DONG NAI UNIVERSITY

SEMANTICS
(Compiled from various references)

LECTURER: NGÔ NGỌC THỤY

 CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

WHAT IS SEMANTICS ABOUT?

SENTENCES, UTTERANCES AND PROPOSITIONS
REFERENCE - REFERENT - SENSE

CHAPTER TWO : WORD MEANING

WORD MEANING
DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION
FIGURES OF SPEECH
SYNONYMY
ANTONYMY
POLYSEMY & HOMONYMY

CHAPTER THREE : SENTENCE MEANING

SENTENCE MEANING
ANOMALY
PARAPHRASE
AMBIGUITY
AMBIGUITY
ENTAILMENT

CHAPTER FOUR: UTTERANCE MEANING

SPEECH ACTS
PRESUPPOSITIONS
THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE
IMPLICATURE
 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SEMANTICS

WHAT IS SEMANTICS ABOUT?

Linguistics has three main branches: Syntax, Semantics and Pragmatics.
▪ Syntax is the study of grammar (phonology, morphology, syntax and textual
grammar)

▪ Semantics and pragmatics deal with meaning.

▪ SEMANTICS (Ngữ Nghĩa Học) is the study of MEANING in LANGUAGE. (i.e

what language means) (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.1)

▪ PRAGMATICS (Ngữ Dụng Học) considers the MEANING in SOCIAL

CONTEXTS and the ways people produce and
comprehend MEANINGS through language. (i.e what people mean by the
language they use).

Notes: Semantics is context-free. On the other hand, pragmatics is context-dependent.

Ex 1: Peter: “Coming down to the pub tonight?”

Bill: “I’ve got to finish a piece of work.”

The semantic meaning: Bill’s reply just informs Peter he has a piece of
work to finish.

The pragmatic meaning: Bill’s reply will normally be taken to indicate that
he is not free to go to the pub, even though he does not actually say that.

Ex 2: “There’s a new Korean restaurant on Vo Thi Sau Street”

The semantic meaning: The speaker simply informs the hearer of the new
Korean restaurant on Vo Thi Sau Street.

The pragmatic meaning: The speaker suggests trying that new restaurant.

SENTENCE MEANING (or WORD MEANING) is what a sentence (or word) means, i.e.
what it counts as the equivalent of in the language concerned.

SPEAKER MEANING is what a speaker means (i.e. intends to convey) when he uses
a piece of language. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.3)

1
 SENTENCES, UTTERANCES AND PROPOSITIONS

▪ A SENTENCE (câu) is a grammatically complete string of words expressing a complete

thought. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.19)

▪ An UTTERANCE (phát ngôn) is any stretch of talk, (a sequence of sentences, a single

phrase, or even a single word) by one person, before and after which there is silence on
the part of that person. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.16)

Each utterance is unique, having been produced by a particular sender in a specific

situation. Because they are tied to a sender and a time, utterances can never be repeated.

▪ A PROPOSITION (mệnh đề) is that part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative
sentence which describes some state of affairs. The state of affair typically involves
persons or things referred to by expressions in the sentence and the situation or action
they are involved in. In uttering a declarative sentence a speaker typically asserts a
proposition. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.20)

Rule: The notion of truth can be used to decide whether two sentences express the same or
different propositions. When one sentence is true and the other is also true, they express
the same proposition. If one sentence is true, while the other may be false, we can be
sure that they express different propositions.

True propositions correspond to reality; False propositions do not correspond to reality.

The following pair of sentences express the same proposition.

The tea is so hot that I can’t drink it / The tea is too hot for me to drink.

The following pair of sentences express different propositions.

Peter is going out with Lulu / Peter isn’t going out with Lulu.

PRACTICE 1: Answer the following questions, choosing Yes or No.

1. Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of a sentence? Yes / No
2. Can one talk of a loud sentence? Yes / No
3. Does it make sense to talk of the time and place of an utterance? Yes / No
4. Can one talk of a loud utterance? Yes / No
5. Does it make sense to ask what language an utterance belong to? Yes / No
6. Does it make sense to ask what language a sentence belong to? Yes / No

2
PRACTICE 2: Answer the following questions:
1. Can a sentence be true or false? Yes / No
2. Can an utterance be true or false? Yes / No
3. Is a sentence tied to a particular time and place? Yes / No
4. Is an utterance tied to a particular time and place? Yes / No
5. Are the followings a sentence or an utterance?
a. He was on a business trip yesterday. S/U
b. “He was on a business trip yesterday.” S/U

PRACTICE 3: (1) Fill in the chart with (+) or (–) as appropriate.

Utterances Sentences Propositions

Can be loud or quiet

Can be grammatical or not
Can be true or false
In a particular regional accent
In a particular language

(2) Can the same proposition be expressed by different sentences? Yes / No

(3) Can the same sentence be realized by different utterances? Yes / No

PRACTICE 4: Look at the following utterances. Are they intended to be taken literally?
What does the speaker mean in each utterance?

(1) Tired traveller: “This suitcase is killing me.”

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(2) A mother to her son: “I am dying of shame!”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(3) During a business meeting: “It’s a dog-eat-dog situation”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(4) In a stuffy room: “It’s so hot in here. Can you crack open the door?”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(5) Hungry person at the dinner table: “I could eat a horse!”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
(6) Tom to John: “Have you got any cash on you?”
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3
PRACTICE 5: Mark each of the following statements true (T) or false (F).

(1) Alive means the opposite of dead. T/F

(2) Buy has an opposite meaning from sell. T/F

(3) Caesar is and is not a meaningful English sentence. T/F

(4) Caesar is a prime number is nonsensical. T/F

(5) Caesar is a man is nonsensical. T/F

(6) Both of John’s parents are married to aunts of mine is in T/F

a sense contradictory, describing an impossible situation.

(7) If the sentence John killed Bill is true of any situation, T/F

then so is the sentence Bill is dead.

(8) If the sentence David loves Jennifer is true of any situation, T/F

then so is the sentence Jennifer loves David.

PRACTICE 6: Indicate whether each of the following sentence pairs expresses the
same (S) or different (D) propositions.

a. Mary read the book / The book was read by Mary. S/D

b. Fred took back the book / Fred took the book back. S/D

c. The cat chased the rat / The cat was chased by the rat. S/D

d. The chef cooked the meal / The chef had the meal cooked. S/D

e. Hondas are easy to fix / It’s easy to fix Hondas. S/D

4
 REFERENCE - REFERENT - SENSE
▪ REFERENCE (sở chỉ) is the relationships between language and the world, i.e the
relationships between words and the things, actions, events, and qualities, etc they refer to.
Ex: Tom’s son
→ the reference is the relationship between the expression “Tom’s son” and the
boy who calls Tom dad.

▪ REFERENT (vật sở chỉ) is the thing the speaker is talking about, the object referred to.

Ex: my wife (the woman I am married to), this page (the page we are reading, page 5)

▪ SENSE: (nghĩa) is the relationships inside the language, i.e the relationships between
expressions and other expressions in the language.

