COMPRESSIBILITY AND CONSOLIDATION

When a soil is loaded, its volume decreases due to the rearrangement of the particles. If it is
assumed that both the solid particles and water are incompressible and the soil is fully saturated,
the change in the volume of the soil occur only if the water is forced out of the void. The
vertical displacement of the soil due to the load is called as the settlement. Since the rate at
which the water moves out of the void depends upon the permeability of the soil, it is time
dependent.

The rate of volume change is related with the permeability of the soil, the amount of
deformation per unit increase in the stress depends upon the property of the soil called as
compressibility.

The settlement of the soil directly depends upon the (i) compressibility of the soil, (ii)
magnitude of stress, (iii) thickness of the soil.

Total settlement = Initial settlement (Si) + Primary settlement (Sp) + Secondary settlement (Sc)

Initial Settlement: When a load is applied to a partially saturated soil, a decrease in the volume
occurs due to the expulsion and compression of the air in the voids. A small decrease in the
volume also takes place due to the compression of the solid particles. The reduction in the
volume immediately after the application of the load is known as initial settlement.

Primary settlement: After the initial settlement, further reduction in the volume occurs due to
the expulsion of the water from the void. When a saturated soil is subjected to a pressure,
initially all the applied pressure is taken up by water as an exec pore water pressure, as water
is almost incompressible as compared to the solid particles. A hydraulic gradient develops and
water starts flowing out and a decrease in the volume occurs. This decrease in the volume
depends upon the permeability of the soil and is time dependent. This reduction in the volume
is known as primary settlement. A significant amount of settlement takes place in this stage.

For a fine grained soil, primary settlement takes more time to complete as the soil possess a
lower value of hydraulic conductivity (and more time the water needs to escape from soil).

For a coarse grained soil, primary settlement takes less time to complete as the possess a higher
value of hydraulic conductivity (and the less time the water need to escape from the soil).

Secondary settlement: the secondary settlement is attributed to the plastic readjustment of the
solid particles due to the application of the load.

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CONSOLIDATION

The compression of a saturated soil mass under a steady static pressure is known as
consolidation. The consolidation of a soil is entirely due to the expulsion of the water from the
void of the soil.

Spring Analogy Theory for the Consolidation:

Valve is open Valve is closed

P P ∆P

P ∆P

10 cm 10 cm
6 cm

Case A Case B Case C

Case A
Consider a cylinder fitted with a piston and a spring and filled with water. Under the
equilibrium, when the valve is open, all the applied load, will be taken up by the spring.

If Pw is the load taken by the water and Ps is the load taken by the spring,
Pw + Ps = P

Case B

Now close the valve and applied an additional load of P kPa to the system. Since the valve is
closed, water cannot escape from the system and all the additional load will be taken only by
the water.

If ∆Pw is the load taken by the water and ∆Ps is the load shared by the spring of the additional
load ∆P,

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(Pw + ∆Pw )+ (Ps + ∆Ps ) = P + ∆P

Initially, when the valve is closed, the additional load taken by the spring will be Zero ( i.e.
∆Ps =0). All the additional load will be taken up by water.

So, ∆Pw = ∆P

In this stage, as the water will not be able to escape, the piston will remain in its position and
the total height will remain constant.

Case B

In this stage, the valve is gradually opened. As the valve is open now, the water will start to
escape from the cylinder and the spring will start to share some load and it will get compressed.
If ∆Pw’ and ∆Ps’ is the load shared by water and spring at any time ‘t’, then

∆Pw’ + ∆Ps’ = ∆P

As more and more water escapes, the load carried by spring increases and that of water
decreases. When, t = tf, the entire load will be taken up by spring. Thus;

∆Pw’ = 0 and ∆Ps’ = ∆P

In a soil system, the stress on the spring represents the Effective stress and the water represent
the Pore water pressure.

