SusCit in Sweden - REVhela Mail - Compressed PDF

developing Sustainable
Cities in Sweden
About the booklet
This booklet has been developed within the Sida-funded ITP-programme:
»Towards Sustainable Development and Local Democracy through the SymbioCity
Approach« through the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions (salar),
SKL International and the Swedish International Centre for Democracy (icld).
The purpose of the booklet is to introduce the reader to Sweden and Swedish experiences
in the field of sustainable urban development, with special emphasis on regional and local
government levels.
Starting with a brief historical exposition of the development of the Swedish welfare
state and introducing democracy and national government in Sweden of today, the main
focus of the booklet is on sustainable planning from a local governance perspective. The
booklet also presents practical examples and case studies from different municipalities in
Sweden. These examples are often unique, and show the broad spectrum of approaches
and innovative solutions being applied across the country.
Editorial notes
manuscript Gunnar Andersson, Bengt Carlson, Sixten Larsson, Ordbildarna AB
graphic design and illustrations Viera Larsson, Ordbidarna AB
english editing John Roux, Ordbildarna AB
editorial support Anki Dellnäs, ICLD, and Paul Dixelius, Klas Groth, Lena Nilsson, SKL International
photos when not stated Gunnar Andersson, Bengt Carlsson, Sixten Larsson, Viera Larsson
cover photos Anders Berg, Vattenfall image bank, Sixten Larsson, SKL
© Copyright for the final product is shared by ICLD and SKL International, 2011
contact information
ICLD, Visby, Sweden

website www.icld.se
e -mail info@icld.se
phone +46 498 29 91 80
SKL International, Stockholm, Sweden

website www.sklinternational.se
e -mail info@sklinternational.se
phone +46 8 452 70 00
ISBN 978-91-633-9773-8
Contents
1. A country of democratic traditions 2

2. The Government system of Sweden 5
3. Strong local self-governance 9
– the basis for sustainable urban development
Växjö – the greenest city in Europe 15
continuedStrong local self-governance – 16
– the basis for sustainable urban development
göteborg – the harbour city 20

4. Public services at local and regional level 22
sundsvall – industrial city and regional centre 28

5. Financing of public services and development 30
6. Planning for a sustainable society 33
LINKÖPING–NORRKÖPING – integration for sustainable development 40

continued Planning for a sustainable society 41
7. Addressing climate change 47
STOCKHOLM – the accessible city 52

8. Dialogue, cooperation and participation – 54
joining forces for sustainable development
Malmö – from crisis to a model for sustainable development 58
9. Movements and initiatives influencing policies and attitudes 61
References
developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

1
1.
A Country of
Democratic Traditions
Basic facts on Sweden

Area 450 000 sq km (third
largest country in
Western Europe)
Population (2011) 9 416 000
Population density 21 inhabitants/sq km
Capital Stockholm
Language Swedish
Type of Government Constitutional
Monarchy, Parliamentary
Democracy
Head of State King Carl XVI Gustaf
Sundsvall Religion Lutheran (75%),
Muslim, Roman
Catholic, Orthodox,
Baptist, Jewish, Buddhist
GDP per capita (2010) 349 548 SEK
(approx. US $54 000)
Natural resources Zinc, iron ore, lead,
copper, silver, timber,
Stockholm uranium, hydropower
Industries Iron and steel, precision
Norrköping and electronic equip-
ment, armaments, wood
Göteborg pulp and paper prod-
ucts, processed foods,
Växjö motor vehicles, music
Labour force by occupation
Agriculture 2%, industry
Malmö 26%, services 72%
Life expectancy Women 83, men 79
2 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

a country of democratic traditions
Sweden is situated in the far north of Eu- The Swedish Welfare State
rope and is characterised by large forests, numer- The Swedish economy expanded rapidly during
ous lakes and very long coast lines. Traditionally, early 20th century, partly due to Sweden not
Swedes lived in small, dispersed rural settlements, being involved in World War I or II. From being
but today, close to 85% live in densely populated a poor agricultural country, Sweden became
towns and cities in central and southern Sweden. industrialised and urbanised.
The north is sparsely populated, but good com- In 1932, the Social Democratic Party gained
munications, infrastructure and transport systems power and governed until 1976. From 1932 to
connect all parts of the country. 1946 Per Albin Hansson was Prime Minister and
For such a large country, Sweden has a small under his leadership the ideal of the Swedish
population of only 9,4 million. Though tradition- Welfare State developed. Citizens were considered
ally ethnically homogenous, today 15% of the members of one family with common goals,
population are of foreign origin. who should support each other and work for the
Sweden is a constitutional monarchy with benefit of all. A service-oriented democracy de-
a parliamentary system of government. Public veloped, combining economic growth with high
administration is highly decentralized, with many taxation and comprehensive social insurance.
important responsibilities devolved to regional This Swedish model improved the well-being and
and local levels. supported the development of all citizens, and
was considered exemplary in Europe.
But since the 1970s the welfare state, chal-
Democratisation and lenged by financial crises and rising unemploy-
development of Sweden ment, has had to reduce public expenditure.
Certain elements of democracy in Sweden Government has been forced to adapt to increas-
originated before the Middle Ages, but modern ing competition, privatisation and deregulation
democratic government only started to devel- in global markets. Sweden still has one of the
oped in the 19th century. An important step that largest public sectors, as well as ‘competing’ with
contributed to strengthening citizens’ participa- Denmark in having the highest taxes in the world.
tion in public debate was the introduction of free Depending on ideology, some people want to re-
elementary education for all children in 1842. establish the old welfare state, whilst others want
From the mid 19th century, Swedes increas- a smaller, ‘cheaper’ and less-interventionist state.
ingly took part in popular movements such as the
workers’ movement, the temperance movement
and non-conformist churches. These organisa- A strong economy
tions introduced comprehensive adult education, Historically, Sweden’s industrial economy was
and fostered a democratic culture through meet- based on its ore deposits, large forests and hydro-
ings and protests. electric power, but today the focus has shifted to
At the end of the 19th century, there was a manufacturing of motor vehicles, electronic and
heated debate about whether workers and women precision equipment, ball bearings and power
were sufficiently educated to take part in public transmission products. However, raw materials
affairs and vote. Socialists and liberals argued that such as timber and metals still form an important
they were, while conservatives disagreed. Eventu- part of the economy.
ally the struggle for democratic rights succeeded, Only 10% of Sweden consists of farmland and
and the vote was extended first to all adult men, under 2% of the labour force works in agriculture.
and finally to women in 1919. The largest sector is services, but the well-
developed industrial sector remains an important
backbone of growth in the national economy.
Before 1850, Sweden was a very poor country

3
a country of democratic traditions
and over a period of about 70 years, almost a yy Massive investment in infrastructure, creating
third of the population migrated to the United jobs and boosting the economy
States and other countries. But then things yy Access to low-cost energy sources such as
changed, and from 1850 to 1970 Sweden was, hydropower
along with Japan, the fastest growing economy in yy An effective tax system, making large-scale
the world. Sweden still has one of the strongest public investment possible
economies internationally. This economic success yy Effective and non-corrupt public administra-
was due to tion ensured efficient use of public funds
yy Peace – Sweden has not been engaged in war yy Free university education and significant
since 1814 public investment in the research and devel-
yy Free public schooling since 1842, leading to opment.
high literacy rates
yy Abundant natural resources such as iron
ore and timber (over 50% of the country is
covered by forest)
ph
ot
o
Va
tte
nfa
ll
SCA image bank

photo
Sweden has gradually moved from having

an economy based solely on agriculture and
export of natural resources from forests and
mines, – to a multifaceted economy based on
new technologies and know-how.
Janne Eriksson
photo

2.
The Government
System of Sweden
Swedish Government Structure
EU Parliament
Government
Ministries Riksdag
CENTRAL LEVEL State

Agencies
REGIONAL County Regional County

LEVEL Administrative branches of Councils
Boards State Agencies
Local
LOCAL LEVEL branches of Municipalities
State Agencies
ELECTION TO
People of Sweden

5
the government system of sweden
yy The Freedom of the Press Act of 1949 guar-

All public power in Sweden proceeds antees citizens access to official documents, a
from the people. Swedish democracy principle first initiated in 1766.
is founded on the free formation of yy The Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expres-
opinion and on universal and equal sion of 1991 guarantees freedom of expression
suffrage. It shall be realised through in new media not covered by the Freedom
a representative and parliamentary of the Press Act, such as radio, tv, films and
policy and through local self-govern- cd-rom discs. It protects free dissemination of
ment. Public power shall be exercised information and prohibits censorship.
under the law. yy The Act of Succession of 1810 defines the
The Instrument of Government, chapter 1:1 order of the succession to the throne and the
appropriate upbringing and education of royal
heirs.
Sweden is governed by four basic laws
which are the equivalent of a Swedish Constitution
yy The Instrument of Government of 1974 defines Parliament and national
the organisation of, and relations between the government
legislature or Riksdag (parliament), executive Since 1969, Sweden has had a unicameral parlia-
or administrative government, and the judici- ment called the Riksdag, to which citizens elect
ary or courts. It also protects fundamental 349 members every fourth year, on the third
human rights. Sunday of September. The role of the Riksdag is to
photo Riksdagen
develop legislation and govern state finances and
the work of the executive.
The Riksdag elects a Prime Minister who forms

a Government and appoints ministers, as well
as heads of ministries. This gives the Prime
Minister of Sweden a very strong position. After
the election of 2010 there are 12 ministries and
24 ministers, out of which 11 are women. The
Government is accountable to the Riksdag and
to stay in power it has to be supported in deci-
sions by a majority of the Riksdag. To assist in
government work there are various Government
Offices, comprising the Prime Minister’s Office,
the Ministries and the Office for Administrative
Affairs. The Government Offices have about 4 800
employees out of which only 200 are politically
appointed posts.
Sometimes a specific Ministry is solely
responsible for a specific policy area. But when it
comes to policy areas related to sustainable de-
velopment those are often shared between several
Ministries. For example, see opposite page:
The Swedish parliament, the Riksdag, is situated in the

centre of Stockholm surrounded by water.