Ex: “spinster” and “unmarried woman”

Function words (and, almost, probably, the, in, if, etc) have no references. Nevertheless,
they do have some sense.

→ Every expression that has meaning has sense, but not every expression has reference.

To express the content / meaning of a word to a learner, we may say the word and show
him an object to make him understand what the word means. In this case, we establish a
relationship between a word and an object (between language and the world: reference).
On the other hand, we can also combine words together to express the meaning in the form
of a definition. (the relationships between words in the language: sense).

Ex: reference: (show a real pencil-sharpener)

pencil-sharpener
sense: a small device with a blade inside, used for making
pencils sharp.

▪ VARIABLE REFERENCE: (sở chỉ không cố định) Same linguistic expression may refer to
different objects (referents).

Ex: "My mother” (referring to the mother of the speaker) may refer to many
different ladies depending on different speakers.
The references of an expression vary according to the time, place, etc., and the topic of
the conversation in which the expression is used.

▪ CO-REFERENCE: (đồng sở chỉ) different expressions refer to the same object (referent).

5
 Ex: the Evening Star and the Morning Star. Both refer to the planet Venus.
HCM City and Saigon: both refer to the same city.
“my wife” and “the woman I am married to.”
Ho Chi Minh, Nguyen Ai Quoc and Nguyen Tat Thanh: all refer to the same person
▪ CONSTANT REFERENCE: (sở chỉ cố định) one expression always refers to the same object,
(regardless of whoever is the speaker).
Unique things: the Eiffel Tower, the sun, the moon, the earth, the east, etc.
Proper names, especially geographical names: Russia, Italy, Rome, etc.

PRACTICE 7: List the words and phrases in this text which have the same referent.
Einstein College today announced the firing of its director. The chairman of the board of
governors said that he had phoned him last night to inform him that his services were
no longer required. This follows overspending on a new residence for students, with
resulting cutbacks in academic programs. Their representative, Tracy Sharpe,
commented that they now had nice accommodation but no professors.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
……...…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PRACTICE 8: Answer the following questions.

1. What would be the referent of the phrase “the present Prime Minister of Vietnam? “
(a) in 1955? .......................................................................................
(b) in 2020? .......................................................................................
2. Does my beloved uncle normally have constant reference? Yes / No
3. Does The United Kingdom normally have constant reference? Yes / No
4. Does Mount Everest normally have constant reference? Yes / No
5. In a conversation about Vietnam in 2020 can The President and The Yes / No
Secretary General have the same referent?
6. If we are talking about a situation in which John is standing alone in the Yes / No
corner, can John have the same referent as the person in the corner?
6
PRACTICE 9: What is intended by the word mean(s), meaning, meant in the following
examples, reference (R) or sense (S)?

1. Can you tell me what controversial means? R/S

2. When Sarah talks about "her life", she means her husband. R/S
3. Look up the meaning of convalescence in your dictionary. R/S
4. Purchase has the same meaning as buy. R/S
5. When I mention “the naughty boy”, I suppose you know who I mean. R/S
6. "I'm sorry to have disturbed you - when I said “Will you move your chair?” R / S
I didn't mean you, I meant Patrick here."
7. When Helen mentioned ‘the fruit cake’, she meant that rock-hard object R/S
in the middle of the table.
8. That meant she would have to drive to town tonight, and she wasn't R/S
feeling up to it.

PRACTICE 10: Answer the following questions.

(1) When you look up the meaning of a word in a dictionary, what do you find there,
its referent, or an expression with the same sense?

..........................................................................................................................

(2) Is a dictionary full of words or full of things, like a box or a sack?

..........................................................................................................................

(3) Could a foreigner learn the meanings of his very first words of English by having
their typical referents pointed out to him? .................................

(4) Could a foreigner learn the meanings of his very first words of English by looking
them up in an English dictionary? .................................

7
 CHAPTER TWO: WORD MEANING

WORD MEANING is what a word means, i.e. what counts as the equivalent in the language
concerned. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.3)
We identify the meaning of a word by its semantic features.
SEMANTIC FEATURES (Nét nghĩa) are the smallest units of meaning in a word. (Richards,
Platt & Weber, 1987, p. 254)

+ male Each
+ adult factor is
Father + human a semantic
+ married features
+ having children
▪ The same semantic feature may be found in the meaning of different words .i.e.
different words may share the same semantic feature.
Ex 1: grandparent, aunt, uncle, mother, father, son, daughter, brother, sister, etc.
all share the same semantic feature are all [+kinship].
Ex 2: athlete, chemist, tailor, hairdresser, doctor, engineer, teacher, etc.
all share the same semantic feature [+professional].
▪ The same semantic feature may be found in words of different parts of speech. i.e.
words of different parts of speech may share the same semantic feature.
Ex: [educational] is a semantic feature found in the nouns school, teacher,
textbook, etc. and the verb teach, educate, instruct, etc.

PRACTICE 11: Give the semantic features of each of the following words:
aunt: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
tulip: …………………………………………………………………………………………………….…..………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
eagle:… …………………………………………………………………………………………….………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
actor……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
chalk…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
spinster: …………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8
 DENOTATION AND CONNOTATION
▪ DENOTATION (nghĩa sở thị) The denotative meaning of a word is the core meaning
of the word found in a dictionary. It is the meaning that may be described in terms of a
set of semantic features that serve to identify the particular concept associated with the
word. It is also called descriptive because it describes an object, an event, a state or
an affair, and referential meaning as it refers us to something in the world.

▪ CONNOTATION (nghĩa hàm thị, liên tưởng) The connotative meaning of a word is
the implied, additional meaning that the word has beyond its denotative meaning. It
shows people's emotions towards what the word refers to. This meaning may vary from
individual to individual, and community to community. That's why connotative meaning
is also called social or affective meaning.

Ex: the name ‘Hollywood’ denotes an area of Los Angeles, worldwide known as the
center of the American movie industry. Meanwhile, it connotes such things as glitz,
glamour, celebrity, and dreams of stardom.

Notes: A word can have positive or negative connotations. Sometimes words have different
connotations to different people because of their experiences.
Ex: Aunt Sue is proud of her nephew Jim. Aunt Lucy, by contrast, disapproves of
everything Jim does. Let’s see how their different views of Jim determine the
language they use.
The fact is: Jim likes to save money when shopping.
Aunt Sue says: “He’s thrifty.” Aunt Lucy says: “He’s stingy.”
Both of these words refer to saving money, but they have different connotations.
“Thrifty” suggests that Jim is smart and knows how to find bargains. “Stingy”
depicts Jim as greedy and lacking generosity.
The fact is: Jim works hard.
Aunt Sue says: “He’s focused on his job.” Aunt Lucy says: “He’s obsessed with his
job.” Both of these words refer to paying close attention to something; however,
“focused” implies that someone is interested in what they’re doing, while “obsessed”
suggests that they are addicted to it.
The fact is: Jim has a son and two daughters.
Aunt Sue says: “Jim has three children.” Aunt Lucy says: “Jim has three brats.”
“Brat” is a slang word for a noisy, annoying child. Lucy is implying that Jim’s children
misbehave all the time.
9
 Some words seem more loaded with meaning than others. Friendship, love,
vacation, freedom usually arouse pleasant feelings. Meanwhile, slum, drunkard,
torture, criminal usually arouse unpleasant feelings.