Difference between compaction and consolidation

Sl No Compaction Consolidation
1 It’s an instantaneous process It’s a time-dependent process
2 Carried out on unsaturated soil Takes place on saturated soil
3 Volume reduction takes place due to Volume reduction takes place due to
the expulsion of air expulsion of water
4 It’s an artificial process carried out It’s a natural process
to densify the soil

3
Consolidation Test in Laboratory:

60 mm
20 mm

4
Steps to perform the test:

The oedometer test is used to investigate the 1-D consolidation behaviour of fine-grained
soils. The different steps to carried out the test are;

i) Compact the soil to its maximum dry density at its optimum moisture content
ii) The sample will be compacted inside an oedoemter ring of 60 mm diameter and
20 mm thickness.
iii) The compacted sample (along with the ring) will be placed inside the pedometer
setup. Two porous stones and filter papers will be provided at both the ends of the
sample.
iv) The sample will then be submerged in water.
v) Load will be applied to the soil sample and the change in the thickness of the
sample will be measured at different time interval.
vi) Due to the application of the load the sample will be consolidated and its
thickness will be reduced.
vii) The load will be kept for a minimum period of 24 hours until the samples
consolidate completely.
viii) Further, an additional load will be applied to sample.
ix) Generally, loads in the sequence of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 kg/cm2 are
applied.

Various assumptions are made in a consolidation tests are;

• Load distribution-uniform
• Stress distribution (in different height)-the same
• No lateral deformation
• The area of the sample
section-unchangeable
• Solid soil-uncompressible

Determination of void ratio at various load increments:

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 Vv V − Vs V
Void ratio = e = = = −1
Vs Vs Vs
or , V = Vs (1 + e )
or , A.H = Vs (1 + e ) (i )
V = Initial volume of the soil = A.H ; A = Cross-sectional area of soil
H = Thickness of soil; Vs = Volume of solid
By partial differentaion of Eq (i), A. dH = Vs .de (ii )
From eq (1) and (2),
A.dh V . de ∆H ∆e
= s or , =
A.H Vs (1 + e ) H (1 + e )

∆H = Change in the
height and determined from the dial gauge reading
= LC x Change in dial gauge reading
LC = Least count of the dial gauge

Plotting void ratio- pressure plot:

Method to plot void ratio-pressure plot has been explained in the PPT file.

The effective stress σ’ and the corresponding void ratios e

at the end of consolidation are plotted on semi-logarithmic
graph.

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The general shape of the plot of deformation of the specimen against time for a given load
increment is shown below. From the plot, we can observe three distinct stages:

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Compression index (Cc): The compression index is defined as the slope of the linear portion
of the void ratio-effective stress plot.

2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
e1
2
1.8
1.6 e2
1.4
1.2 σ1 σ2
1
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Pressure (kg/cm2)

e1 − e2
Compression index (Cc ) =-
σ1
log
σ2
For undisturbed soil, Cc = 0.009 (Liquid limit-10)
For remoulded soil, Cc = 0.007 (Liquid limit -10)
Note: Liquid limit is expressed in terms of percentage

Co-efficient of compressibility (av): The coefficient of compressibility is defined as the

decrease in the void ratio per unit increase in the effective stress.

∆e e −e
Co-efficient of compressibility (a v ) = - =- 1 2
∆σ ' σ 1 '− σ 2 '

Co-efficient of volume change (mv): It is defined as the volumetric strain per unit increase
in the effective stress.
∆V
V where, ∆V = Change in the volume; V = Initial volume;
mv = −
∆σ ' ∆σ’ = Change in effective stress
∆V ∆H ∆e ∆H = Change in thickness, H = Initial thickness
= =
V H 1+ e
∆e
∆V
Hence, mv = − V = − 1 + e = av
∆σ ' ∆σ ' 1 + e

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Loading and un-loading plot:

If the load is removed at σ1’, the soil will take up

water and swell. The curve “cd” is obtained in
loading. This is known as expansion or swelling
curve.
If the specimen is allowed to re-load at “d” , the
recompression curve “dfg” will be obtained.

σ2’ σ1’

Normally consolidated and over consolidated soil: A normally consolidated soil is one
which had not been subjected to a pressure greater than the present existing pressure. A soil is
said to be over-consolidated if it had been subjected in the past to a pressure in excess of the
present pressure.
The soil in the portion “abc” is in normally consolidated condition. The curve in this range is
also called as virgin compression curve.
The soil in the range “df” represents the over-consolidated condition as the soil had been
previously subjected to a pressure σ1’ , which is greater than the pressure in the range “df”.
The maximum pressure to which an over-consolidated soil has been subjected in the past to the
present pressure is known as over consolidation ratio (OCR).

