oo – The artist‟s most famous
picture show some women and children in a lovely forest with a purple mountain behind.
 Exceptions: asleep, mistake, machine, alone, … with the stress pattern oO
+ Most two-syllable verbs have stress on the second syllable with the stress pattern oO, for
example, Escape to Scotland, forget about work, just relax and enjoy the scenery.
 Exceptions: cancel, copy, two-syllable verbs ending in –er and –en such as answer,
enter, offer, listen, happen….. with the stress pattern Oo
+If the two-syllable word comes from a one-syllable word, the stress is on the syllable of the
original word.
e.g. art – artist Oo move – remove oO friend – friendly Oo
fame – famous Oo like – dislike oO work – worker Oo
 Exceptions: There is no change of stress in these words which are both verbs and
nouns – answer, picture, promise, reply, travel, visit with stress pattern Oo.
71
+ The stress stays in the same place when we make longer words from these two-syllable
nouns, adjectives and verbs.
 e.g. in both happy – unhappy the stress is on the syllable happ, in both depart and
departure,
the stress is on the syllable part
1.1.2 Stress in three-syllable simple words
Grammatical Rules
categories
Adjectives & Nouns + Primary stress on the first syllable (and secondary on the last syllable
sometimes)
- if the last syllable contains a long vowel/diphthong
- if the last syllable ends with more than one consonant
e.g intellect Ooo, marigold Ooo, laminate Ooo, magnitude
Ooo
+ Stress on the second syllable
- if the last syllable contains a short vowel or 
- if the second syllable contains a long vowel or if it end with
more than one consonant
 e.g. potato oOo, disaster oOo, malignant oOo
Verbs + Stress on the second syllable

- if the last syllable contains a short vowel or
- if it ends with only one consonant.
e.g. encounter oOo, determine oOo, deliver oOo
+ Stress on the final syllable
- if the last syllable contains a long vowel/ diphthong or
- if it ends with more than one consonant
e.g. entertain ooO, resurrect ooO
1.2 Stress in compound words

Compound words are made from two smaller words put together, both of which can exist
independently as English words. Compound word are written in different ways; sometimes they
are written as one word, e.g armchair, sunflower, sometimes with the words separated by a
hyphen, e.g. gear-change, fruit-cake, and sometimes with two words separated by a space, e.g.
desk lamp, school things.
In most compound words, the stress is on the first syllable. Listen to these examples.
Oo bookshop, bus stop, footpath, airport, shoe shop, road sign, car park, bedroom
Ooo traffic light, bus station, sunglasses, boarding card, window seat, check-in desk
Oooo travel agent, art gallery, supermarket, tape recorder, photocopy
There may be stress on the second part of a compound too when:

the first part of the compound is an adjective, e.g double room OO,
the object in the second part is made out of the material in the first, e.g. glass jar OO
the first part tells us where the second part is, e.g. car door OO
the compound word is not a noun
72
* OO first class, half price, handmade