PRACTICE 12: Find the denotative and connotative meanings for the following words.

1. lamb: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. dove: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. Chick: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Rose: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. Rock: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. Home: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. Mule: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

PRACTICE 13: Categorize the following words as positive, neutral, or negative. If you are not
sure, look the word up in a dictionary. The first one is done for you as an example.

Positive Neutral Negative

1. house, dump, home home house dump

2. exotic, foreign, strange

3. babble, talk, chat

4. dinner, feast, slop

5. fragrance, stench, smell

6. venerable, old, decrepit

7. sound, tune, noise

8. beast, animal, pet

10
PRACTICE 14: The connotation of some words - or the attitudes we associate with them -
can easily be seen when we examine pairs of words that are essentially similar in
meaning, but different in the favorable or unfavorable attitudes they evoke in most
people. Listed below are ten pairs of words that evoke negative or positive feelings.
For each pair, place a plus sign (+) after the word that conveys a more favorable
attitude and a minus sign (−) after the word that carries a less favorable attitude.

1. refreshing – chilly 2. plain – natural

3. clever – sly 4. cackle – giggle
5. snob – cultured 6. cop – officer
7. skinny – slender 8. statesman – politician
9. smile – smirk 10. domineering – assertive

PRACTICE 15: Read each of the following sentences. Decide from the context whether the
speaker is showing approval or disapproval of the topic. Then circle the best word
to put into the sentence.

1. “The sooner we move out of this (home, dump),” said Jack, “the happier I’ll be.”
2. You’re lucky to have Wilma on your committee. She has lots of (original, crazy) ideas.
3. This cell phone is (expensive, overpriced), but I don’t mind paying extra because it has
so many useful features.
4. Can you please ask the new saleswoman not to be so (enthusiastic, pushy)? She is
scaring away the customers.
5. It was a beautiful spring day, and the (stench, scent) of apple blossoms filled the whole yard
6. I hope I don’t have to share an office with Sue. Sandra told me how (curious, nosy) she
can be
7. “I think Fay is an excellent president,” said the principal. “She really knows how to
(manage, meddle).”
8. Will you please turn your stereo off? I can’t concentrate with all that (music, noise).
9. I love going camping and getting in touch with nature. The woods are filled with so
much (vermin, animal life).
10. What makes Jim such an excellent storyteller is his knack for (invention, lying).
11. Mr. Benton had better watch out for that new assistant of his. He’s a (clever, crafty) one
12. I have a lot of respect for Jenny’s father. He’s rather (reserved, antisocial) and dignified.
13. My brother can’t stand his mother-in-law. She’s practically a millionaire, but she’s about
as (thrifty, miserly) as a person can get.
14. This coffee is very (bitter, strong) – just the way I like it!

11
 FIGURES OF SPEECH

Literal meaning: (Nghĩa đen) the basic or usual meaning of a word, a phrase or a
sentence. Literal language means exactly what it says. (Compare Denotation)

Figurative meaning or Non-literal meaning: (Nghĩa bóng) the meaning which is

different from its usual (literal) meaning and which creates vivid mental images to
readers or listeners. (Compare Connotation)

A FIGURE OF SPEECH (Hình thái tu từ) is “a word or phrase which is used for special
effect, and which doesn't have its usual or literal meaning”. (Richards. Platt & Weber.
1987, p.105)

▪ SIMILE (tỉ dụ, so sánh): direct comparison of one thing with another, using the function
words (like or as).
Ex: as cool as a cucumber, fight like a tiger.
▪ METAPHOR (ẩn dụ): indirect implied comparison (no function words)
Ex: She has a heart of gold.
DEAD METAPHOR: a metaphor which has lost its metaphoric characteristic and become
a fixed expression or idiom.
Ex: the eye of a needle; the head of the state; the foot of the mountain; the leg
of the table; the mouth of the river, the face of the table; the back of the chair;
the childhood of the earth etc.
LIVE METAPHOR: a metaphor used consciously, intentionally by a speaker with various
figurative meanings.
Ex: 'He is a pig' may be interpreted as he is fat; he is lazy; he is stupid; he is
dirty, etc. depending on the situation in which it is used.
Live metaphors can only be understood after the implicit comparison found in any of
them is seriously considered and fully appreciated. Native speakers of a language use
live metaphors intentionally and creatively in order to make their speech more vivid,
figurative, concise, etc. “you are a mist that appears for a little time and then vanishes”
means you are implicitly compared to a mist that does not last long, i.e. you come and
leave quickly.)

Usually, there is a metaphor when one:

• Puts 2 different species on the same rank.

Ex: He is an old fox (a person = an animal) (he is very wicked )

12
 He is a rock in storm (a person = a thing) (he is a strong-minded person)
• Applies a feature of one species for another.
Ex: Have you digested the lesson yet? 'digest' is a term usually used for
food, now is used for study => the speaker compares the process of
eating and digesting food with that of learning and understanding
lessons. (Have you carefully understood the lesson yet?)
He bottled up his feelings. 'bottle' a term usually used for the process of
making different kinds of drink or wine etc. is used here for feelings. (He
hid/ concealed his feelings)

▪ IRONY (mỉa mai): Say the opposite of one's thought for emphasis, for fun or mocking.
Ex: The butter is as soft as a marble piece (the butter is not soft at all)
He is so intelligent that no examiner has agreed to pass him so far. (he is rather
stupid)

▪ SYNECDOCHE (cải dung): the use of a part for the whole or the whole for a part.
- A synecdoche may use part of something to represent the entire whole.
Ex: This work requires an intelligent brain (= person)
The war has robbed 2,000 souls of the village (= people)
- It may use an entire whole thing to represent a part of it.
Ex: The United States won the cup. That actually means a team from the United
States, not the country as a whole.

▪ METONYMY (hoán dụ): A word or phrase is used to stand in for another word.
Ex: “The pen is mightier than the sword.” The word “pen” substitutes for written
words, and the word “sword” substitutes for violence or warfare.
The White House - in place of the President or others who work there.

▪ PERSONIFICATION (nhân cách hóa): A figure of speech in which a thing, an idea or an

animal is given human attributes. The non-human objects are portrayed in such a way
that we feel they have the ability to act like human beings.
Ex: The wind whispered through dry grass.
The flowers danced in the gentle breeze.

▪ HYPERBOLE (cường điệu): overstatement or exaggeration.

Ex: I’ve told you a million times.
It was so cold that I saw polar bears wearing jackets.
I am so hungry. I could eat a horse.