At “d” the OCR = σ2’ / σ1’

Pre-consolidation pressure: The maximum pressure to which an over consolidated soil had
been subjected in the past is known as pre-consolidation pressure (σc’). When a soil specimen
is taken from a natural deposit, the weight of the overlying material (over burden) is removed.
This cause an expansion of the soil due to the reduction in the pressure.
When the specimen is loaded in the consolidation test, the initial portion “AB” of the curve
will be obtained. AB is relatively flat. It is followed by a straight line with a steep slope which
indicates the normally consolidated soil. In the transition region, BC, the slope gradually
changes. The pre-consolidation pressure falls in this region.

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 A
B
E F
X

H
C

σ c’

Determination of pre-consolidation pressure: The pre-consolidation pressure is obtained

by the Casagrande’s method. The steps to determine the pre-consolidation pressure are;

1. Determine the point E where the radius of curvature is maximum.

2. Draw a horizonal line EF.
3. Draw a tangent EG to the curve at E.
4. Bisect the angle GEF at E and draw the bisector EH.
5. Produced back the straight line portion of the curve CD and determine the point of
intersection X.
6. Draw a vertical line from X to the X-axis and determine the pre-consolidation
pressure σc’.

Terzaghi’s Theory of Consolidation:

Terzaghi (1925) gave theory for the determination of the rate of consolidation of a saturated
soil mass subjected to a static, steady load. The theory is based on the following assumptions;

1. Soil is homogeneous and isotropic

2. Soil is fully saturated
3. The solid particles and water in the voids are incompressible. The consolidation occurs
due to the expulsion of the water from the void.
4. The hydraulic conductivity (k) is same throughout the soil and remains constant.
5. Darcy’s law is valid

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 6. Soil is laterally confined and the consolidation takes place only in axial direction.
7. The time lag in the consolidation is due entirely to low permeability of the soil.

∆σ’/γw at t = 0
∆σ
A B
D
i At any time “t”
Water table Sand

C E

z
H = 2d Clay

dz

Sand

Consider a layer of clay of thickness H (= 2d) is sandwiched between two layers of sands at
top and bottom. The water table is located at the top of the clay layer. A pressure of ∆σ
is applied to the soil.

Just after the application of pressure the whole pressure is taken up by water and hydrostatic
excess pressure of ∆σ/γw develops. At t = 0, just after the application of the load the excess
pressure ∆σ/γw is represented by the horizontal line AB.

Water starts escaping towards the upper and lower sand layers due to excess hydrostatic
pressure developed. The hydrostatic pressure at the top and bottom of the clay layer, indicated
by point C and E in the pressure diagram drops to zero. However, the excess hydrostatic
pressure at middle layer at D remain high. The curve indicating the excess hydrostatic pressure
is known as isochrones.

Let us consider the equilibrium of an element of the clay at a dept of “z” from top at time “t”.
the consolidation pressure ∆σ is partly carried by water and partly by solid particles as;

∆σ = ∆σ’ + u (1) where, ∆σ’ = Pressure carried by solid particles,

u = Excess hydrostatic pressure

The hydraulic gradient (i) at that depth is equal to the slope of the isochrone CDE at a horizontal
distance z from the point C in the pressure diagram,