Policy area Responsible ministries

Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Health and Social
Housing and construction
Affairs, Ministry of Environment
Ministry of Employment, Ministry of Justice,
Democracy, gender equality and human rights Ministry of Rural Affairs, Ministry of Health and
Social Affairs, Ministry of Education
Rural development, livestock, and food Ministry of Rural Affairs
Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and
Communications, infrastructure, and ICT
Communications
Ministry of Enterprise, Energy and
Environment, energy, and climate
Communications, Ministry of Environment
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Justice,
Business, trade, and regional growth Ministry of Enterprise, Energy, and Communica-
tions, Ministry of Finance
Elections and political parties National election results 2010

In Sweden, elections are held every fourth
year for three levels of government – the Party Percentage Seats
Riksdag, the county or regional councils Social Democrats 30,66% 112
and municipal councils. In the 2010 national The Moderate Party 30,06% 107
elections there was an 84,6 % voter turnout.
The Green Party 7,34% 25
Every fifth year, Swedes elects their repre-
sentatives in the European Union parliament, The Liberal Party 7,06% 24
where Sweden presently has 18 of the 736 Centre Party 6,56% 23
seats. Sweden Democrats 5,70% 20
Christian Democrats 5,60% 19
The electoral system at all levels is based on
proportional representation in multi-seat Left Party 5,60% 19
constituencies. Voting is for parties, but since Other 1,43% –
1998, voters can also express preference for Total 100% 349
individual candidates. The Most of the eight
political parties represented in the Riksdag
today have been there since the 1920s, and
the different parties often have ties with Women’s representation in political
interest groups such as business, churches or assemblies
trade unions. In Sweden, women gained the right to vote
and be elected in 1919 after 35 years of
Since the election of 2006, Sweden has been debate, and voted for the first time in1921.
ruled by an alliance of four Centre-Right par- Today, Sweden has a very high proportion
ties - the Moderate Party, the Liberal Party, of women in political parties and elected
the Christian Democrats, and the Centre assemblies compared to most countries. The
Party. This coalition has ruled as a minority average proportion of women in parliaments
government since 2010, which means they is around 17%, while in the Swedish
need to win the support of other political Riksdag, 45% are women. Women make
parties in the Riksdag for proposals. up 42% of local councils and 48% of
county and regional councils.

7
Government implementing County Administrative Boards support municipal

agencies planning by providing
In Sweden there are about 350 central committees, yy advice and recommendations based on
boards, authorities and state companies related to comprehensive regional plans, policies and
different ministries. Government agencies in Swe- regulations regarding health and safety,
den are comparatively independent and responsible national interests, environmental standards
for their own work, but guided by government and matters involving several municipalities
appropriation letters. Government may not decide yy municipal planning requirements such as
how agencies apply laws or decide on matters inventories, and natural and cultural environ-
delegated to agencies. In many countries, ministers mental evaluations when planning land use
can intervene directly in the work of government and settlements
agencies, but in Sweden this is not allowed. yy advice and guidance on applying the Planning
State agencies are mandated to implement & Building and Environmental Acts, and
decisions and policies at different levels. Central gov- hearing objections to plans and appeals, which
ernment agencies are responsible for portfolios such can be taken further to the Land and Environ-
as higher education, agriculture, industry, defence, ment Courts.
justice, employment and development cooperation.
County Administrative Boards represent central
government at county or regional level. Local level Local and regional government
agencies include police stations, post offices, railway At local level, Sweden has 290 municipalities and
stations, and tax and unemployment offices. at the regional level, 20 county councils (three
Example of agencies that are important for are called regions – Västra Götaland, Skåne
urban development are the National Board of and Gotland). There is no hierarchy between
Housing, Building & Planning, the Swedish Energy municipalities and county councils – they merely
Agency, the Environment Protection Agency, the have different responsibilities. The only exception
Swedish Transport Administration and Swedish is Gotland, an island in the Baltic Sea, where
Transport Agency. the municipality is also responsible for county
council functions.
Municipalities and county councils or regions
County Administrative Boards are governed by directly elected councils, have the
Sweden is divided into counties and County right to levy income taxes on individuals, and are
Administrative Boards link to citizens and responsible for a broad range of services includ-
municipalities on the one hand, and to central ing pre-school education, childcare, elderly care,
government on the other. These boards ensure health services, social services, housing, water
that central policy is implemented effectively supply and local roads.
throughout the county, in areas such as Independent municipal planning is a key
yy Animal welfare, hunting and fishing aspect of local self-governance in Sweden, with
yy Environment and nature conservation each municipality deciding how land is used and
yy Ecologically sustainable agriculture and farm developed. Before the 1987 Planning and Build-
support ing Act, a central government agency approved
yy Traffic safety local plans. Now, municipal plans approved by
yy Protection of national and cultural local assemblies have legal status, and central
heritage government can only interfere to protect national
yy General elections interests, natural resources or state security, or
yy Security and crisis management to ensure proper stakeholder participation. Read
yy Housing more about municipalities and sustainable plan-
yy Gender equality. ning in chapter 3.

3.
strong local
self-governance
the basis for sustainable urban development
In Sweden all levels of government play an including public transport, though government
important role in promoting sustainable devel- remains ultimately responsible. Coordination and
opment, and their responsibilities are defined cooperation between actors is today a significant
in legislation. Municipalities have the main aspect of sustainable urban development.
responsibility for planning, development and Planning authorities also face new require-
service provision. Municipal self-governance has ments related to climate change mitigation,
a long history and was first formalised by a Local energy provision, regional cooperation and
Government Act in 1862. Today it is directly con- international agreements. While municipalities
nected to local economic and social conditions. still play the major role, wider development issues
Swedish municipalities have the power to tax influence planning and development, and require
citizens directly, and most only pay income taxes regional cooperation among municipalities and
at municipal and county council levels. county councils.
Sustainable urban development requires
holistic and integrated approaches and long-term
perspectives regarding environmental, social and
economic issues. A sustainable society requires
comprehensive planning and coordination by a
range of authorities and stakeholders, and coop-
eration in implementation and administration.
Sustainable urban development has ad-
ministrative, financial, technical, cultural and
institutional aspects, which are reflected in the
urban structures, transport models, infrastructure
systems and service provision. Sustainable urban
planning and development processes must also
be transparent and include wide stakeholder
participation.
Urban planning and implementation proc-
Malmö City
esses involve many actors at different levels of

government. This complexity has increased with
the widespread privatisation of various services
photo

9
strong local self-governance – the basis for sustainable urban development
The history of municipal planning of roads and lanes, that town authorities be given
in Sweden the right of expropriation, that settlements be
Towns and cities have developed over long peri- structured in blocks and that building permits
ods, and some were already established during were necessary.
medieval times. The physical structure of original
urban settlements was based on the economic and
social conditions that prevailed at the time, and Decentralisation and local
the natural resources available in the surrounding regulations
areas. Tradesmen and artisans in towns relied In the 18th century, many towns objected to royal
on the produce of farming, fishing, mining and decrees and demanded regulations related to local
forestry in the immediate vicinity. conditions. This resulted in greater decentralisa-
The control of urban settlement develop- tion and legislation that allowed local building
ment was initially a central government concern, regulation. Stockholm’s building regulations of 1725
but was gradually decentralised to become a became a guideline for other towns, and in 1734, a
municipal responsibility. Building and settlement new general law covering urban and rural build-
appearance was long considered important, with ing regulations included distances to property
legislation as early as the 13th century regulating boundaries, the width of streets and size of public
the width of streets and size of squares. areas and sanitation facilities.
The first urban planners were commissioned In 1750, central government first required
by rulers to improve the fortification of existing towns to submit plans and maps of buildings,
settlements or to build new towns at strategic streets and open spaces to the Royal Building
locations. Planners thus often had a military Authority for review and approval, or recommen-
background, and defence was a primary consid- dation of more convenient and safer layouts and
eration in urban design. building methods, with fire prevention remaining
Towards the end of the 17th century, central a key objective.
government established national regulations for
towns and cities, with a strong emphasis on fire
prevention. A commission proposed the width
Stadsbyggnadskontoret Göteborg
photos
Early plans and maps for towns were prepared to show the In Göteborg, the walls, moat and channels of the fortifi-
structure with streets and housing blocks, with little information cations are still visible elements that influence the urban
about the actual buildings. The city walls were an important fea- structure and functions in the city centre.
ture. In the 18th century Government required towns to submit
plans to facilitate fire fighting measures.

Early industrialisation Early municipal reforms

Industrialisation in the 19th century led to signifi- Local authorities in towns and rural areas had
cant urbanisation and drastic changes in urban promoted and established their position as
structures. Urban populations grew as industries independent entities in the 1800s. However, they
needed workers and migration was encouraged, still required central government approval of
and increased housing construction, artisan development plans, and financing for develop-
services and other businesses led to economic ment projects and maintenance in towns.
growth and wealth concentration. Differences between urban and rural areas
The character of urban environments and varying conditions in different regions were
changed as badly planned working class areas addressed by two new Local Government Acts in
with poor quality housing developed, with little 1863, dealing with cities/towns and rural areas
concern for the environmental impact or health respectively.
of inhabitants. Legislation adopted in1810 led 2 500 municipalities were formed, most based
to rampant land speculation, which accelerated on the old rural parishes, while urban municipali-
negative development trends. ties included ‘charted’ cities and market towns.
Burgeoning urban areas were characterised
by poor housing, unhygienic conditions, lack of
sanitary facilities and high fire risks. Government The birth of the modern planning
and local authorities noted the problems and took system
initiatives to address the problems and improve The chaos and confusion in building and plan-
housing, living conditions and social services for ning during the first half of the 19th century
the industrial workers. called for a new approach to urban development,
Inspired by urban development projects and government introduced important consti-
mainly in England, some industries established tutional reforms and administrative changes. In
community settlements that provided housing, 1874, a new Building Decree, was issued as a royal
health care and schools for employees. The ordinance, which heralded the birth of modern
benefit was a loyal labour force, though benefits building legislation by requiring towns to prepare
for workers were tied to employment and could and implement development plans.
thus easily be lost. The first Town Planning Act in 1907 strength-
ened the power of municipalities in relation to
property owners and included an interesting
provision for sharing the costs of implementa-
tion. This Act established municipal planning
monopoly in Sweden, which is considered to be
the cornerstone of Swedish urban planning and
development.
The Act of 1907 required municipal/town
councils to prepare plans for approval by central
Government, which could not, however, impose
changes, as municipalities were responsible for
implementation. This legislation was deficient in
various respects, and the need for binding regula-
tions led to a new Town Planning Act in 1931.
Jonsered is an example of an industrial establishment that

offered housing and community services for its employees.
What was once an area of workers basic accommodation
and modest living standards is now considered highly
valuable due to its cultural heritage status.