* OOo bad-tempered, old-fashioned, short-sighted
* OoO overnight, second hand
Sometimes a compound word looks the same as a phrase of adjective and noun or a simple
noun and verb. Then the difference in stress should show the difference in grammatical feature.
Compare:
1a We keep these plants in a greenhouse (Oo – a compound noun) during the winter months.
b Mr Olsen lives in a small, green house (OO – a phrase of adjective & noun) next to the river.
2a I saw her bus pass (Oo – a compound noun, a special ticket that allows someone to travel
by bus without paying each time)
b I saw her bus pass (OO – a simple noun and a verb)
(PRACTICE: Unit 29, English Pronunciation in Use - Intermediate by Mark Hancock)
1.3 Stress in complex words
Complex words are made from a basic stem word with the addition of an affix (prefix, suffix).
While prefixes do not affect stress placement, adding suffixes sometimes results in the shift of
stress.
* suffixes carrying the primary stress
themselves * suffixes that influence the stress in the stem
-ain (for verbs only): entertain, ascertain - eous: advantage><advantageous
-ee : refugee, employee, examinee - graphy: photograph><photography
-eer: engineer, volunteer - ial: adverb><adverbial
-ese: journalese, Chinese - ic: diplomat><diplomatic
-ette: cigarette, launderette - ion: perfect ><perfection
-esque, -ique: unique, picturesque - ious: luxury><luxurious
- ty/-ity: capable><capability
(PRACTICE: Units 30 & 31, English Pronunciation in Use – Intermediate by Mark Hancock)
1.4 Word-class pairs
There are several dozen pairs of two-syllable words with identical spelling which differ from
each other in stress placement, apparently according to word class (noun, verb, or adjective).
The stress will be placed on the second syllable of the verb but on the first syllable of the noun
or adjective.
 e.g. abstract Oo – Adj./ oO – V conduct Oo – N / oO – V
contract Oo – N/ oO – V rebel Oo – N / oO – V
import Oo –N / oO – V permit Oo – N/ oO – V
2. In phrases
+ Compare the different stress placement in these compounds and non-compound structures.
Compounds Non-compound
1 a. He entered the dark room (Oo). b. He entered the dark room (OO).
(the room that photographers develop pictures (any room that is dark)
in)
2 a. We saw some yellow jackets (Oooo). b. We saw some yellow jackets (OoOo).
(large yellow and black bees that can sting (yellow coats)
painfully)
3 a. They looked at a toy store (Oo). b. They looked at a toy store (OO).
(a store that sells toys) (a tiny store that is a toy, not a real one)
73
4 a. We visited the White House (Oo). b. We visited the white house (OO).
(the place where the US. President lives) (a house that is white)
5 a. He‟s a famous English teacher (Oooo). b. He‟s a famous English teacher (OoOo) .
(a person who teaches English as his job) (a teacher who comes from England)
6 a. Are they washing machines (Oooo) ? b. Are they washing machines (OooO) ?
(machines that wash clothes) (Is someone cleaning machines?)
7 a. Do you know off a freeway (Oo) to get b. Do you know off a free way (OO) to get
there? there?
( a wide road for driving quickly) ( a method that doesn‟t cost any money)
+ Some two-word verbs have main stress on the verb and no stress on the particle; usually
when the particle is a preposition. Other two-word verbs have main stress on the particle and
secondary stress on the verb. In this case, the particle is an adverb most of the times.
 e.g. I wouldn‟t dream of (Oo)asking you to do it.
The sun came out (OO) and I dozed off (OO).
+ A number of the particles (at, for, from, of and to) have stress when they come at the end of
a clause.
 e.g. He lives for (Oo) his work.><She felt she had nothing to live for (OO).
+ A few two-word verbs can have stress on either verb only or on both verb and particle, but
with different meanings.
e.g. a/ He had to live on less than $10 a day. (Oo = the amount of money he had to
buy things)
b/The tradition lives on in many parts of the country. (OO= continue)
(PRACTICE: Units 19 &20, English Pronunciation in Use - Advanced by Mark Hancock)
3. In sentences
Every English sentence has a certain stress pattern. In any normal sentence, we shall stress all
the significant words. They are nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, negative auxiliary verbs,
which together form the group of content words – words that express independent meaning.
Function words such as auxiliary verbs, prepositions, conjunctions, pronouns, which have little
or no meaning in themselves but mainly express grammatical relationships, are pronounced in
their strong forms in certain circumstances but are more frequently pronounced in their weak
forms.
EMPHATIC STRESS
In conversation, speakers can choose to put the stress in any place. This is like underlining
words in writing: we do this to put emphasis on words. To „underline‟ a word- to create
emphatic stress on it, a speaker does one or more of these things:
a/ makes it louder b/ makes it longer c/ makes it higher
We „underline‟ words when
- we want to emphasise added details
- we want to emphasise important words
- we want to make a contrast with what the other person says,
- we want to correct some wrong information
(PRACTICE: Units 50, 51, 52 & 53, English Pronunciation in Use – Intermediate by Mark
Hancock)
74
LESSON SEVENTEEN
WEAK FORMS
Certain well-known English words can be pronounced in two different ways which are called
strong forms and weak forms. Almost all the words that have strong form and weak form are
function words – words that do not have a dictionary meaning in the way we expect nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs to have. It is very important to learn how weak forms are used as
we would wish to avoid producing unnatural and foreign-sounding pronunciation. Moreover, we
may have difficulty understanding the native speakers who do use weak forms.
There are certain contexts where only strong form is acceptable, and others where the weak
form is the normal pronunciation. There are some fairly simple rules of this; we can say that the
strong form is used in the following cases:
i) when a preposition comes at the end of the sentence
e.g. I‟m fond of chips. ( - weak form)>< Chips are what I‟m fond of. ( - strong
form)
ii) when a weak form is being contrasted with another
e.g. The letter‟s from him, not to him.
iii) for the purpose of emphasis
e.g. You must give me more money.
iv) when a weak-form word is being cited or quoted
e.g. You shouldn‟t put “and” at the end of a sentence.
Some words have more than one weak form, and we must know when to use one and when
the others.
WORD WEAK FORM EXAMPLE
the  (before consonants) Shut the door.
 (before vowels) Wait for the end.
a, an  (before consonants) Read a book.
 (before vowels) Eat an apple.
and  Come and see.
sometimes  (syllabic) after , , , , Fish and chips.
and 
but  It‟s good but expensive.
that  (relative pronoun or conjunction) The price is the thing that annoyed me.
I think that you‟re right.
than  Better than ever.
his  Take his name.
 (at the beginning of a sentence) He likes it.
her  (before consonants),  (before Take her home./ Take her out.
vowels) Her face is red.
 (when sentence-initial)
your  (before consonants) Take your time.
 (before vowels) On your own.
75
she  Why did she read it?