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 ∂h ∂ ( u / γ w ) 1 ∂u
i= = = (2)
∂z ∂z γ w ∂z
Pressure difference (∆u) across the soil element is;
 ∂u  ∂u
∆u =  u + .dz  − u = .dz
 ∂z  ∂z
The unbalanced head across the thickness is given by,
∆u 1  ∂u 
∆h = = .dz
γw γ w  ∂z 
∆h 1 ∂u
The hydraulic gradient, i = =
dz γ w ∂z
From Darcy's law, the veleocity of flow at depth z is given by,
1 ∂u
v = k .i = k.
γ w ∂z
The velocity of flow at bottom of the element of thickness ∆z is,
∂v ∂  1 ∂u  k  ∂ 2u 
v + .dz = v +  k.  .dz = v +  2  .dz
∂z ∂z  γ w ∂z  γ w  ∂z 
∂v k  ∂ 2u 
or , =   (3)
∂z γ w  ∂z 2 
The discharge entering the element Qin is,
Qin = v ( ∆x.∆y ) , where, ∆x.∆y dimension of element in plan
 ∂v 
Qout =  v + dz  ( ∆x.∆y )
 ∂z 
Net discharge squeezed out of the element,
 ∂v   ∂v
∆Q = Qout − Qin =  v + dz  − v  . ( ∆x.∆y ) = .∆x.∆y.∆z (4)
 ∂z   ∂z
As the water is squeezed out, the effective stress increases and the volume of soil mass decreases.
∆V = -m v .Vo .∆σ '
Vo = Initial volume of soil mass = ∆x.∆y.∆z
∆σ = Increase in the effective stress
The decrease in volume of soil per unit time,
∂ ∂ ( ∆σ ' )
( ∆V ) = -mv . ( ∆x.∆y.∆z ) . (5)
∂t ∂t
As the decrease in volume of soil mass per unit time is equal to the volume of water squeezed
out per unit time,
∂v ∂ ( ∆σ ' )
( ∆x.∆y.∆z ) = -mv . ( ∆x.∆y.∆z ) .
∂z ∂t
∂v ∂ ( ∆σ ')
= -m v . (6)
∂z ∂t

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From eq (1), ∆σ ' = ∆σ − u
∂ ( ∆σ ') ∂ ( ∆σ ) ∂u
or , = −
∂t ∂t ∂t
For a given pressure increament, ∂ ( ∆σ ) = 0
∂ ( ∆σ ') ∂u
Hence, =−
∂t ∂t
∂v  ∂u   ∂u 
Replacing in eq. (6), = −mv .  −  = mv .   (7)
∂z  ∂t   ∂t 
Equating eq 3 and 7,
k  ∂ 2u   ∂u  k  ∂ 2u   ∂u 
  = m .
v   ; or ,  =
γ w  ∂z 2   ∂t  γ w mv  ∂z 2   ∂t 
 ∂ 2u   ∂u 
or , cv  2  =  
 ∂z   ∂t 
Where, cv = Coefficient of consolidation

Sand Sand

t1
t1 t=0
t3 t2
Clay
2d Clay t2

t=∞ t3
t=0 t=∞

Sand
ui Rock ui
Case 1. For Double drainage
Case 2. For Single drainage
(i.e. water can escape from both the end)
(i.e. water can escape from one end only)

Variation of pore water pressure with time

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 ui − ut ∆H t
Degree of consolidation = U = =
ut ∆H
ui = Intial excess hydrostatic pressure over entire depth
ut = Intial excess hydrostatic pressure after time 't'
∆H = Total settlement
∆H t = Settlement after time 't'

Average degree of consolidation (U) depends upon the non-dimensional time factor (Tv )
cv t
Tv =
d2
d = Drainage path = Maximum distance the water has to travel before reaching free drainage boundary
t = Time

π
For degree of consolidation less than 60% (U ≤ 60%): Tv = U2
4
For degree of consolidation greater than 60% (U>60%): Tv = 0.933 log (1 − U ) − 0.085

Computation of Settlement

i) Final settlement using co-efficient of volume change,

∆H = mv .H 0 .∆σ '
ii) Final settlement using void ratio,
∆e
∆H = H 0
1+ e
iii) Final settlement using compression index for normally consolidated soil,
Cc  σ '+ ∆σ ' 
∆H = .H 0 .log  
1+ e  σ' 
iv) Final settlement using re-compression index for over consolidated soil,
Cr  σ '+ ∆σ ' 
∆H = .H 0 .log  
1+ e  σ' 
Cr = Recompression index = Slope of the re-loading curve
The above equation is applicable when (σ '+ ∆σ ' ) is smaller than preconsolidation pressure
If the preconsolidation pressure (Pc ) is greater than σ ' but less than (σ '+ ∆σ ' ) , then the settlement will be,
Cr P  C  σ '+ ∆σ ' 
∆H = .H 0 .log  c  + c .H 0 .log  
1+ e  σ '  1+ e  Pc 

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