13
▪ LITOTES (phép nói giảm): A figure of speech which employs an understatement by using
double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed by negating its opposite
expressions.
Ex: The ice cream was not too bad. (very good)
I cannot disagree with your point of view. (totally agree)

▪ EUPHEMISM (uyển ngữ, nói tránh): the use of pleasant, mild, comforting, or indirect
expression for one that is taboo, negative, offensive or too direct.
Ex: “Let someone go” is a euphemism for “fire someone.”
“Pass away” is a euphemism for “die”

PRACTICE 16: Identify the type of figure of speech used in each of the following
sentences then give the figurative meaning.

1. When you take that course, plan to study 30 hours a day.

2. You have to pay the earth for such a masterpiece!

3. My brother was boiling mad.

4. The ship was lost with all hands.

5. The tree branch moaned as I swung from it.

6. You are becoming a little thin on top.

7. He has a heart of stone.

8. The weather is as cool as a summer day in the Sahara.

9. Her voice is music to his ears.

10. The White House will be announcing the decision around noon today.

14
11. His parents bought him a new set of wheels.

12. Joe cried a little when he lost the thousand dollars.

13. Your comments on politics are not useless.

14. Miss O’Shay, our teacher, is in the family way.

15. They are enjoying adult beverages.

16. He is not the cleverest person I have ever met.

17. This car goes faster than the speed of light.

18. He has many mouths to feed.

19. This wall is as hard as tofu.

20. Life is a dream.

21. He shall think differently, the musketeer threatened, when he feels the point of my steel

22. The boss let 10 employees go yesterday.

23. We are so poor; we don’t have two cents to rub together.

24. The ocean danced in the moonlight.

25. He wanted to set sail on the ocean of love but he just wasted away in the desert

15
26. He's as nice as a lion to his prey.

27. The computer in the classroom was an old dinosaur.

28. Always remember that he is no fool.

29. I had a ton of homework.

30. He is always tired and emotional.

31. The phone awakened with a mighty ring.

32. This chair is as comfortable as sitting on nails.

33. We are tired to death of such movies.

34. The Pentagon will be revealing the decision later on in the morning.

35. That joke is so old, the last time I heard it I was riding on a dinosaur.

36. Her brain is the size of a pea.

37. He is spending his time at a Correctional center.

38. Who brought fire and sword into our country?

39. A million dollars is not a little amount.

40. I am purchasing a pre-enjoyed (pre-loved) vehicle.

16
 SYNONYMY
SYNONYM: Two words have the same or almost the same denotative meaning.
Ex: buy = purchase; hide = conceal; deep = profound; film = movie
There tend to be very few absolute synonyms in a language. More often than not, it
just shares partial meaning with the other words in some certain contexts.

PARTIAL SYNONYM: a word that share one of the meanings with another.
Ex: He was in deep / profound shock after the accident.
But: The lake is very deep. (not profound)
This cheese is ripe / mature enough for us to eat.
But: This fruit is ripe enough (not mature)
The boy is mature enough (not ripe)

PRACTICE 17: The following pairs of words are partial synonyms. For each pair, give a
sentence in which the two words can be used interchangeably and give another
sentence in which only one of them can be used.

1. choose/pick …………………………………………………………………………………………..…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. permit/allow ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. way/method ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. edge/side …………………………….……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. lady/woman …………………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
6. intelligent /smart ………………………………………………………………………………..……
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
7. rush/run………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. smooth/flat ………………………………………………………………………………………….…….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
9. soil / earth ……………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
10. spicy/hot ……………………………………………………………………………………………..…
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

17
 ANTONYMY
ANTONYM: Two words of opposite meaning.
Ex: hot/cold; sooner/later; success/failure

▪ Complementary/Non-gradable/Binary Antonym (Tính trái nghĩa lưỡng phân)

Two words are BINARY ANTONYMS when they exclude each other. In other words,
“if one word is applicable, then the other cannot be”.
Being "not X" automatically means being "Y" and being "not Y" means being "X",
Ex: asleep ≠ awake; male ≠ female.
Binary antonyms cannot be used in a comparative and superlative sense or in
questions with HOW to ask about degree.
Ex: He is more asleep than his father. Incorrect.
How awake is he? Incorrect.

▪ Gradable Antonym (trái nghĩa thang độ) two members of a pair of antonyms:

+ are at opposite ends of a continuous scale of values, ie. there are intermediate
grades/levels between the two extremes.
Ex: good < fair < average < poor < bad
+ Can be used in a comparative and superlative sense:
Ex: more interesting = less boring
+ Can be qualified by adverbs such as very, quite, etc. or used in questions with
How
Ex: quite hot; extremely expensive
How fast does he run? - Very fast.
With gradable antonyms it is possible to be both "not X" and "not Y", but
somewhere in the middle.

▪ Converse or Relational Antonym (trái nghĩa nghịch đảo) expressions which

express a relationship between two things such that one of the expressions conveys
the relationship in one order and the other expression conveys the relationship in the
opposite order.

If A ……. (of/from…) B, then B … …. (of/from… ) A

Ex: buy/sell; husband/wife; in front of/behind

If Tom is Sue’s husband, then Sue must be Tom’s wife.

If John is in front of Mary, then Mary is behind John.

18
 POLYSEMY & HOMONYMY
Polysemy (từ đa nghĩa): Different meanings which are associated with one form. These
meanings are closely related.

Ex: Farmers are transplanting rice in the paddy field. She’s eating some rice.

We went for a walk last Sunday – Do you walk the dog every day? – The workers
threatened to walk (to go on strike) – Walk with God! (to live your life in a particular way)

Homonym (đồng âm đồng tự) words of the same sound, same spelling, but different meanings.

Ex: The driver turned left (opposite of right) and left (departed from) the main road.

A bear (the animal) can bear (tolerate) very cold temperatures.

Homophone (Đồng âm dị tự) words of the same sound, different spellings, and different meanings

Ex: wait – weight; read – red; know – no; sight – site.

Homograph (Quan hệ đồng tự) words of the same spelling, different sounds, different meanings

Ex: With the bow in his left hand, Robin Hood gave a low bow to the crowd.

a weapon used for shooting arrows an act of bending one’s head

Hyponym (Hạ danh) a word whose referent is totally included in the referent of another
term. It is a term that denotes a subcategory of a more general class.

Ex: daisy and rose are hyponyms of flower.

Superordinate (Thượng danh) a word whose referent covers all the referents of its hyponyms

Ex: animal is a superordinate of elephant.

Superordinates and Hyponyms are asymmetric, ie. it is one-way relation.

X (Hyponym) is a kind of Y (Superordinate)

Ex: A screwdriver is a kind of tool.

but not: A tool is a kind of screwdriver.

PRACTICE 18: Are the following pairs of antonyms Binary (B), Gradable (G) or Relational (R)?
1. yin - yang 2. doctor - patient 3. off - on
4. nervous - calm 5. night - day 6. better - worse
7. servant - master 8. pass - fail 9. vacant - occupied
10. parent - child 11. deep - shallow 12. give - receive
13. fast - slow 14. empty - full 15. broad - narrow
16. borrow - lend 17. love - hate 18. teach - learn
19
PRACTICE 19: Choose the correct words in the following pairs of homophones.