he  Which did he choose?
 (when sentence-initial) He was late, wasn‟t he?
we  How can we get there?
you  What do you think?
him  Leave him alone.
them  Eat them.
us  Write us a letter.
at  I‟ll see you at lunch.
for  (before consonants) Tea for two.
 (before vowels) Thanks for asking.
from  I‟m home from work.
of  Most of all.
to  (before consonants) Try to stop.
 (before vowels) Time to eat.
as  As much as possible.
some  (= an unspecified amount of) Have some more tea.
there  (before consonants) There should be a rule.
expletive  (before vowels) There is a rule.
subject  or  (in final position) There isn‟t any, is there?
There +
be
can, could  They can wait.
 He could do it.
have, has, , ,  (with  in initial position) Which have you seen?
had Which has been best?
Most had gone home.
shall, , We shall need to hurry.
should I should forget it.
must  (before consonants) You must try harder.
 (before vowels) He must eat more.
do  (before consonants) Why do they like it?
does  (before vowels) When does it arrive?
am  Why am I here?
are  (before consonants) Here are the plates.
 (before vowels) The coats are in there.
was  He was here a minute ago.
were  (before consonants) The paper was late.
 (before vowels) The questions were easy.
(Further Reading: Chapter Twelve, English Phonetics and Phonology by Peter Roach
Practice: Units 33, 34, 35, 36 & 37, English Pronunciation in Use – Intermediate by Mark
Hancock)
76
LESSON EIGHTEEN
ASPECTS OF CONNECTED SPEECH