11
Strengthening municipalities New planning instruments resulting from this

The Town Planning Act of 1931 increased munici- legislation included General Plans for towns and
pal powers, but control of new settlements and settlements, and Regional Plans for areas includ-
location of development in unsuitable locations ing a number of municipalities. General Plans
was limited. Development in areas outside urban provided the strategic long-term perspective,
boundaries occurred frequently. while detailed town plans retained their legally
In the 1940s, socially oriented urban develop- binding status. The time horizons varied and were
ment and public housing were strongly advocated determined by municipalities.
as a component of the welfare state, to address The Government Commission that assessed
the housing shortage and the poor quality of the the social aspects of housing existed 1933–47.
housing stock. This resulted in a new Building It was significantly influenced by the research
Act and a Building Decree in 1947. The shortage of undertaken by Alva and Gunnar Myrdal. The rec-
housing and the poor quality of existing housing ommendations of the commission promoted the
was a major concern. The political ambition to establishment of municipal housing companies,
build a welfare state covered improved housing subsidies housing, and subsidized housing loans.
and the extension of social services.
The new legislation gave municipalities the
authority to determine where, when and how A new approach to planning
urban development occurred. The Building Act Rapid economic and urban population growth in
required that urban development be based on an the 1950s and 60s increased the housing shortage
approved plan, and the Building Decree required and raised issues that affected both municipal
that building permits be refused for any develop- administration and planning approaches. Private
ment not consistent with the approved plan. The sector construction could not meet the demand
Building Act strengthened the municipal plan- and rental-housing costs were exorbitant. Grow-
ning monopoly and was a step towards further ing urban areas required large-scale investment in
decentralisation. infrastructure and public transport, particularly
in cities.
The social
aspect of hous-
ing provision
gained increas-
ing importance
in 1940s and
1950s with im-
proved stand-
ards and greater
attention to the
living environ-
ment as a result.
Baronbackarna
in Örebro is
an area that
is well-known
for pioneering
urban design
and high qual-
ity housing.
The emphasis on qualitative and

functional housing was to a certain
degree a result of the studies car-
ried out by a research institution
Örebro stadsarkiv
(Hemmens forskningsinstitut/Bygg-
forskningsrådet). The recommenda-
tions entailed suitable design for
kitchens and bathrooms, furnish-
ing of living space and minimum
measurements for various activities
photos
and functions.

The industrial sector went through a period of The main features of the
National Physical Plan
restructuring and large industrial complexes – guiding natural resources
were planned in external locations near cities and utilisation. The map was
included in the Environmental
towns. The demand for labour resulted in people Protection Act and Natural
Resources Act.
migrating from remote areas to cities. Central
government promoted economic growth and Mountainous and
supported industrial development and considered wilderness areas
it important to secure access to natural resources,
protecting potential assets, reserving strategic loca-
Areas suitable for the
tions for major investments, and providing energy establishment of major
industries
for large industries and urban development.
An emerging awareness of the impact of pol-
lution increasingly made protection of all aspects
of the environment a key planning considera-
tion. The green areas, natural parks, clean air
Highly utilised coastal
and agricultural land were aspects that gained areas, where location of
prominence in terms of planning. industries with harmful
impact on the environ-
However, municipal urban planning instrument should be prohib-
ments proved inadequate to deal with the com- ited
plexity of issues. General Plans dealt mainly with Sensitive coastal areas
land use, detailed planning focused on immediate that should not be ex-
ploited
needs, plan preparation and revision took too
long, and implementation was often hindered by
plans lacking legality. Smaller municipalities also
lacked capacity and expertise, and struggled to
keep pace with development. planning and the protection of environmental
Central government addressed these issues by resources. Environmental concerns resulted in the
reviewing planning instruments and administra- 1969 Environmental Protection Act, which laid the
tive and legal provisions. A new national planning foundation for present-day environmental laws
authority was formed in 1967 (Planverket), respon- and policies.
sible for planning and building policies, natural Housing remained a major issue for munici-
resource use and reviewing municipal planning. palities, and demand led to the central govern-
One of its major projects was the National ment Million Houses Programme, which financed
Physical Plan, which identified attractive geo- increased municipal housing construction. From
graphical areas, important natural resources and the 1940s, municipal housing companies were
potential assets. It identified major rivers need- established to enhance implementation capacity
ing protection, where new hydropower stations and provide rental housing to address shortages.
should be permitted, which coastal areas should In the early 1970’s, government commissioned
remain unexploited and where major industries, a lengthy review of planning legislation, which re-
harbours and power stations should be located. sulted in the Planning and Building Acts of 1987 and
Although the National Physical Plan did which is the basis for urban planning today. The
not become a formal planning instrument, its act was recently replaced by a new Planning and
recommendation influenced new legislation Building Act in 2011 (see chapter 6). The municipal
regarding development planning and the use of planning function was strengthened, with Building
natural resources. Restrictions on urban sprawl Departments headed by Town Architects becoming
and on development of leisure houses in coastal Planning Departments headed by Town Planners.
areas have had a significant impact on local Municipal planning assessments, specific theme

13
photo Stockholm Stadsmuseum

The Million Houses Programme provided for and financed housing The poor quality of the built environment in many centrally
construction on a large scale to overcome the housing shortage. This located areas combined with the growth of the business
resulted in development in peripheral locations and on land that was sector lead to drastic redevelopment of centres and inner
owned by the municipality. While providing adequate apartments cities, with demolishing of historical and culturally valuable
with good technical quality, there were serious setbacks in urban buildings and urban structures. The widespread protests
design standards and the quality of the living environment. against municipal planning marked a new trend in urban
planning.
analysis, new types of plans for parts of municipali- increasing share of the public sector. The popula-
ties and other planning tools evolved within the tion in some of the municipalities had decreased
formal planning framework. drastically over time. In 1943 a Municipal
Increased municipal responsibility for Demarcation Committee was established with the
development planning and service provision also objectives to reduce the number of municipali-
required administrative reforms. Rapid urban de- ties and to create units with sufficient financial
velopment and changes in the urban environment resources to provide adequate services (before
led to further legislative reforms to incorporate 1943 there were ± 500 municipalities with fewer
issues related to the environment, development than 500 inhabitants!).
challenges, international cooperation and globali- The first reform, completed in 1952, resulted
zation. The new approaches required increasing in 1080 municipalities. Rural municipalities were
coordination, cooperation and integration of merged to form larger units, while the number
institutions, frameworks and issues. of cities and market towns increased slightly.
However, there are still substantial discrepancies
between rural and urban municipal administra-
Municipal administrative reform tive capacity.
Swedish public administration is decentralised, with Legislative reforms in the 1960s included a
local municipalities largely responsible for planning, review of the Local Government Act and introduc-
development and service provision. The functions tion of the central-place principle, or combined
of the three levels of public administration (state, urban-rural municipalities with towns as their
county councils/regions and municipalities) are centres. By 1971, there were 282 municipalities.
defined by the Local Government Act of 1991, which, The objective was to create municipalities
together with the Planning and Building Act of 1987 with a viable economy and tax base, and the
gave municipalities a strong mandate in terms of capacity to provide adequate social and infra-
urban planning and development. structural services. The reform was completed by
Municipalities now differ greatly in size and 1974, and there are now 290 municipalities, which
character from the 2 500 city, market town and vary in size and number of inhabitants, from 850
rural municipalities delineated in 1863. Munici- 000 in Stockholm to rural municipalities with
pal functions have been extended covering an ± 2000 inhabitants.

VÄXJÖ – the greenest city in europe
VÄXJÖ
VÄXJÖ has
existed as a
settlement for
more than 1000
years, and the first
church in Sweden
was built here.
Växjö became a
bishopric in 1170
and a charted city in 1342. Today, it is the ad-
ministrative centre of Kronoberg County and a
focal point in an industrious region known for
its glassworks, furniture and new university. Now you can swim and fish in Växjö’s lakes that were once too polluted.
photos Mats Samuelsson
contacts Maria Arvidsson, (Urban Planner), Kristina Thorvaldsson, (Acting Chief Planner), Växjö Municipality Council
Växjö has 83 000 inhabitants and 7000 able development. It encourages local, Plan. These are closely linked to the Envi-
enterprises of different types and sizes. ecological food production and reduc- ronmental Programme and incorporate
It is a small city, but with great potential tion, recycling and reuse. Waste material the environmental objectives.
and ambitions in terms of sustainability will be a resource in terms of energy and
and protecting the green environment. biogas production. Results
Växjö’s ambitious environmental pro-
Växjö’s environmental profile • Our Nature gramme and targets won it the Sustain-
Växjö has been a pioneer in emphasising Nature in and around Växjö is a major able Energy Europe Award in 2007, the
the environment in planning and devel- asset that needs care and protection. The National Energy Globe in 2009, and 3rd
opment. Its long-standing commitment aim is to protect and improve the envi- place in the Swedish Society for Nature
to Local Agenda 21 includes significant ronment in terms of clean water, fresh Conservation Climate Ranking in 2010. A
renewable energy sources. Its Environ- air and natural and cultural diversity. BBC report in 2007 identified Växjö as the
mental Programme, adopted in 2006 and Access to green areas, parks and lakes Greenest City in Europe.
renewed in 2010 includes objectives that is facilitated, and natural resources are
go far beyond the National Environmen- protected by minimising pollution and
tal Objectives. Key focus area are harmful emissions.
• Living Life
• Our Nature • Fossil Fuel Free Växjö
• Fossil Fuel Free Växjö. The reduction of greenhouse gas emis-
sions mitigates climate change and the
In each area, there are indicators and ultimate targets include zero fossil fuel
targets, and achievements are assessed use, energy-efficient housing, and public
annually. The programme involves coop- transport using only renewable energy.
eration with county/regional authorities This means changing consumption pat-
and associations. Participatory approach- terns and encouraging alternative modes
es encourage inhabitants to take part of transport such as cycling.
in debates, stimulated by information
campaigns on Fossil Fuels, Climate-Smart Planning for sustainability
Living, City Cycling, and Energy. In addition to Växjö’s Environmental
Programme and Policy, important
• Living Life sustainable planning and development
Living Life refers to consumption patterns documents include the Comprehensive
and encourages inhabitants to live and Plan, Transport Strategy, Energy plan,
act in ways that contribute to sustain- Green Structure Plan and Cycle Structure »Passive« energy houses at Välle Broar.