1. The plaster cast will help the broken bone (heal, heel).
2. The (cede, seed) is the specialized part of a plant that contains reproductive organs.
3. Dasha's piano (lessen, lesson) is at 3:30 every week.
4. Would you (grate, great) the cheese for the pizza?
5. After Nell's surgery, she looked (pail, pale) and tired for several weeks.
6. If there is a monopoly, there is only one (cellar, seller) for the commodity.
7. Mrs. Gevatte's voice was (hoarse, horse) by the time she finished reading all the test items
8. There was graffiti on three sides of the building, but the back was (bare, bear).
9. He gathered some (wood, would) for a fire, but it was too damp to light.
10. His (manner, manor) of speaking was very soothing.
11. An excellent example of camouflage, the Arctic (hair, hare) disappears against the
white snow.
12. I felt a sharp (pain, pane) in my foot and realized I had stepped on a nail.
13. Her moods changed from (one, won) minute to the next.
14. It seemed like I had to (wait, weight) forever at the doctor's office.
15. I can (idle, idol) away many pleasant hours in the Museum of Natural History.
16. Joseph's (ant, aunt) lives in Alaska.

PRACTICE 20: Read the definitions, then write the appropriate homograph from the box on
each line and its transcription. The first one has been done as an example.

content wind project refuse lead tear produce desert row minute

content /kən'tent/ 1. happy or satisfied

content /'kɒntent/ all that is contained inside something
____________________2. to go first with followers behind
____________________ a heavy soft grey metal
____________________3. to create or make
____________________ fresh fruits and vegetables
____________________4. waste or garbage
____________________ to reject or decline to accept
____________________5. to pull apart by force / to rip
____________________ a drop of water coming from the eye
____________________6. moving air
____________________ to turn
20
 ____________________ 7. sixty seconds
____________________ extremely small
____________________ 8. a hot, arid region
____________________ to leave
____________________ 9. a plan or proposal
____________________ to throw or hurl forward
____________________ 10. a noisy argument between people / a quarrel
____________________ to propel a boat forward using oars

PRACTICE 21: Give a superordinate to each of the following strings of words. Cross out the
inapplicable.

1. stare, gaze, view, stamp, peer, glance, sight

2. poodle, alsatian, chihuahua, terrier, dolphin, beagle, shepherd

3. diamond, lead, emerald, ruby, sapphire, opal, jade

4. black, yellow, orange, apple, white, blue, purple

5. freeze, roast, sauté, grill, fry, boil, steam.

6. pen, stapler, notebook, crayon, writing pad, eraser, fork

7. doll, couch, yo-yo, rubber duck, teddy bear, lego, radio-controlled car

8. robin, nightingale, toucan, dove, piranha, eagle, owl

9. pants, briefcase, dress, jumper, cardigan, sari, kimono

10. trumpet, flute, saxophone, telephone, piano, harmonica, guitar

21
 CHAPTER THREE: SENTENCE MEANING

▪ SENTENCE MEANING is what a sentence means, regardless of the context and situation
in which it may be used. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.304)
▪ An ANALYTIC SENTENCE is one which is necessarily true as a result of the senses of the
words in it. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.95)
▪ A SYNTHETIC SENTENCE is one which is NOT analytic, but may be either true or false,
depending on the way the world is. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.95)
Ex: All elephants are animals is an Analytic sentence. The truth of the sentence
follows from the senses of elephant and animal.
John is from Ireland is a Synthetic sentence because there is nothing in the
senses of John or Ireland or from which makes this necessarily true or false.
▪ A CONTRADICTION is a sentence that is necessarily FALSE, as a result of the senses of
the words in it. Thus a contradiction is in a way the opposite of an analytic sentence.
(Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.97)
Ex: This animal is a vegetable is a contradiction.

PRACTICE 22: Circle A for analytic, or S for synthetic or C for contradiction, as appropriate

(1) My watch is slow. A/S/C

(2) My watch is a device for telling the time. A/S/C
(3) Alice is Ken’s sister. A/S/C
(4) Some typewriters are dusty. A/S/C
(5) If it breaks, it breaks. A/S/C
(6) John killed Bill, who remained alive for many years after. A/S/C
(7) John’s brother is nine years old. A/S/C
(8) John’s nine-year-old brother is a boy. A/S/C
(9) Sam’s wife is married. A/S/C
(10) Sam’s wife is not German. A/S/C
(11) That girl is her own mother’s mother. A/S/C
(12) The boy is his own father’s son. A/S/C
(13) Cats never live more than 20 years A/S/C
(14) Cats are animals A/S/C
(15) Bachelors are unmarried A/S/C
(16) Bachelors cannot form lasting relationships A/S/C

22
 ANOMALY
Anomaly is ‘a violation of semantic rules to create nonsense.’ (Finegan, 1993, p. 148)
An anomalous sentence is grammatically correct and syntactically perfect, but semantically
anomalous because it breaks the rules of semantics.
Ex: My brother is the only child in the family.
This sentence is semantically anomalous because it contains a contradiction. The meaning
of brother includes the semantic feature [+having at least one sibling] while the only
child in the family is [+having no other sibling].
Here are some examples of anomaly:
+ Honesty plays golf.
+ The boy swallowed the chocolate and then chew it.
+ He frightened a tree.
+ My brother is a spinster (unmarried woman).

PARAPHRASE

PARAPHRASE (Câu mô phỏng) A sentence which expresses the same proposition as another
sentence is a PARAPHRASE of that sentence. (Hurford, Heasley, and Smith, 2007, p.108)

Sentences are paraphrased if they have the same meaning (except possibly for minor
differences in emphasis. (Fromkin & Rodman, 1993, p.132)
Ex: Tom sent a book to John ↔ John received a book from Tom.

Some ways to paraphrase a sentence.

▪ Using synonyms:
Ex: You have my profound sympathy ↔ You have my deep sympathy
▪ Using relational antonyms:
Ex: Jack sold a car to Jim ↔ Jim bought a car from Jack.
▪ Voice: Active ↔ Passive
Ex: The teacher gave Jane a reward ↔ Jane was given a reward by the teacher.
▪ Phrase ↔ Clause:
Ex: The man waiting for you comes from Arizona.
→ The man who is waiting for you comes from Arizona.
▪ Formal subject ↔ Real subject:
Ex: It is interesting to work with you. ↔ To work with you is interesting.
▪ Inversion:
Ex: He is so nice that everyone likes him ↔ So nice is he that everyone likes him.

23
 ▪ Although ↔ However + Adj/Adv or Adj/Adv + as
Ex: Although he tried hard, he couldn’t open the box
↔ However hard he tried, he couldn’t open the box.
Although he is poor, he lives a happy life
↔ Poor as he is, he lives a happy life

PRACTICE 23: Paraphrase the following sentences.