I. RHYTHM
English is a stress-timed language. The amount of time it takes to say a sentence in this type of
language depends on the number of the syllables that receive stress, not on the total number of
syllables. Unlike English, Vietnamese is among the group of syllable-timed languages, which
means the amount of time required to say a sentence depends on the number of syllables, not
on the number of stresses.
Although it is usually described that stresses in English tend to recur at regular intervals, it
would be quite untrue to say that there is always an equal interval between stresses in this
language. Actually, it is just that English has a number of processes that act together to
maintain the rhythm.
II. ASSIMILATION
2.1 Definition
Assimilation may be defined as the phonetic process by which one speech sound comes to
resemble or become identical with a neighbouring sound. Assimilation varies in extend
according to speaking rate and styles; it is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and
less likely in slow, careful speech. Generally speaking, the cases that have most been described
are assimilation affecting consonants. The consonant which is modified under the influence of a
neigbouring sound is called assimilated consonant. The consonant which influences the
articulation of a neighbouring sound is called assimilating consonant.
2.2 Directions
Assimilation may happen in two directions: progressive and regressive
- In progressive assimilation, the assimilated is influenced by the preceding consonant.
- In regressive assimilation, the preceding consonant is influenced by the one following it.
2.3 Types
In parallel with the main differences between consonants, we can identify three types of
assimilation - Assimilation of place, Assimilation of manner, and Assimilation of voicing
2.3.1 Assimilation of place
It is most observable where a final alveolar consonant is followed by an initial consonant which
is not alveolar.
e.g. bank // concrete // that person // this shoe //
2.3.2 Assimilation of manner
Generally speaking, the change of manner is most likely to be towards an „easier‟ consonant –
one which makes less obstruction to the airflow.
e.g. that side // read these // good night //
2.3.3 Assimilation of voicing
- Voiced consonants are often changed to voiceless sounds.
e.g months // looked // used to //
77
- A voiceless consonant is often changed to a voiced one when it precedes another

consonant which is voiced.
e.g. cupboard // sit down //
- A voiceless consonant may become a voiced when it is between two vowels.
e.g. bath / / bather // north //  northern //
III. ELISION
Under certain circumstances, sounds disappear or a phoneme may be realized a zero or have a
zero realization, which is defined as elision. As with assimilation, elision is typical of rapid casual
speech actually pronounced by the native speakers of English. In other words, elision is the
process of change in phoneme realizations produces by changing the speed and casualness of
speech.
Some examples are:
+ Loss of weak vowel after /p, t, k/
In words like „potato, tomato, canary, perhaps, today‟, the vowels in the first syllable may
disappear, resulting in these pronunciation (where indicated aspiration): /‟, t‟,
‟, , /
+ Weak vowel + /n, l, or r / these consonants become syllabic ones such as tonight //,
police //, correct //
+ Avoidance of complex consonant clusters
In clusters of three plosives or two plosives plus a fricative, the middle plosive may disappear.
e.g: acts //, looked back //, scripts //
+ Loss of final v in „of‟ before consonants.
e.g: lots of them //, waste of money //
NOTE: It is difficult to know whether contractions of grammatical words should be regarded as
examples of elision or not. The fact that they are regularly represented with special spelling
forms makes them seem rather different from the above examples.
IV. LINKING
In connected speech, words within the same phrase or sentences often blend together.
Connecting groups of words together is referred to as linking. When words are properly linked,
there is a smooth transition from one word to the next.
1. Linking consonants to vowels
e.g , stop it, with it, breathe in, washed it, pass out
2. Linking consonants to consonants
e.g. stop trying, bad judge, big zoo, let down, fat chance, keep speaking
3. Linking identical consonants
e.g. ripe plum, hurt Tom, black cat, push Shirley, fall leaves
4. Linking vowels to vowels
e.g. be on time, see it, pay up, blue angel, flew in, blow out
(PRACTICE: Units 38, 39 & 40, English Pronunciation in Use – Intermediate by Mark Hancock)
78
LESSON NINETEEN
INTONATION
GENERAL
Intonation may be defined as such a unity of speech melody, sentence stress, voice quality and
speech tempo which enables the speaker to adequately communicate. To say it briefly,
intonation refers to the pattern of pitch changes that occur during a phrase, which may be a
complete sentence, and more importantly, each pattern conveys some sort of linguistic
information.
PITCH
One of the most important tasks in analyzing intonation is to listen to the speaker‟s pitch, the
height and lowness of the voice, and recognize the linguistic information it is carrying. In other
words, the succession of pitches in conversations forms the melody of the stream of speech and
carries its own meaning.
There are four pitch levels in English marked 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Level 1 is the lowest pitch which is said at your lowest tone.
Level 2 is at your normal tone.
Level 3 is at your high tone.
Level 4 is in an extra high tone for a very special sense.
TONE, INTONATION LANGUAGES AND TONE LANGUAGES