15
Support for strong local Municipal councils appoint an Executive Board

governance and other boards and committees. Parties repre-
In general there is a large consensus in Sweden sented in council have a proportionate number
about the value of greater scope for local initiative of seats in boards and committees, which prepare
and local governance. This notion is particularly proposals to council, supported by technical and
strong among municipalities and counties, and administrative staff.
with stakeholders such as Swedish Association of Committees are responsible for areas such
Local Authorities and Regions (salar). Strong as planning and building, property development,
local self-governance is supported by both environment, traffic and transport, public open
democratic and efficiency values. space and parks, education, health, social services
and infrastructure service. The Local Government
Democratic values – Local self-governance Act requires a minimum of three committees
enables greater responsiveness to citizens’ needs. in addition to Executive Board, but municipali-
There is also greater accountability, as people ties can decide the number of committees and
know who is responsible for decisions, and closer combination of areas.
proximity to decision-making processes enables Urban planning and housing is mostly under
greater public participation. an urban planning committee, often combined
with environmental affairs. The move towards
Efficiency values – Local self-governance is more more integrated political and administrative
cost-efficient than a centralised hierarchy of state structures and integration of service areas is based
organisations. Municipalities address new chal- on the interrelation between urban development,
lenges and solve problems in innovative, effective social services, economic development, environ-
and efficient ways, and cooperate with each other mental issues and infrastructure, and the require-
at county level. Municipalities also compete to ments of planning, building and environmental
attract businesses and taxpayers, which has lead legislation.
to better performance.
There are three overall models of municipal
organisation
Political and administrative yy The sectorial model in which committees are
principles responsible for particular services.
Planning and development are political processes, yy The territorial model, which organises
in that elected leaders are ultimately responsible. committees and administrative offices on a
Municipalities are obliged to serve the public and geographic basis. Municipalities using this
balance individual and public benefits in deciding model have district committees or neighbour-
on urban planning and projects, and in other hood councils.
respects. yy The functional model, often referred to
Local government elections coincide with as the purchaser/provider model, which has
national and county elections and political parties become more prevalent with the privatisa-
that obtain sufficient votes govern municipal and tion of service provision. The procurement
county councils, and in Parliament. The number function is separated from the administrative
of municipal councillors varies, depending on functions, and committees contract services
the size of municipalities, from 31 to 101. Mu- from the municipal administration or outside
nicipal councils meet 6 to ten times per year and contractors.
have considerable freedom to make decisions,
including on procedures and the structure of the Some cities have established sub-structures based
municipal administration, provided it meets basic on suburbs or other areas, to facilitate public
principles and criteria. participation and enhance service provision

efficiency. Municipalities decide what functions Democratic decision-making

are placed at suburban level, e.g. social service, The Local Government Act defines municipal
education and infrastructure maintenance. Most responsibilities and requires democratic decision-
municipalities today combine sectorial, territorial making processes in which citizens are informed
and functional structures. and participate directly, as well as voting for local
councillors. The main principles of municipal
ICIP
ALITY
The sectorial governance include
UN
M model yy The decision must be of general public interest
for the municipality
yy The decision must have a relate to the area or
Committee Committee Committee
to the inhabitants of the municipality
1 2 3 yy All members of the municipality must be
treated equally
Committee
4 yy The decision must be made in due legal order,
according to the regulations in the Local
Government Act
LITY The territorial yy The decision cannot have retroactive effect of
IPA model
IC UN
b-M ICIPA
su disadvantage to the members
N
MU
LIT
yy A decision cannot be in conflict with laws or

Y
UNICIP
b-M A
su other statutes
LIT
yy A decision must be concerned with non-

Y
speculative activities and any fees that are

levied cannot be profit-making
yy The municipality is allowed to promote and
support businesses through general efforts
ICIPALITY The functional that businesses can utilise on equal terms.
UN model
M
Direct support to individual companies is only
allowed if there are special reasons
Service yy The municipality is allowed to carry out public
provider
2 non-profit activities in the public interest,
Service such as electricity and water supply, sewage
provider
1 Service treatment, refuse disposal, bus traffic, rental
provider
3 housing.
The models for municipal admin-
istrative systems are theoretical
abstractions. Most municipalities
will combine the sectorial and
functional model. Larger mu-
nicipalities with administrative
sub-areas sometimes combine
all three models. The territorial
model may be used for certain
limited number of administrative
aspects.
Decision-making in municipali-
ties must have the support of the
inhabitants and participatory
approaches are necessary to
achieve involvement and accept-
ance. Particular attention is paid
SKL
to encouraging young people to

photo
participate.

17
How municipalities deal with their responsi- Many municipalities cooperate with their neigh-
bilities impacts directly on the everyday life of bours via municipal associations on matters
residents and long-term sustainable development, such as water supply, energy provision and waste
which requires greater cooperation and coordina- management. The private sector has become
tion between sectors and functions, and with increasingly involved in providing public services,
other levels of government. though municipalities retain overall responsibility.
Tasks and responsibilities assigned

to municipalities
Municipalities are legally responsible for
yy Social services, including child care,
care of the elderly, and social security
benefits
yy Pre-, primary and secondary schooling,
which are all free
yy Swedish language training for
immigrants
yy Libraries
yy Matters related to public building
projects
yy Health and environmental care
yy Sanitation and waste disposal
yy Rescue services
yy Water and sewerage
yy Public order and safety
yy Physical planning
yy Crisis management
Municipalities may take responsibility for

yy Youth and recreation services
yy Cultural activities
yy Housing
yy Energy
yy Trade and industry
yy Employment initiatives.
Tasks and responsibilities of county

councils/regions
The main responsibility assigned to county
councils/region is medical healthcare.
Other tasks that are mainly handled at
regional level include public transport and
regional development.
SKL
See more in chapter 4.

photos

Integrated approaches to
The legal framework of local and municipal organisation
regional government The way in which municipalities organise their
Since 1974, local self-government is a institutions for planning and development is
principle in the Swedish Constitution (the
essential to achieve efficiency and promote
Instrument of Government). Local authori-
sustainability. Planning is essentially a political
ties are independent bodies with the power
to tax residents and make decisions within matter and Executive Boards need to oversee
limits specified in the Local Government the integration and coordination of the overall
Act of 1991. municipal vision, strategy and comprehensive
plan, as the basis for sectorial plans.
Apart from legislated functions, munici- Municipalities try to achieve broad political
palities and county councils/regions may support for overall development plans, which
attend to matters of general concern. The
councils review and approve at least once during
Local Government Act regulates
yy demarcation of municipalities and
an election cycle. This creates greater awareness
county councils among politicians regarding environmental,
yy the powers of municipalities and social and economic sustainability and inter-
county councils relationship of different aspects. Municipal
yy election of representatives officials prepare plans, programmes and budgets
yy assemblies and committees to achieve goals and objectives with specific
yy co-determination procedures
performance indicators.
yy financial administration and audits
The general trend concerning administrative
yy assessment by courts of the legality of
local government decisions. structures is to merge functions to form fewer
committees and supporting offices with broader
Municipal and county council/region func- responsibilities and competencies. Planning,
tions are otherwise regulated by legislation building, housing and environmental affairs are
such as the Social Services Act of 2001, generally combined. Some larger cities have a
the Health and Medical Services Act of more diversified administrative structure with
1982, the Environment Code of 1998) the
coordinating groups or reference groups, but in
Planning and Building Act of 2011 and
most municipalities there is increasing functional
the Education Act of 1985, and related
ordinances or regulations. Municipalities integration at both administrative and political
can make local regulations regarding traffic levels.
and parking control, refuse collection, local
public order and other service issues.
Urban Vision
Sundsvall
2007–2037
Sustainable development of our society requires

greater awareness and knowledge among people.
Presentation of issues in a concrete way, using
visual material, such as information exhibitions
Malmö City
and information brochures, will assist the debate,

increase awareness and improve understanding
of the requirements. A sustainable society is built
on participatory, knowledgeable and democratic
photo
decision making.

19
Göteborg – the harbour city
Göteborg
Göteborg, with a population of almost 500 000, is the
second largest city in Sweden. The city was established in
1621 on the west coast at the mouth of the river Göta Älv.
Göteborg has a maritime character due to the historical
importance of the harbour, ship building and sea freight
business. The industrial sector is still of great importance,
and includes companies such as Volvo and SKF. The
economy is nowadays more diverse, with the increasing
importance of academic education and research, environ-
mental technology, IT and finance.
The »Klippan reserve« is a cultural heritage site

that is closely linked to, and overlooks the har-
bour and the sea. It has a unique and dynamic
environment, enlivened by the rehabilitation of
historical buildings and sensitive infilling.
photos Stadsbyggnadskontoret Göteborg
INTERVIEWS Hans Ander (Urban Planner), Ulf Moback (Acting Chief Planner), City Planning Office
Policies and Strategies for in the city and region to promote eco- need regarding social sustainability in
Sustainable Planning nomic development. Another challenge Göteborg is to address the social vulner-
There is a coherent policy basis guiding for the Göteborg municipality is the ability of children and other disadvan-
planning and development of the city, need to redevelop the waterfront areas taged groups. Being a coastal town,
based on the overall Vision for the Västra and upgrade larger suburbs. A major protection against rising sea levels in
Götaland Regional Council and comple- combination with other climate change
mented by the Sustainable Growth Strat- effects are concrete environmental con-
egy for Göteborg Region. The common cerns in sustainable planning.
understanding and agreement between
the different levels of government and The Comprehensive Plan 2009
involvement of neighbouring municipal- The 2009 Comprehensive Plan empha-
ities regarding the vision, strategies and sises regional and municipal cooperation
objectives is an important achievement far more than earlier plans. Based on the
in terms of institutional integration. long planning experience the process
has evolved and is now established as
The Sustainable Growth Strategy for a tool to promote sustainable develop-
the Göteborg Regional Association of ment. Regional and internal coordina-
Municipalities is based on the following tion and consultation processes have
elements: also improved. The comprehensive plan-
• Continued population growth with a ning core-group and reference group
balanced regional development have a wide representation to facilitate
• Improve quality of the living environ- the acceptance of the final proposals.
ment and business opportunities The plan includes thirteen strategic
• Create a regional structure that is sus- Regional Structure issues for which objectives and strate-
tainable in the long-term perspective The Göteborg Regional Association of gies are identified, requiring attention
• Develop long-term sustainable infra- Municipalities was formed in 2002 to enable
constructive dialogue around regional issues
from specific administrative units. The
structure including convenient and between member municipalities and to arrive objectives include environmental, social,
comfortable public transport systems at a common vision of sustainable develop- economic and cultural aspects. The fol-
• Improve the cooperation between ment. The regional structure that forms the lowing development aspects make up
stakeholders. basis for the Göteborg Comprehensive Plan the content of the comprehensive plan.
is an outcome of the regional cooperation.
The illustration above shows the connection • Economy
Major challenges in the growth strategy between regional centres, as nodes for devel- • Natural and built environment
include improvement of public transport opment along major public transport routes. • Social planning, safety and security

• Social impact assessments focused on Protection of cultural
children’s well-being heritage areas and
historical sections
• Public transport
The Comprehensive
• Attractive and sustainable housing Plan proposes protec-
• Climate change adaptation tion through conser-
• Cultural heritage vation regulations.
More active use of
valuable housing areas
Monitoring and review and cultural buildings
The Planning Office undertakes an annu- is promoted through
al review that assesses the way in which selective infilling and
each strategic issue have been addressed rehabilitation.
and what has been achieved. Annual
budgets include provisions for funding
sustainability strategies in the municipal
vision and comprehensive plan.
The municipal committees and boards The Teacher Training College combines
rehabilitation and extension.
are assessed in terms of their achieve-
ments of the overall goals and objectives.
Specific objectives in annual budgets
will be given special attention in the
review. In 2011, the emphasis is on
children’s welfare, and other plans and
development projects will be assessed
with this issue in mind.
New aspects of development

Vast industrial and storage areas and
wholesale facilities require changes.
Some of these areas have attractive
locations e.g. sections of the old har-
bour. Less attractive areas will demand
considerable planning and investment
• project – Norra Älvstranden
to transform them into
Multi-functional redevelopment at the waterfront with an emphasis on passive
more diverse and
energy provision, improved insulation and energy saving appliances. This mixed
attractive urban
development includes housing, business, academic education and research.
areas. Heating Sy
stems
ithout
Houses w e houses
in Gˆ teb
org
ergy terrac
20 low en • project– Lindås
Townhouses, built for energy efficiency and reduced greenhouse gas
emissions, have heating systems based on passive energy, solar power
and heat exchanger. project manager Hans Eek, EFEM arkitektkontor,
Göteborg, www.efemarkitektkontor.se
Climate change
adaptation for a
resilient society
The consequences of climate
change include increasing risks for flooding,
torrential storms and higher sea levels. In
Göteborg specific studies are undertaken to
predict likely rises in sea levels. The recom-
mendations deal with restrictions to develop-
ment in certain areas, protective measures
for key infrastructure services, construction of
protective barriers and restrictions on devel-
opment situated less than 3m above sea level.