1. Marketing this product will be no piece of cake.

2. He is no longer working as a shop-assistant.

3. They sent us a message.

4. She is so happy that she can’t control her feeling.

5. Justin doesn’t want to be disturbed during dinner.

6. This exercise is more difficult than the previous one.

7. You can’t get into the concert without a ticket.

8. Cindy had no sooner got home than it began raining.

9. It was Tom that I saw at the wedding reception.

10. It was 10 miles from the nearest petrol station.

11. They were so busy that they could hardly have a rest.

12. Watching this show is so boring.

13. He was too young to take part in this game.

14. I would have visited you, but I didn't know that you were at home.

15. To make him change his mind is really difficult.

16. He was so excited that he couldn’t sleep.

17. They are no longer working in this company

18. I have never seen such a big worm before.

24
 AMBIGUITY
Sentences and words that are AMBIGUOUS have more than ONE possible meaning.
Ex: Put the box on the table by the window in the kitchen
It could mean any of the following:
▪ Put the box onto the table that is by the window in the kitchen.
▪ Take the box that is on the table and put it by the window in the kitchen.
▪ Take the box off the table that is by the window and put it in the kitchen.
▪ Lexical ambiguity is caused by Polysemy, Homonymy or Homography.
Ex: John went to the bank.

the edge of a river

a financial institution

▪ Punctuation ambiguity: Lack or overuse of punctuation (especially commas) can alter

meaning or result in ambiguity. Ambiguous sentences are hard to understand and can be
misinterpreted.
Ex: She finds inspiration in cooking her family and her dog.
Does it mean that “She cooks her her family and her dog”??? Disgusting!!!
And with commas added you get this:
She finds inspiration in cooking, her family, and her dog.

The placement of punctuation, such as full stops, commas, and question marks, can turn
something that seems loving and innocent into something more sinister. Look at the example

Dear John,
I want a man who knows what love is all about.
You are generous, kind, thoughtful.
People who are not like you admit to being useless and inferior.
You have ruined me for other men.
I yearn for you.
I have no feelings whatsoever when we’re apart.
I can be forever happy.
Will you let me be yours?
Gloria
Now let’s see how those same words read with the punctuation in different places:

Dear John,
I want a man who knows what love is.
All about you are generous, kind, thoughtful people, who are not like you.
Admit to being useless and inferior.
25
 You have ruined me.
For other men, I yearn.
For you, I have no feelings whatsoever.
When we’re apart, I can be forever happy.
Will you let me be?
Yours,
Gloria.

▪ Structural Ambiguity: one which is caused by structure.

Grouping ambiguity: the words in the sentence can be put into different groups.

Ex: Hand me the red and yellow balls. It could mean any of the following:
Hand me the red ball and the yellow ball.
Hand me the balls that are red and yellow.

Function Ambiguity: a sentence containing 1 word with different functions.

Ex: She likes candy more than her husband.

more than she likes her husband. (Object)

She likes candy

more than her husband does. (Subject)

PRACTICE 24: These sentences are ambiguous. Give the possible paraphrases to make
the meaning clear.

1. Each of us saw her duck.

2. I love Sarah more than you.

3. "No don't stop!"

4. Foreigners are hunting dogs.

5. John kissed the girl in the bathroom.

6. Terry loves his wife and so do I.

7. When I sing well ladies feel sick.

26
8. He greeted the girl with a smile.

9. The chicken is ready to eat.

10. He gave her dog meat.

11. She cannot bear children.

12. They found hospitals and charitable institutions.

13. Is she really that kind?

14. Jack told John that a visitor was waiting for him.

15. Take your mother-in-law out back and shoot her.

16. Annie whacked a man with an umbrella.

17. Our mothers bore us.

18. He passed the hammer and saw through the window.

19. There was not a single man at the party.

20. I gave a few olives to my friend that I stabbed with a fork.

21. The German teachers visited the British Museum yesterday.

22. Woman without her man is a savage.

23. I know clever people like you.

24. Ralph took my picture.

25. I met a man with a dog that had fleas

26. Let’s eat grandpa.

27. Do you want to try on that dress by the window?

27
28. She can give more possible conclusions.

29. The club will open to members only from Monday to Thursday.

30. He left her in tears.

31. I repaired the car and returned the following day.

32. Tall boys and girls are needed to participate in the activities.

33. He looked over the old fence.

34. The people who saw the movie frequently praised it.

35. He found Peter a helper.

36. Students hate annoying professors.

37. Leave the chairs on the veranda

38. You should eat more nutritious food.

39. Milk drinkers are turning to powder.

40. King Charles 1 prayed half an hour after he was beheaded.

28
 ENTAILMENT
Entailment (kế thừa):
Sentence X entails sentence Y if and only if whenever X is true, Y is also true.

(the circumstances which make X true, make Y true)

Ex: Alan lives in Toronto (X) entails Alan lives in Canada.(Y)

▪ Entailment applies cumulatively. Thus if X entails Y and Y entails Z, then X entails Z.

Ex: X, Some boys ran down the street entails Y, Some kids ran down the street.

Y, Some kids ran down the street entails Z, Some kids went down the street.

Therefore, X, Some boys ran down the street entails Z, Some kids went down the street

▪ Hyponymy involves entailment.

Ex: Tom plays the saxophone entails Tom plays a musical instrument.

( saxophone is a hyponym of musical instrument)

Types of entailments.

▪ One-way entailment

When there is only one-way entailment, the sentences are not true paraphrases of each
other

Ex: Alan lives in Toronto. and Alan lives in Canada.

If Alan lives in Toronto, then he necessarily lives in Canada. But if he lives in Canada, he
can live in Toronto but not necessarily. It can be Ottawa, for example.

▪ Two-way entailment

When the sentences are true paraphrases of each other, there is two -way entailment.

Ex: You have my deep sympathy. and You have my profound sympathy.

Because of the meaning relationship between deep/profound, we have a situation of two-

way entailment between the sentences in the pair. These sentences are paraphrases of

each other.

29
PRACTICE 25: One-way (→, ←) , two-way (↔) entailment or none?

1. The house was concealed by the trees. The house was hidden by the trees.

2. I ran to the house. I went to the house.

3. Henry was chewing a tulip. Henry was chewing a flower.

4. Henry was not chewing a tulip. Henry was not chewing a flower.

5. Sue went to the party. Sue and Fred went to the party.

6. Annie ate a trout. Annie ate a fish.

7. Annie ate all the trout. Annie ate all the fish.

8. It is hard to lasso elephants. Elephants are hard to lasso.

9. John cooked an egg. John boiled an egg.

10. We went in a bus. We went in a vehicle.

11. We went in a small bus. We went in a small vehicle.

12. This porridge is too cold. This porridge is not too hot.

13. Baby Bear cried. Baby Bear wept.

14. Mama Bear is in front of Papa Bear. Papa Bear is behind Mama Bear.

15. John is the parent of James. James is the child of John.

16. John stole a car. John took a car.

30
 CHAPTER FOUR: UTTERANCE MEANING
SPEECH ACTS
SPEECH ACTS (hành động ngôn từ) A Speech act is an utterance that has performative
function in language and communication. Almost any speech act is really the performance of
several acts at once, distinguished by different aspects of the speaker's intention: the act of
saying something, what one does in saying it, and how one is trying to affect one's
audience. Speech acts are commonly taken to include such acts as promising, accusing,
admitting, apologizing, offering, greeting, warning, complaining, and
congratulating, etc.