On saying one-syllable utterances, we have a choice of saying these with the pitch remaining at
a constant level, or with the pitch changing from one level to another. The word we use for the
overall behavior of the pitch is referred to as tone, which in turn is categorized level (flat) tone
and moving tones.
While different tones cannot determine the meaning of a word in English – one of the
languages called intonation languages, there are many languages in which changing from one
tone to another on a word can cause a change in the lexical meaning of that word or in some
aspects of its grammatical categorization. The Vietnamese language is among this group of
tone languages.
There are five main types of English tones: fall, rise, fall-rise, rise-fall and level (flat), each with
some specific functions linked with personal attitudes.
Fall – giving an impression of finality, nothing more to say
Rise – conveying an impression that something more is to follow, showing an interest in
continuing, an invitation to continue, giving an impression of politeness
Fall-rise – indicating limited agreement, reservation/ hesitation, doubt
Rise-fall – conveying strong feeling of impatience, surprise, possible sarcastic
Level – conveying a feeling of saying something routine, uninteresting or boring
79
THE TONE UNIT AND TONIC SYLLABLES
A syllable which carries a tone will be called a tonic syllable. Tonic syllables have a high degree
of prominence, which is, of course, a property of stressed syllables. Tonic syllables not only
carries a tone (which is something related to intonation, but also a type of stress that will be
called tonic stress.
As it is defined in Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, a tone unit is the basic unit of
intonation in a language which consists of one or more syllable with a complete pitch
movement. In relation to tonic syllable, a tone unit is described as groups forming a distinctive
unit in an utterance, containing a nucleus (tonic syllable) and optionally one or more other
syllables before and after the nucleus. To make it simple, we use tone units to package our
message into bite-sized chunks of information. For example, in this utterance – I think you have
made good progress this year - there are three tone units each with a tonic syllable marked
capital letters I THINK you have made good PROgress  THIS year.
When we analyze longer stretches of speech, it is necessary to mark the places where tone unit
boundaries occur. Tone units are sometimes separated by silent pauses and sometimes not.
This is when speed and pitch can give help with the issue.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE TONE UNIT
Like the syllable, the tone unit has a fairly clearly-defined internal structure in which there must
be one and only one tonic syllable or the nucleus. The other components may be the head, the
pre-head and the tail, which are always optional.
the pre-head (PH) – the head (H) – all the tonic syllable the tail (T) – any
all the unstressed the part of a tone unit (the nucleus) (TS) – syllables between the
syllables in a tone unit fro the most prominent nucleus and the end
preceding the first m the first stressed syllable in the of the tone unit
stressed syllable syllable up to the utterance
tonic syllable
Example: „On the left there‟s a bit of forest‟ there are two tone units in the utterance,
each with its own structure as follows
On the left  there‟s a bit of fo rest
PH TS  PH H TS T
Exercise : Divide the following utterances into tone unit and decide where the tonic syllable
might be in each unit. Also identify the structure of each unit.
1. The first student to finish can leave early.
2. Sadly, Maurice has gone away.
3. The person who was watching me left a ticket behind.
4. Alan couldn‟t make it so Ken took this place.
80
FUNCTIONS OF INTONATION
Intonation is used to carry information over what is expressed by the words in an utterance,
makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey. It performs
several functions, among which are these four important ones.
+ the attitudinal function – enabling the speaker to express emotions and attitudes as he/she
speaks
+ the accentual function – helping to produce the effect of stressed syllables in order to mark
out the most important words in an utterance
+ the grammatical function – helping the listener recognize the grammar and syntactic
structure of what is being said
+ the discourse function – signaling to the listener what is to be taken as „new‟ information and
what is already „given‟, indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another
utterance. In a conversation, this function can convey to the listener what kind of response is
expected.
81
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Baker, A. Ship or Sheep (Third edition). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