21
4.
Public services at local
and regional level
Sweden has a well-developed system of responsible for higher education. About 10% of
publicly funded services. Central government students in primary and secondary schools and
manages services such as police, social insurance 17% in upper-secondary schools attend private
and employment offices, but local and regional schools, also funded by municipalities.
government provide most other services. Since Municipalities must provide childcare and
1990, public services have increasingly been pre-schools for all children whose parents’ work or
privatised and provided by contractors, though study. In 2008, 85% of all children between one and
municipalities and county councils/regions five were in pre-schools or family day-care homes.
remain accountable for service provision and
quality.
This chapter describes the main services that
require integrated planning by municipalities and
country councils/regions committed to sustain-
able development.
Education and childcare services

Swedish municipalities are responsible for
primary and secondary education, including
yy Childcare and preschools for the 1–6 age
group
yy Nine-year compulsory schools for the 7–16 age
group
yy Three-year optional upper secondary schools
SKL
yy Language training for new immigrants

photo
Responsibility of state,
county council
yy Vocational and adult education Responsibility of municipal-
yy Education for persons with special needs. ity, county council
Responsibility of University and other

municipality higher education
Voluntary upper
All public school education is free, while pre- Responsibility of
secondary school
Compulsory 9-year
schools are 90% subsidized. Upper secondary municipality
Preschool child
primary/secondary school
care
school is not compulsory, but most students
continue at this level. Central government is
AGE 6/7 15/16 18/19

public services at local and regional level
Social services for vulnerable groups Culture

Vulnerable individuals are entitled to municipal so- Municipalities are responsible for more than 1 500
cial assistance and economic support for everyday public libraries and nearly 100 museums, in addi-
costs, e.g. treatment programmes for alcoholics and tion to the many museums financed and managed
other addicted people, family and youth counsel- at national level. Most municipalities support
ling, and care for abused women. In special cases, local theatres and music groups, and county
measures can be taken without the individual’s councils/regions also sponsor county theatres,
consent, e.g. care of children and young people and libraries, orchestras, and museums.
care of adult drug and alcohol abusers. County cultural programmes are increasingly
The social service affecting most people is conducted in cooperation with municipalities.
economic assistance. In 2007, almost 380 000 Sweden has a national policy to provide for
adults and children received support at some time cultural needs throughout the country. Theatre
during the year, at a total cost of SEK 8,9 billion. in Sweden has long enjoyed substantial public
financial support. There are three national
Elderly care theatres, 35 regional and municipal theatres and
The elderly in Sweden constitute a growing over 100 independent theatre groups and produc-
percentage of the population, of which 18% has tion companies, of which about 70 receive project
reached the retirement age of 65 (expected to funding from central or local government.
grow to 23% by 2030). Though the elderly in A special feature of Sweden, and a reason for
Sweden are comparatively healthy, there is still a it being the third biggest exporter of music after
great need for medical and elderly care. the usa and uk, is the Kommunala Musikskolan
Sweden has a well-developed system for care of – the Municipal Music School. All but seven of
the aged, and invests 2,8% of its gdp in this sector. Sweden’s 290 municipalities support musical or
Municipalities provide extensive services like cultural schools where young people learn music
‘home-help’, enabling people to live on their own and arts such as dance or drama. Over 375 000
as long as possible. There are senior citizen houses students participate in these activities annually.
Rober Ekengren/ekengren.se
photo
Senior citizens form an increasing proportion of the popula-

Dansens Hus
tion. In a couple of decades almost 25% of the population

will be 65 years of age and older. Many will be really old and
require a lot of support, a fact that must be part of the plan-
ning for a sustainable society.
photo
and group homes, to which old people can move

when they so wish. Municipalities also provide Dance theatre is a popular and flourishing form of
art. In Stockholm, dance has its own theatre, the
most health-care for the elderly at service centres or House of Dance.
at home, though some contract services to private
companies, churches, or civil society organisations.

23
Water and sewage

Sweden has an abundance of water, with almost Cooperating on water
100 000 lakes accounting for 9% of the total and sewage management
area of the country, plus numerous rivers and A recent example of jointly managed water
and sewage services is in the south-west
streams that supply water for drinking and other
of Sweden, where from January 2011 the
purposes. Water is so abundant that only 0,5%
municipalities of Halmstad and Laholm
of the available resource is extracted for use. For merged their operations under a common
example, Stockholm uses only 3% of the average committee with elected representatives
outflow from the third largest lake in the country. from both municipalities. This committee is
responsible for the management, opera-
tion and maintenance of water and sewage
Water consumption in Sweden systems in both municipalities. The merger
The industrial sector uses over 2/3 of water aims to improve water supply security and
consumed in Sweden. Usage differs greatly customer service by coordinating invest-
among municipalities, with the highest ments.
consumption in coastal municipalities in
Northern Sweden, where heavy industries All operational staff are now employed
are mostly located. by the technical affairs department of
Halmstad Municipality, and about 100 mil-
Households consume about 20% of water, lion SEK will be invested annually over a
and the average Swede uses about number of years to link the two systems
165 litres per day on and build new pipe networks.
– personal hygiene (55 litres)
– flushing toilets (30 litres)
– washing dishes (30 litres)
– laundry (40 litres) and Waste management
– cooking and drinking (10 litres). Waste or refuse management is a key municipal
responsibility for maintaining a sustainable envi-
Water heating ronment, and is based on five principles – waste
accounts for about prevention, reuse, recycling, recovery (e.g. energy
20% of household recovery) and safe disposal.
energy costs.
Previously, much of the waste collected
was dumped in large landfills, but since 1990,
Affordable energy is an important

factor in economic development.
Karlstad Energi AB, a municipal-
Water and sewage services are mostly provided owned company, turns waste into
by municipalities, which have over 2000 public district heating and electricity – a
business with nearly 50 000
water works and an equal number of sewage customers and a turnover of
1,1 billion SEK.
plants. Sewage is often used to produce energy.
Municipalities or municipal companies run
plants that provide customers with water and
sewage services, financed by locally determined
service charges that cover capital and running
costs. Swedish legislation prohibits profits from
water services. Neighbouring municipalities often
cooperate by forming jointly owned water, sewage
and waste management companies.

municipalities have improved waste management Energy

practices, to contribute to climate change mitiga- The Law on Energy Planning (1977) requires that
tion. Waste is now seen as a resource that can each municipality have a plan for the supply,
replace fossil fuels in providing heating and elec- distribution and use of energy. An amendment
tricity. Organic waste can generate biogas through in 1999 requires that the plan include an analysis
anaerobic digestion, which can be used for vehicle of how municipal energy operations affect the
fuel, and digestate which is an excellent nutrient, environment, public health, land management,
rich in nitrates and phosphates. Organic waste water and other resources.
can also be turned into compost. Swedish municipalities mostly supply energy
In 2009, 20 municipalities had anaerobic di- through municipal-owned or private contracted
gestion plants. Today, biogas is used primarily as energy companies that operate district heating sys-
vehicle fuel, a market that has more than tripled tems, often powered by waste incineration plants.
since 2005. About half of all household waste is Privatization of the energy market in the mid
incinerated to provide over 20% of all heating 1990s led to the sale of most municipal utility
energy in the country. companies, but with increasing energy costs, new
For a long time, household waste in Sweden green technology and small-scale production
increased faster than the population, but this options, there are incentives for more diverse
trend has been reversed in recent years. In 2008, ownership, and new municipal energy companies
the quantity of treated household waste was 511 kg are emerging.
per person, and in 2009 it was 480 kg, of which The National Energy Agency supports
close to 100 kg was food waste. municipalities to achieve energy efficiency and
In 2009, 98,6% of all household waste was climate change adaptation. Municipalities and
re-used, recycled or recovered, with only 1,4% county councils/regions committed to energy
going to landfills. Landfill disposal has decreased efficiency can apply for funding for the period
by 50% compared to 2008. The goal is to reduce 2010–2014 from the annual programme allocation
the amount of waste put in landfills to close to of 99 million sek. The Agency also supports and
zero. A landfill waste tax was introduced in 2000 advises local and regional government on efficient
to reduce land filling. energy use (see box below).
Households are encouraged to separate
waste and deposit it at collection points. Since
Cooperation promotes sustainable municipalities
1994, legislation obliges producers to use as little The National Energy Agency’s Sustainable Municipality Pro-
packaging as possible and take responsibility for gramme (Uthållig kommun) started in 2003 with five municipali-
recycling it. Municipalities are only responsible ties. The ongoing third phase of the programme (2011–2014)
for household waste. Industries and other produc- involves more than a fifth of all Swedish municipalities.
ers are responsible for their own waste, with the The overall aim is to contribute to a more sustainable society.
largest volumes produced by the mining, wood The programme facilitates sharing of experiences and learning
among municipalities and other stakeholders. Each participating
and construction industries.
municipality selects one or several development projects in their lo-
Municipalities organize waste management cal energy plan. The National Energy Agency and other authorities
individually or jointly. In about 75% of municipal- contribute their expertise. Municipalities from previous programme
ities, contractors manage household waste. Waste phases act as mentors. Universities and researchers provide meth-
is treated by municipalities, municipal enterprises ods and tools developed in and outside the programme.
and private companies. Households pay the full The programme has focused on different areas of energy ef-
cost of waste management, which in 2009 aver- ficiency. Themes for the current third phase include:
yy Physical planning with a focus on energy and transportation
aged 690 sek per person per year (including 25%
yy How the local business community and municipalities can
vat). Some municipalities have a scale of fees to
cooperate around energy issues to contribute to sustainable
encourage waste sorting and minimization. development.