The action performed by producing an utterance (a speech act) consists of 3 related acts:
▪ LOCUTIONARY ACT (Hành vi tạo lời) The performance of an utterance: the actual
utterance and its literal meaning.
▪ ILLOCUTIONARY ACT (Hành vi tại lời) The speaker’s intention when performing that
utterance (to praise, criticize, warn, request, assert, demand, order, apologize, etc).
The purpose of the speaker is meaningful and will ordinarily be recognized by one's
audience.
▪ PERLOCUTIONARY ACT (Hành vi mượn lời) The effect that the speaker has on
his/her audience when making that utterance.
Ex: Father to his son: “Your room is a pigsty”
- Locutionary act: the act of making the utterance “Your room is a pigsty”
- Illocutionary act: the father requests that his son should clean up the room.
- Perlocutionary act: the son goes to to clean up the room.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS

▪ Direct speech acts: When there is a direct relationship between a structure and a
function, we have a direct speech act. (the intent of the speaker is expressed directly)
▪ Indirect speech acts: When there is an indirect relationship between a structure
and a function, we have an indirect speech act.
Ex: “Please don’t talk in class.” (imperative structure; requesting function: Direct)
“It’s very noisy in here!” (statement structure; requesting function: Indirect)

SPEECH ACT CLASSIFICATION

There are five main types of speech acts, namely representative, commissive, declarative,
directive and expressive.

31
▪ Representative (hành vi biểu hiện) The speech acts that commit the speaker to the
truth of the expressed proposition (statement, assertion, conclusion, description, claim,
report, hypothesis)
Ex: The earth is flat.
▪ Commissive (hành vi cam kết) The speech acts that commit the speaker to the course
of action (promising, vowing, threatening, offering)
Ex: ‘I hereby undertake to pay all my debts’
▪ Declarative (hành vi tuyên bố) The speech acts that change the reality by bringing
about or altering the state of affairs (blessing, announcing, arresting, marrying, firing,
dismissing)
Ex: Vicar at a wedding ceremony: “I now pronounce you man and wife”
▪ Directive (hành vi điều khiển) The speech acts that are to cause the hearer to carry out
an action (commanding, requesting, warning, challenging, suggesting, giving advice, etc)
Ex: “Could you pass the salt, please?”
▪ Expressive (Hành vi biểu cảm) The speech acts that express the speaker's attitudes and
emotions about something (greeting, apologizing, complaining, thanking, excusing, etc.)
Ex: ‘Thank you very much’

PRACTICE 26: Identify the illocutionary acts (speaker’s intent) of the following utterances
and decide whether it is a direct or indirect speech act.

1. Bill to John, “Would you like a cup of coffee?”

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

2. Mother to son,”Tidy up your room.”

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

3. Teacher to students, “If you don’t try your best, you will fail in the exam.”
………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

4. Sue to Mary, “There’s a new Italian restaurant on Green Avenue.”

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

5. Lecturer to the audience, “Why don’t we have a break?”

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

32
 6. Fred to Jeff, “If I were you, I would accept the offer.”
………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

7. Barbara to Jim, “Would you mind opening the door?”

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

8. Mary to Susan, “I’ve got to go now.”

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

9. Bob to Nancy, “Turn your stereo off right now”

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

10. Henry to George, “May I use your lighter for a minute?”

………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………………

PRACTICE 27: Give a situation in which each of the following utterances occurs, interpret
its meaning and then classify it according to different types of speech acts.

1. “Don’t feed the animals!”

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. “I’m awfully sorry. I shouldn’t have been so rude to you last night.”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3. “I’ve stopped smoking.”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4.“You’re under arrest!”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. “I like the way you’ve done to your hair.”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
33
6. “You’re out!”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7. “You look terrific in that new dress.”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. “Your room is a pigsty”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
9. “It’s snowing.”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
10. “Would you like a cup of coffee?”
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

34
 PRESUPPOSITIONS
PRESUPPOSITION (Tiền giả định) A presupposition is what the speaker assumes to be the
case prior to making an utterance.
Ex: “John regrets that he stopped doing linguistics before he left Cambridge”
This utterance has the following presuppositions:
- John stopped doing linguistics before he left Cambridge.
- John was doing linguistics before he left Cambridge.
- John left Cambridge.
- John had been at Cambridge.
All these presuppositions are held by the speaker and, in fact, all of them can be wrong!

Characteristics
▪ The presupposition of an utterance remains the same under its negation.
Ex: (a) The child sneezed again.
(b) The child did not sneeze again.
Both (a) and (b) presuppose that (c) The child had sneezed before.
▪ The presupposition of an utterance remains the same under its interrogation.
Ex: (a) He used to be a salesperson.
(b) Did he use to be a salesperson?
Both (a) and (b) presuppose that (c) He is no longer a salesperson now.

TYPES OF PRESUPPOSITION.
There are six types of presupposition which are: the existential, the factive, the non-
factive, the lexical, the structural and the counterfactual.

▪ Existential presupposition (tiền giả định hiện sinh): assumes the existence of the
entities being mentioned.
Ex: Your daughter is cute → You have a daughter.
John lost his dog yesterday → John had a dog
▪ The factive presupposition (tiền giả định thực tế): assumes something to be a fact
(usually with the verbs as know, realize, regret, be aware of, be glad …)
Ex: I don’t know that she is a footballer. → she is a footballer
▪ Non-factive presupposition (tiền giả định phi thực tế)
One that is assumed not to be true. (the verbs like: dream, imagine, pretend,…)
Ex: I imagined we were rich. → we are not rich
▪ Lexical presupposition (tiền giả định ngữ nghĩa)

35
 The use of one form with its asserted meaning is conventionally interpreted with the
presupposition that another (non-asserted) meaning is understood.
Ex: He’s late again. → He was late before.
She stopped working as an asssistant. → She used to work as an asssistant.
▪ Structural presupposition (tiền giả định cấu trúc)
Certain sentence structures have been analyzed as conventionally and regularly
presupposing that part of the structure is assumed to be true.
Ex: Where did you have lunch?. → You had lunch.
When did she buy that car? → She bought that car.
▪ Counter-factual presupposition (tiền giả định không thật)
One in which what is presupposed is not only true, but is the opposite of what is true,
or contrary to facts.
Ex: If it weren’t raining, we could go out. → it is raining

PRACTICE 28: Give a possible presupposition for the following utterances.

1. “This is my youngest sister.”

2. “She pretends that he had understood what she meant.”

3. “We regret telling him the truth.”

4. “I've just got a driving license.”

5. “Can you stop making that noise?”

6. “I am glad that it is over.”

7. “How was your wedding?”

8. “When did she travel to the USA?”