2. Grant, L. (2001). Well said (Second edition). Boston: Heinle & Heinle
3. Hancock, M. (2003). English Pronunciation in Use (Intermediate). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
4. Hewings, M. (2007) English Pronunciation in Use (Advanced). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
5. Roach, P. (1992). English Phonetics and Phonology (Second edition). Cambirdge:
Cambridge University Press.
6. Nguyễn Thị Anh Đào. Giáo trình Ngữ âm học tiếng Anh. Teaching material.
7. Lý Thị Ngọc Thoa and Nguyễn Thị Thúy Nga. (1996) Giáo trình Ngữ âm học tiếng
Anh. Teacher Training College of Ho Chi Minh City. Teaching material.
82

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English Pronunciation and Phonetics

THE ORGANS OF SPEECH

THE VOCAL CORDS

a. Wide apart for normal breathing and

Cardinal vowels can be classified according to the following principles:

1. The position of the tongue

2. The height of the tongue

A diphthong is a combination of 2 vowels produced within one syllable.

IN A CAFÉ: „IT‟S CHEAPER TO EAT AT MARGUERITE‟S‟

A. Listen to the sound.

THREE INTERESTING FILMS

A. Listen to the target sound.

EMMA: We‟re all jealous.

A. Listen to the target sound.

1. Aaron works at the Ajax Travel Agency.

II. THE “SCHWA”

- Spelt with „u‟, strong pronunciation would have / /: autumn, support

A. Listen to the sounds

worry lovely honey brother other

SHE DOESN‟T LOVE HIM

JASMINE: Honey, why are you so sad?

2. Target sound / /

A. Listen to the sounds.

E. Listen and then practise reading aloud the dialogue below.

THE WORST NURSE

C. Practice the target sound in weak forms of auxiliaries.

Have you read about South America? Yes, I have.

1. Target sound / /

A. Listen to the sounds.

3. Target sound / /

A. Listen to the sounds.

THE TWO RUDEST STUDENTS IN THE SCHOOL

MISS LUKE: Who?

There 8 diphthongs divided into three groups:

a/ The fronting diphthongs glide toward //

// // //

1. Target sound //

A. Listen to the sounds

AT THE RAILWAY STATION

2. Target sound //

A. Listen to the sounds.

bike nice type iced mobile climbing spider

HEIDI, CAROLINE AND NIGEL

3. Target sound //

A. Listen to the sounds.

ROYAL‟S ROLLS ROYCE

A MOUSE IN THE HOUSE

A. Listen to the sounds.

I work early. I woke early.

A. Listen to the sounds.

That E‟s too big. That ear‟s too big.

- With fronting diphthongs

/  /+ / / = // /  / + / / = /  / / / + / / = //

- With retracting diphthongs

/ / + / / = / / /  / + / / = //

2. /  -  / fire – far, tyre – tar, buyer – bar, hired – hard

4. /  -  / tower – tar, towering – tarring, cower – car, coward – card

6. // greyer, player, layer, prayer, payer

7. / / slower, lower, grower, sower, mower, sewer, followers

8. // employer, destroyer, royal, loyal, employers, annoyance

THE ENGLISH CONSONANTS

ASPECTS VOWELS CONSONANTS

BILABIAL POSITION LABIO-DENTAL POSITION DENTAL POSITION

ALVEOLAR POSITION PALATO-ALVEOLAR POSITION PAPLATAL POSITION