25
In 2011, energy consumption in Sweden increased demand, based on projected population growth,
by 6,3%, and due to increased demand and pro- demographic changes, immigration/emigra-
duction constraints, prices rose significantly. The tion and economic growth. Attractive housing
increased demand was mainly due to increased areas, diversity of housing types and easy access
energy-intensive industrial production and a to housing promote economic growth, while
couple of harsh winters, while the decrease in shortages and inadequate housing create negative
production was due to reduced flows in larger perceptions of a municipality.
rivers, and renovation of some of Sweden’s ten nu- In 2010, populations grew in 149 munici-
clear reactors. At the same time, energy produced palities and decreased in 140. Various factors
by wind, biogas and other alternative sources influence urbanization rates, including housing
increased. Read more about energy efficiency in availability. 43% of municipalities reported a lack
relation to climate change in chapter 7. of housing and 60 of the 290 municipalities had
no available rental apartments.
Housing Earlier planning legislation encouraged
Municipalities are responsible for the supply of municipal land acquisition or ‘land-banking’ to
housing, and Country Administrative Boards provide for cost-effective long-term urban develop-
support municipalities in this regard (as described ment and reduce land speculation. In recent years,
in chapter 2). The Law on Housing Supply most municipalities have reduced their land hold-
requires that municipalities adopt housing supply ings and sold considerable amounts of undevel-
guidelines and programmes in each four-year oped land on the outskirts of built-up areas.
mandate period, as part of comprehensive Municipal involvement in housing provision
municipal plans. as developers and managers was an important
In Sweden, most municipalities and other large initiative to address the serious housing shortage
property owners rent out large numbers of apart- in the 1940s. Rental housing at that time was
ments at officially regulated rates, in order mostly private, but rapid urbanization and public
to provide more equitable housing. funding for large-scale housing projects led to
Public housing is almost always municipal housing companies becoming increas-
apartments. Presently, there are ingly dominant. In 2009, 300 municipal housing
around 4,5 million apartments companies owned close to 900 000 apartments.
in private and public build- In recent decades, many municipal apartment
ings in Sweden, of which blocks have been sold to associations of tenants,
almost 70% are rented. and about 80% of all houses and apartments
Municipalities base their Sweden are privately owned. The largest decrease
housing provision pro- in rental apartments has been in Stockholm,
grammes on estimated housing where tenant associations have bought many
Safe-guarding the interests of tenants

The Swedish Union of Tenants (Hyresgästföreningen) is a any political party. It negotiates rent levels and terms for
democratic members’ organisation for tenants. Its objective is rental housing with landlords and provides advice and sup-
for everyone to be entitled to good housing at a reasonable port in dealings with landlords. It also undertakes efforts to
cost, and they work to ensure that all tenants are guaranteed influence public opinion and lawmakers to improve the terms
a secure housing situation that allows them to enjoy influence of tenants’ rental leases. The Swedish Union of Tenants negoti-
and a sense of community. More than half a million house- ates rent levels for 90% of the rental housing in the country
holds are members of the Swedish Union of Tenants. The and is an important dialogue partner for central and local
organisation is run by its members and is not affiliated with authorities in the area of housing development.

public and private rental apartment buildings. Public transport

Those who favour this argue that ownership is In Sweden about 20% of all travel is via
an investment that leads to increased freedom in public transport or taxi, and the rest
housing choices. Opponents argue that it leads to via private cars or motorcycles. 45%
increased segregation of people who can and can- of public transport is via city or local
not afford to buy apartments. In Stockholm, most buses, and the rest via local trains and
rental apartments are in the suburbs, while most regional busses and trains, including
owned apartments are in expensive central areas. the underground in Stockholm. Public
The Swedish National Board of Housing, transport is used to a much greater
Building and Planning regulates the municipal extent in cities and larger towns than
housing supply, and development in terms in small towns and rural areas.
of environmental protection, land and water The use of bicycles as a means of
management, and the planning, construction and transport is increasing in urban areas,
maintenance of buildings. and municipalities promote cycling
by investing in bicycle paths, to
decrease traffic congestion and co2 emissions.
Regional services Since 1983, County Transport Principals,
Services such as regional development planning, consisting of selected members of county and
public transport, health care, and to an extent, municipal councils, have been responsible
cultural services, are provided at county or for public transport. Most counties have joint
regional level, though often in cooperation with transport companies that plan services, which
municipalities. are usually provided by private, or sometimes
municipal companies. About 98% of local and
Health care regional public transport is now outsourced
Everyone in Sweden has equal access to health- through open tenders. Most costs are financed
care services provided by county councils and re- by ticket sales, and the excess is funded by grants
gions. About 1 000 local medical centres through- from local authorities and the state.
out Sweden provide basic medical treatment, care From January 2012, a new law regulating
and rehabilitation. Maternity and childcare are public transport will replace County Transport
also usually provided at these centres. Some clin- Principals with Regional Transport Authorities.
ics and hospitals are managed by private contrac- Under this law, any public transport company will
tors, but funded by county councils. be free to establish public transport on a commer-
Around 9% of gpd is spent on health and cial basis anywhere in the country.
medical care, which is highly subsidized by the
state. The daily hospital fee is 80 sek, while an
initial visit a doctor at a primary care centre costs
100–200 sek, after which medical care is free. In
order to make health care accessible to all, there
is an individual annual cost ceiling of 900 sek,
above which all treatment is free.
Rober Ekengren/ekengren.se
Central, regional and local government

emphasise the importance of staying mentally and
physically healthy, to prevent illness and reduce
the ‘burden’ on the health care system.
Around 9% of gpd is spent on health and medi-

photo
cal care, which is highly subsidized by the state.

27
sundsvall – industrial city and regional centre
sundsvall
sundsvall city has a population of about 50 000

people, while about 95 000 live in the whole munici-
pality. Sundsvall was established in the 17th century
at a time when many new towns were founded in
Sweden. The growth of the town was supported
by suitable conditions for a major harbour and its
strategic location for forest-related industries.
The Northern Harbour Waterfront is a

redevelopment of industrial land into • project – Northern Harbour Waterfront
a residential area.
photo Sundsvalls kommun
interviews Marie-Louise Henriksson (Urban and Regional Planner) and Mats Henriksson (County Architect), both retired since 2011
Pioneering environment planning ment. Important guiding documents for opportunities and economic potential in
The Swedish Government initiated the Sundsvall include Sundsvall and five other municipalities
Sundsvall Environmental Project in 1989 in the region. It outlines the future of
to address environmental problems The Sundsvall Comprehensive Plan Sundsvall in terms of renewable energy,
in the industrial town. This resulted in The review of the Comprehensive Plan natural resources, high-quality educa-
many follow-up activities and urban will have a planning horizon set at 2021, tion and favourable transport linkages.
and natural environmental projects, and the process emphasises public
including improvement of pollution participation. The importance of regional and
control, green public open space and international cooperation
public transport systems. These early Local Agenda 21 Sundsvall considers cooperation to
experiences have given Sundsvall a Local Agenda 21 has 2020 as its target be particularly important, in order to
head start in gaining public support for date, and specifies ten objectives that compete with the strong economies of
environmentally sensitive planning, and guide Sundsvall towards becoming a regions and cities in southern Sweden.
the Sundsvall City Council has a majority sustainable city and municipality. The dispersed settlement pattern of the
in favour of progressive environmental north calls for greater efforts to achieve
policies. The Sundsvall Urban Vision cooperation and coordination.
The main challenges for sustainable The Sundsvall Urban Vision has a long- The County Administrative Boards
development are linked to the historic term perspective with a target date of in Northern Sweden have initiated a
dominance of major forestry sector 2037. This vision has been prepared regional analysis model for the transport
industrial complexes and limited eco- based on public participation and input sector, mainly related to railway links.
nomic diversity. These industries remain from the business community and For the region surrounding Sundsvall,
important, but academic education, general public. The basis for the vision is greater cooperation is planned with mu-
research and transport have developed three statements nicipalities along the Botnia Sea, and the
significantly in recent years. • Planning aims at a good living envi- east-west connection to the Atlantic will
ronment for the people of Sundsvall focus on economic and infrastructure
Long-term planning and • The town centre (the Stone Town) has development.
development strategies a unique cultural heritage value that
Sundsvall has prepared a series of long- needs to be cherished Examples of projects that Sundsvall is
term development, strategies which • Sundsvall is an important communi- involved in include
address the developmental needs of cations node in the Northern Sweden
the municipality and region. The County employment region. • The Mid Nordic Green Transport Corridor,
Administrative Board has played an necl
active role in regional planning aligned The Sundsvall Sustainable Growth Strategy This project is closely linked to the
with EU programmes, which promote The sustainable growth strategy pro- Botnian Green Logistic Corridor, which
inter-regional sustainable develop- motes the coordination of employment supports the establishment of cargo

facilities, linkages and coordination
across boundaries.
Sustainability Assessment
The Sustainability Assessment Barometer has been developed to standardise
• The Botnian Green Logistic Corridor
monitoring and evaluation of plans, activities and projects that are proposed, or
This project focuses on improving
have been implemented. The Barometer has14 sustainability indicators, each with
transportation of goods and people,
a number of means of measurement, and results are presented in a colour-coded
and includes all Swedish counties in the
northern region from Gävle to Norrbot- graph.
ten, counties in Norway from Trondheim
to Narvik, as well as counties in Finland,
Sundsvalls kommun
Germany and Poland. The programme
Development prospects
focuses on energy, transport and envi- Traffic & communication Proximity and accessibility
ronmental protection.
Child friendliness Health
• The Green Highway
The Green Highway project, which Diversity Economics of building and
society
emerged as a result of regional and
international cooperation, entails the Attractiveness Security
development of technology for trans- yes
portation using locally produced, fossil- Influence and participation Risk and safety to some extend
free fuels. The Green Highway is part of neither
the Sundsvall–Östersund–Trondheim Infill Greenery no
(söt) cooperation, which includes an Local ecocycle solutions counteract
urban network promoting cooperation
between the cities in the fields of infra-
structure and communication, education 14 indicators
and competence development, culture, The assessment is based on 14 indi-
entertainment and tourism. cators and for each indicator there
are a number of means to measure
Development projects the degree of sustainability. The
Sundsvall has undergone a number of results will vary for different projects.
positive changes in recent years, and de-
velopment projects have been facilitated
by public support and well-established
development strategies. Upgrading and
redevelopment projects have focused
on traffic regulation and areas of histori-
cal and cultural value in the town centre,
and on redesign of more peripheral
industrial and housing areas.
photo Kristofer Lönnå
Norra berget
HAGA
Sundsvalls kommun
Norra berget
HAGA
ägen
P5 ersv
Bald
Unive
rsitetsa
llén NORRMALM
NORRMALM ÅKROKEN
atan NORRA KAJEN
ÅKROKEN almsg
NORRA KAJEN Norrm
P12 Badh
G4 uspa
rken
arken
almsp
a allén
Storga
Västra Länken
Norrm P11 tan

Ågata
én
Storgatan n
en
VÄSTERMALM Sjög
a all
Västr
bo u l e v a r d
én
P10 VÄSTERMALM STENSTAN atan Sundsvallsfjärden

us- all
allén
Västr
Sundsvallsfjärden
us
P13
Skolh
Skolh
Hamn
P10 G7 STENSTAN Järnväg Rådh

usgatan
sepla
én
Järnväg naden
öldsall
sesplan
aden
Örnsk
Anders Thorsell
SALLYHILL SÖDRA KAJEN

SÖDRA
SALLYHILL KAJEN
Bergsg
Bergsg atan
atan
Nya trädplanteringar
Befintlig grönstruktur
Cykelstråk SÖDERMALM
S Stråk SÖDERMALM Huvudgator
G Grönområde
S4
P Passage 0 300 m ÖSTERMALM
0 300 m S2 ÖSTERMALM
photo
0 cycle path 300 m
• project Improvement of green • project Sundsvall Town Centre – • project Travel Centre – new devel-
paths and corridors – redevelopment, cultural heritage protection, redevelop- opment, connecting local and regional
connecting links. ment, infilling. travel.