9. “I wondered why he managed to get the job.”

10. “I wish I hadn't lent him my car.”

11. “I won’t make that mistake again.”

36
12. “It is going to rain for some more days.”

13. “The garage on the corner is still open.”

14. “Who broke these glasses?”

15. “What subjects are you taking this semester?”

16. “How about some more wine?”

17. “I shouldn’t have been so angry last night.”

18. “Tom kicked back Lucy.”

19. “They wish they could go on the vacation right now.”

20. “When did he start working in this company?”

21. “If he hadn’t made such a terrible mistake, we would be very happy now.”

22. “I wish I had studied medicine.”

23. “You shouldn’t have seen such a horror film.”

24. “You could have talked to the dean.”

25. “I imagine that he comes home late.”

37
 THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE

THE COOPERATIVE PRINCIPLE (Nguyên tắc hợp tác) When we communicate we assume,

without realising it, that we, and the people we are talking to, will be conversationally

cooperative - we will cooperate to achieve mutual conversational ends by attempting to be

informative, truthful, relevant, and clear.

According to this principle, we interpret language on the assumption that the speaker is

obeying 4 maxims (phương châm) as shown in the following:

▪ Maxim of quantity (phương châm về lượng) (quantity of information)

Give the most helpful amount of information.

▪ Maxim of quality (phương châm về chất) (quality of information)

Do not say what you believe to be false.

▪ Maxim of relation / relevance (phương châm về tính có sẵn)

Be relevant.

▪ Maxim of manner (phương châm về phương thức).

Put what you say in the clearest, briefest, and most orderly manner.

IMPLICATURE
IMPLICATURE (Hàm ngôn)
The term “Implicature” accounts for what a speaker can imply, suggest or mean, as
distinct from what the speaker literally says. Implicature is an additional conveyed
meaning.
Ex: “Some of the boys were at the party.”
Implicature: Not all of the boys were at the party.
▪ Conversational implicature (Hàm ngôn hội thoại)
An implicature which is based on the assumption that the participants respect the
cooperative principles
Ex : A: “Did you clean your room and do your homework?.”
B: “ I did my homework.”
Implicature: B did not clean the room. (Maxim of quantity )
C: “How about a piece of cake?”
D: “I’m on a diet”
38
 Implicature: D doesn’t want to eat the cake. (Maxim of relation)
▪ Scalar implicature
An implicature which is based on scales: when any form in a scale is asserted, the
negative of all forms higher on the scale is implicated.
+ Quantity scale: No one – Few – A few – Some – Many – Most – All
+ Frequency scale: Never – Rarely – Seldom – Sometimes – Often – Usually – Always.
+ Possibility scale: Possible – probable – Almost certain – Certain.
Ex : “I rarely eat meat these days.”
Implicature: I do not usually eat meat these days.
▪ Conventional implicature (Hàm ngôn quy ước)
An implicature based on the convention associated with specific words.
Ex: “I tried to get some rice.”
Implicature: I actually failed to buy rice (tried conventionally implicates failure)
“Even the president came to the football match.”
Implicature: The president came to the football match unexpectedly. (even
conventionally implicates contrary to the speaker’s expectation).

PRACTICE 29: Are the following conversations cooperative? Which maxim is violated?

1. Policeman at the front door: “Is your father or mother at home?”

Small boy (who knows that his father is at home): “Either my mother’s gone out
shopping or she hasn’t.”

2. Customs officer at an international airport: “Where are you from, Sir?”

Nam: “123 Vo Thi Sau Street, Thong Nhat Ward, Bien Hoa City, Dong Nai, Vietnam”

3. A: “Where’s Bill?”
B: “There’s a yellow VW outside Sue’s house”

4. Traffic garden to motorist parked on double yellow line: “Is this your car?”
Motorist (looking at the black clouds): “I think it’s going to rain.”

5. Customer in stationery shop: “Could you tell me where I could buy some felt-tip pens?”
Shop girl ( who knows she has felt-tip pens in stock): “ Yes, you could get some at
Woolworths, down the street.”

6. Rick: “Hey, Tom, coming to the wild party tonight?”

Tom: “My parents are visiting”

7. Mother: “Now tell me the truth. Who put the ferret in the bathtub?”
Son (who knows who did it): “Someone put it there.”
39
 8. A: “John has two PhDs”
B: “John has two PhDs but I don’t believe he has”

9. Husband: “How much did that new dress cost?”

Wife: “I know, why don’t we eat out for a change?”

10. Husband: “How much did that new dress cost?”

Wife: “A tiny fraction of my salary, though most probably a very high fraction of the
salary of the shop assistant who sold it to me.”

PRACTICE 30: Write down a possible implicature that can be drawn from the second
speaker’s response in each of the following conversations.
1. Mike: “Let’s try the new Arab restaurant round the corner.”
Sue: “I’m a vegetarian.”
Implicature:

2. Steve: “What happened to your flowers?”

Jane: “A dog got into the garden”

Implicature:

3. Mom: “Have you brushed your teeth and tidied your room?”

Son: “I’ve brushed my teeth.”

Implicature:
4. Jim: “My car’s broken down.”
Passerby: “There is a garage round the corner.”
Implicature:
5. Laura: “Who used all the printing paper?”
Tom: “I used some of it”
Implicature:
6. Carmen: “Did you buy the car?”
Maria: “it cost twice as much as I thought it was.”
Implicature:
7. Mary: “Have you seen my sweater?”
Mike: “There’s a sweater on the sofa.”
Implicature:

40
8. Father: “Has Betty gone to bed?”
Mother: “Her desk lamp is still on.”
Implicature:
9. Jane: “What is this examination in Semantics like?”
Nick: “It is so easy this time.”
Implicature:
10. Dave: “Do you go to swimming pool every day?”
Bob: “The salt water hurts my eyes.”
Implicature:
11. Jeff: “Do any of John’s daughters speak a foreign language?”
Ann: “Mary speaks French.”
Implicature:
12. Mark: “Do you like my new carpet?”
Ruth: “The wallpaper’s beautiful.”
Implicature:
13. Laura: ”So what do you think of Mark?”
Mary: “His flatmate’s a wonderful cook.”
Implicature:
14. John: "Darling, do you want to go out to the show tonight?"
Laura: "I'm feeling ill."
Implicature:
15. Bob: ”Will Sally be at the meeting this afternoon?”
Mary: ”Her car broke down.”
Implicature:
16. Jim: ”What on earth has happened to the roast beef?”
Jack: “The dog is looking very happy.”
Implicature:
17. Bill: ”What is John doing this evening?”
Josh: ”He is meeting a woman.”
Implicature:
18. Sue: ”Do you like Linguistics?”
41
 Joe: “Well, let’s just say I don’t jump for joy before class.”
Implicature:
19. Jennifer: ”Do you like Monica?”
Bill: “She’s the cream in my coffee.”
Implicature:
20. Mary: “Do you like ice-cream?”
John: “Do you know when Pluto was discovered?”
Implicature:

42