2929
5.
Financing
of public services and
development
The public sector in Sweden is financed operating costs and 72% of county council costs,
by citizens and employers through taxes, and by with the balances funded by service fees and other
fees paid by households and businesses. Sweden is sources.
renowned for its high taxes. Some argue that taxes
are too high, while most Swedes accept that high
taxes are necessary to sustain the welfare system
and provide all citizens with equal services. The Housing in Sweden is expensive
Swedish Tax Agency has an advanced, efficient On average, Swedes spend 27,7% of dispos-
and service-orientated collection system. able income on housing, 15,8% on trans-
port, 17,7% on leisure
In 2009, 61% of tax revenue in Sweden came
and culture, 14,8% on
from direct income taxes paid by employees and so- groceries and alco-
cial security contributions paid by employers. Most holic beverages,
income tax is collected locally by municipalities and and only 2,5% on
county councils, but those who earn over a certain health and medi-
amount annually also pay a state income tax. cal care.
12% of tax revenue comes from capital taxes
such as company profits tax, real estate tax and
other wealth taxes, and 27% comes from vat on
consumption and Excise duties. The vat rate is
25%, with some exceptions, e.g. 12% on food and Services are increasingly financed by fees
6% on newspapers and books. Most municipal and county/regional services are
financed by local taxes, but the Local Government
Act allows municipalities to charge fees. For local
Local and regional government services that are legally obligatory, fees are set at
revenue national level.
The principal revenue source for Swedish local The Local Government Act does not allow
government is income tax, and tax rates are decided municipalities to make a profit on a service by
by municipal and county/regional councils. The charging fees in excess of costs, but they may set
average is about 30% of income, with 20% collected lower fees and subsidise a service from tax rev-
by municipalities and 10% by county/regions. Tax enue. However, this does not apply to municipal-
revenues finance approximately 68% of municipal owned energy companies.

financing OF PUBLIC services and development
As municipal and county/regional council costs

are increasing and tax revenue are decreasing due
to an ageing population, it is likely that services
will increasingly be funded by fees.
Local and regional revenue sources

In 2009, the total revenue of Swedish
municipalities was 493 billion SEK, derived
from the following sources:
■ Tax revenues 68%
■ General state grants 12%
■ Special purpose state

grants 4%
■ Charges and fees 6%
■ Sales of operations
and contracts 1% to developers, to provide municipalities with
■ Rents and leases 3% capital for various purposes, or a developer is
■ Other 5% given leasehold rights for which they pay an
annual rent. The advantages of leasing are that the
municipality has greater influence on the develop-
County/regional councils had a total
revenue of 244 billion SEK in 2009, derived ment, and secures a sustained rental income.
from the following sources:
Implementation and cost-sharing
■ Tax revenues 72%
agreements
Legislation provides for implementation agree-
■ General state grants 8%
ments based on Detailed Development Plans,
■ Funding for national
medicament reform 9% whereby a property owner’s benefit is calculated
■ Special purpose state as the basis for their contribution to public costs
grants 3%
such as road construction, water and sanitation,
■ Charges and fees 3%
public open space and parks, and any other serv-
■ Other 5% ices or facilities. Municipalities generally finance
bulk infrastructure outside the development area.
Municipalities can negotiate cost sharing
with developers based on the overall impact of a
Financing urban development development on infrastructure, services and the
and infrastructure environment.
Municipalities use various means to finance
capital investment in urban development and Development cooperation agreements
infrastructure. The principle is that capital costs Development cooperation agreements facilitate
should be recovered from revenue over a reasona- implementation of detailed development plans by
ble period. Developers fund private development, property owners, according to municipal stand-
but are required to contribute to funding related ards and requirements, and usually also cover
public infrastructure and facilities. operation and maintenance. Property owners
Land acquisition is a key factor in municipal associations are usually established as the legal
urban development. Public land is either sold bodies that contract with the municipality.

31
financing OF PUBLIC services and development
Financing operation and maintenance Local and regional expenditure

All public property is maintained by local or Local and regional government expenditure
central government, including public buildings, accounts for more than one fifth of Sweden’s gdp.
streets, roads, open spaces and green areas. Main- The largest sector for all municipalities is educa-
tenance includes waste collection, street cleaning tion, followed by elderly care and pre-school
and removal of snow. activities. The largest cost is personnel, which
Private property is maintained by property accounts for 55% of expenditure. For county/
owners, but can be prescribed by municipalities regions, the main expense is health care, account-
in cases of neglect. Development cooperation ing for over 90% of budgets, with the remainder
agreements between municipalities and other spent on public transport, regional development,
stakeholders regarding maintenance are common. culture, and certain kinds of education, e.g. liberal
adult education.
Since 1993, the Riksdag decided the principle
Redistribution of financial resources that any new obligations placed on municipalities
between levels of government or county/regions by the State should be financed
The Swedish Government has a policy that serv- by the State, not by increasing local taxes or shift-
ices should be of the same quality throughout the ing funding from existing services.
country. To ensure this, various systems redistrib- The budgetary period for local, regional,
ute resources within the country. According to the and central government is one year, which since
1996 equalisation system, richer municipalities 1997 corresponds to the calendar year. Since the
(mostly in the Stockholm area) pay, and poorer adoption of the Local Government Act in 1991 the
ones receive compensation. overall budget planning cycle is three years, which
There is also a state grant system that distrib- enables more flexibility in expenditure. The three-
utes funds to municipalities, based on population year period is progressed, so the current budget
and age categories. In 2009, all municipalities year is always the first in the period. Municipali-
receiving significant state grants were in the ties also require annual operational plans, based
sparsely populated far North of Sweden. Mu- on their budget plans.
nicipalities and counties can also receive special The three-year planning cycle requires
purpose grants, in recent years e.g. for competence foresight and consideration of different future
development of teachers, decreasing queues in scenarios. Councils are required to communicate
health care, strengthened rehabilitation of the men- these plans to citizens via the media, to enable
tally disabled. The state budget for all types of local public scrutiny and feedback, before plans are
government grants in 2009 was 81,5 billion sek. approved.
A national balancing act

To ensure same quality services throughout the country,
the Swedish Government redistributes some of the
tax funds generated in richer municipalities, and other
resources, to poorer municipalities.

6.
Planning for
a sustainable society
Sustainable development and international objectives, regional coopera-

concerns everyone and all aspects of society, tion, and involvement of other stakeholders such
and requires holistic and integrated planning as the private sector and civil society. The role
approaches that include public consultation and of municipalities in Sweden is regulated and
participation. Swedish municipalities, as planning guided by sound national legislation, policies and
authorities, have considerable responsibilities for development strategies, but there are still many
integrated planning, as well as for plan imple- challenges that require innovative approaches and
mentation, and operation and maintenance of solutions at local level.
infrastructure and services.
A broad sustainability perspective in munici-
pal planning requires incorporation of national
Cities and other built areas must

provide a good, healthy living en-
vironment and contribute to good
regional and global environments.
Natural and cultural assets must be
protected and developed. Buildings
and amenities must be located and
designed in accordance with sound
environmental principles and in
such a way as to promote sustain-
able management of land, water
and other resources.
Swedish Environmental
Quality Objectives, no.15

33
Planning for a sustainable society
The concept of sustainable nities and other interest groups. There will often be
planning and development debate and sometimes disagreements on aspects,
The concept of sustainable planning and develop- and developing a shared vision may involve com-
ment in Sweden has evolved over time. Municipal promises. However, a democratic planning process
reforms in the 1960s and 70s aimed to create is necessary for sustainable development.
municipalities with sufficient capacity to be self- Many municipalities and county/regional
financing and independent service providers. How- councils have over time developed more inclusive
ever, the current complexity of regional and global and integrated planning processes, and wider
interdependence requires increasing cooperation coordination and cooperation in the planning
and coordination among municipalities, and with and implementation phases, involving different
other levels of government and other sectors. departments, regional authorities, the private
The first generation of comprehensive sector and other stakeholders. As a result, many
planning focused often on the use of land and visions, comprehensive plans, strategies and poli-
expansion of urban areas, but lacked a strategic cies have the long-term and holistic perspective
and developmental perspective. Cooperation required for sustainable development.
among municipal departments and with other
levels of government was limited, and consulta-
tion was often a formality. Smaller municipalities The impact of existing urban
had limited resources to undertake the tasks structures
and reviews. More recent comprehensive plans Visions and long-term strategies focus on ideal
pay greater attention to long-term perspectives, and future development scenarios. However,
visions and strategies. most development occurs in connection with or
Sustainable planning and development require within existing urban structures, or as additions
integration of social, economic, environmental and or redevelopments. Cities and urban areas have
institutional and functional considerations, based grown over time and taken on forms that reflect
on a clear vision and objectives for sustainable the attitudes and culture of the time.
human, built and natural environments. An inte- Many Swedish towns have a historical core,
grated approach also treats planning, implementa- even from medieval time or with an origin as
tion, operation and maintenance, and replacement military fortifications. Other town structures
of infrastructure as an integrated and cyclical asset reflect the growth and industrialisation in the 19th
management process. century. Large suburban areas came into being
Municipality and regional development visions during the great expansion and redevelopment
also need the support of all stakeholders, including programmes since the 1960s.
politicians, developers, property owners, commu- Contemporary planning must take the exist-
Most self-help hous-

ing areas were built
between 1920 and
1940. Standardised
building drawings
were provided by
government for
low-income group
families, workers or
officials.
Haga (Göteborg) is
one of the oldest
working class areas.
It has recently been
upgraded and rede-
veloped, retaining its
original character and
most of the buildings.

ing urban structure as the starting point. Planners residential and industrial areas and commercial
and decision-makers face the challenge that centres. The expansion occurred in suburbs in
many existing areas that are not compatible with peripheral areas and with functional separation of
their vision of sustainable and integrated urban land-uses.
development. On the other hand, older urban The aim was to provide healthy, high standard
forms and buildings are valuable cultural heritage housing with green areas and playgrounds in a
assets, of great importance for the character and spacious urban environment. Some areas built in
identity of a town or city. this period were based on the ground-breaking
Historical parts of Swedish towns have a concept of suburbs with housing, employment and
densely developed structure, with great variation all necessary services within walking distance.
and diversity. Originally, they included mixed Rapid economic and population growth and
development with residential areas, businesses urbanisation resulted in large-scale projects, with
and artisans’ workshops. In general, the share of the so-called Million Houses Programme (1965 to
business and commercial use in town centres has 1975) representing the historical peak of construc-
increased, at the expense of residential use. The tion in Sweden. Suburbs became larger and indus-
structure of city blocks, streets, squares and parks trial areas and shopping centres were located where
is more organic in the historical city-cores, while land was readily available, cheap and separated
urban development in subsequent centuries tended from other built-up areas. The new suburbs were
to be based on uniform grid networks. established far from existing historical centres.
Pre-20th century urban design and building Urban structuring was increasingly based on
construction was characterised by functional the requirements of motorised transport, with road
integration, mixed use and variety. The growth networks occupying evermore space and reinforc-
of urban areas was sequential and organic, and ing the fragmentation of urban landscapes into
reflected social changes and evolving architectural separate areas with different land-use functions.
styles. Swedish society was far from harmoni- Modernisation also resulted in drastic rede-
ous, with major inequalities and poor service velopment of inner city areas, causing considerable
standards. However, the compact and diverse built damage to historical and culturally important areas
environments in historical parts of towns are full in many Swedish towns. This loss of heritage assets
of character, and are today recognised as important during the 1960s and 70s remains a matter for
assets in the urban environment. regret today.
New functionalist planning concepts intro- In spite of large-scale development and inap-
duced since the 1920s promoted the separation of propriate redevelopment, the period of expansion
functions, an emphasis on traffic planning, larger produced many areas and buildings of good
green areas between suburbs, and large, separate quality, with great potential for improvement and
The centre of Vällingby

has been given a new
image while protect-
ing the original urban
design. It includes new
housing, employment
opportunities and a busi-
ness centre. Vällingby,
built in 1950s, was one
of the first self-contained
suburbs in Stockholm.
Improved »Million
houses« area includes
new playground,
greenery, new facade
colour, balconies and
entrances. The purpose
is to create more diver-
sity and variation.

35
alteration to meet new sustainability demands. is common, if green areas are threatened.
There are already many good examples of urban Climate change mitigation requires reducing
upgrading that have created more diversified and emissions of greenhouse gases, and designing
integrated urban environments. infrastructure and buildings to withstand the
expected effects. Municipal comprehensive plan-
ning is guided by national sustainability recom-
Sustainability in the municipal mendations such as increasing renewable energy
context sources, efficient energy use and expansion of
The concept of sustainability has public transport systems.
gained increasing support Much energy can be saved by constructing
ECONOMIC
Sustainability among authorities, interest housing that is energy passive or that actually
Social groups and the public, due produces energy, in combination with better
Sustainability to increased awareness of insulation and district heating using e.g. solid
environmental threats and waste as fuel.
Environmental the potential consequences The impact of private motor vehicles must
Sustainability for economic development. also be reduced by more efficient technology,
Planners and decision-makers limiting their use by improving public transport,
in particular need to understand more compact and mixed-use urban development
the threats, in order to plan appropriate action and restricting and taxing access by car to city
programmes and restrictions on development. and town centres.
Sustainable development is a process of Land is a scarce resource and urban expan-
continued efforts to achieve a good and sustain- sion threatens natural environments. Compact,
able living environment, which needs to inform higher density cities make more efficient use of
planning at all levels of government. Municipal infrastructure, preserve natural areas and reduce
self-governance in Sweden provides a good basis environmental impacts. Conservation of forests
for integrated planning, but the sector-based and green areas is essential, and appropriate
approach of central government and legislation management of wetlands is also important for
needs greater integration, together with better flood prevention.
communication between central government Built environments with cultural heritage
agencies and county and municipal councils. and historic value are also assets that require
The Swedish Association of Local Authorities conservation, as an aspect of environmental
and Regions (salar) recommends that sustain- sustainability.
able urban development be based on environ-
mental, social and economic sustainability, as Social sustainability
three integrated perspectives. Social sustainability is a complex matter, inti-
mately linked to the structure of urban areas and
Environmental sustainability economic development. Integrated, varied urban
Environmental sustainability concerns protection areas enhance access and interaction. Social sus-
of long-term biological and ecological processes tainability requires that basic physical and social
that guarantee biological diversity. To achieve this, needs are met, including the need for participa-
the impact of human activities must not exceed the tion in democratic and civic processes. Urban
carrying capacity of the environment. structures that entail mixed uses and a variety of
Sustainable planning needs to protect green ar- activities supports social diversity and integration.
eas and corridors, parks, public open spaces, forests A combination of residential use, business, offices,
and other natural resources. Most Swedes support public services and commerce improve the image
conservation of biodiversity and natural areas as of urban areas and encourage communication.
valuable assets, and opposition to new development Housing need to offer a wide range of tenure

options within the same area to attract different Economic sustainability

socio-economic groups and age-groups. Urban areas are often called the engines of
Planning processes should actively promote economic growth. While planning must encourage
equality and active public participation, with a economic initiatives and provide for economic ac-
special focus on women and children, disabled tivities, economic sustainability requires develop-
and elderly and vulnerable groups like the ment that is in balance with available resources and
homeless and ethnic minorities. Social diversity not harmful for the environment. A new challenge
is a positive asset that should be promoted by is that the economy is changing rapidly, and new
urban planning, and Swedish municipalities often urban design concepts and approaches are needed
address equality and vulnerability issues through to keep pace. The urban planning must accom-
special strategies to support vulnerable groups. modate changes through flexible regulations and
Access for all to health services and educa- structures that can be adjusted over time.
tion, and the possibility to work and earn an The regionalisation of development with dis-
income are essential for social and economic persed, large-scale industrial and commercial cen-
development and well-being. Safety and security tres depending on vehicle access and long-distance
are promoted by designing public areas and transport is in this view, not feasible. Municipalities
streets to increase interaction and surveillance. should rather provide mixed development areas
Large-scale housing development often decreases with diverse environments that encourage creativ-
social interaction and a sense of community, and ity and innovative types of business. Revision of
segregation contributes to increased inequality detailed plans, less restrictive regulations, infilling
and crime. In addressing this issue, Swedish and compact development are all means to support
municipalities often work with the police and the establishment of small businesses.
social services to involve communities.
Urban structures should provide meeting
Sustainable development must be explicit to
places such as public open spaces, schools, sport be understood. The urban development must
be based on green areas in the urban struc-
clubs, day care centres and recreation facilities ture. Social development assumes
where different groups can interact. Physically interaction between people of
different socio-economic groups
integrated urban areas facilitate social integration. and ethnicity. Economic
A pleasant and accessible urban environment development must include
promotion of environmen-
invites inhabitants to take ownership of public tal friendly innovations.
Environmental sustain-
areas and promotes community building. ability depends on the
protection of ecological
and biological processes.

37
Sustainable development planning must also processes based on cooperation between different
support private sector investment and business municipal functions and levels of government.
development, skills training, and cooperation
with other stakeholders to create employment. Accessibility
Municipalities can cooperate with companies via Urban areas and facilities must be
public-private partnerships and other contractual accessible to all. This is facilitated
arrangements, and develop other strategies to by physical linkages such as public
increase local employment opportunities. transport, walkways and cycle paths.
New, sustainable technologies for infra- Emphasis is put on ease of access
structure, services, transport and housing, which and safety and security, especially for
promote climate change mitigation and efficient women, children, the disabled and
photo Mats Samuelsson
energy use, are essential areas for investment elderly.
and economic development. Investments in
green technology such as energy production and Compact urban structuring
efficiency, energy and resources savings, electric Efficient use of land and infrastructure is essential
vehicles, emission reduction etc. are not only good to promote sustainability, and requires higher-
for the environment but also a potentially profit- density development, infilling and redevelopment
able economic sector. to support efficient and accessible public transport
The image of a town is important for attracting systems and service provision. Complementary
investment, and is based on physical environment, functions, land uses and facilities are important in
social and economic environment. Municipalities upgrading sub-urban areas.
need a long-term approach to economic develop-
ment which includes clear policies regarding Mixed development
realistic cost-recovery on investments, particularly Mixed development with
in major service infrastructure. different land uses and
activities in the same
area promotes functional
Planning principles in Swedish and social integration.
municipalities It increases accessibility
Sustainable urban planning and development is and efficient use of resources and infrastructure,
based on planning principles which enhance the reduces transport needs and promotes public
quality of the social, economic, natural and built transport and interaction between different groups.
environment. In Sweden, most municipal visions,
long-term strategies and comprehensive plans are Diversity
based on the following principles. This principle promotes the development of
attractive urban environment with varied housing
Integration types, land uses and tenure options. Variations in
Integration has physical, functional, social, urban design and architectural style contribute to
economic, cultural and institutional aspects. It a positive environment and unique identity in an
promotes urban development that provides for area. Diversity includes socio-economic aspects,
different activities and functions, diverse housing with housing options that meet the different and
types and architectural forms, a mix of land tenure changing needs of young people, growing families
options, and accessible services. Integrated urban and the elderly.
planning supports the inclusion and interaction of
different socio-economic groups, and economic Public transport
and cultural opportunities. Institutional integra- Urban planning must promote public transport
tion involves inclusive planning and development and reduce private vehicular traffic in order to

mitigate climate change threatened by the pressure for redevelopment and

effects. Road network alterations in inner city areas. Municipalities must
design needs to give pref- ensure that planning facilitates the conservation
erence to buses, if public or sensitive redesign of such areas to maintain
transport is to compete their character and identity.
with private vehicle use.
Restricted parking in Protection of agricultural resources and food
inner cities and congestion fees also contribute to production
traffic reduction. Urban areas exist in a regional context, and are
Public transport planning must be an integral surrounded by land originally used for agricultural
aspect of urban planning to promote sustainable production. Local food production and small-scale
development. Development along public transport farming should again be encouraged, as an increas-
routes facilitates transport efficiency and increases ingly important aspect of sustainable development.
convenience for passengers. Urban agriculture in allotment gardens is an
attractive element in the urban structure, and can
Protection of green areas and the natural be included in new developments, and upgrading
environment and redevelopment schemes.
Protection of the environment is a priority for all
planning at national, county and municipal levels. Local economic development
It entails limiting encroachment into natural areas, Urban areas are centres for economic activity, and
providing green open space in new developments, municipal economic sustainability depends on
and conserving green areas in developed areas. dynamic local economies with vibrant enterprises
Infilling and redevelopment need to be regulated to and high employment rates. Support for busi-
protect open and green spaces in inner cities. nesses, skills development, efficient communica-
Green belts within and connecting built-up tion and good infrastructure and service standards
areas should be emphasised in urban design, provide an attractive environment for investment
particularly to balance and enhance the built and promote economic sustainability.
environment in high-density areas.
This is of importance for Safety and security
protecting and enhancing the Urban design can promote safety and security via
biological diversity within ur- social integration and improved surveillance, to
ban areas, mitigating climate reduce crime and vulnerability. Municipalities
change effects and providing should address these issues in cooperation with
and providing recreational communities, local interest groups and the police,
areas for the inhabitants. and via enhanced participation in development
processes.
Protection of cultural heritage
and the built environment Participation and openness photo Megafonen
A city consists of different The principles of participation and openness influ-

layers of importance from a ence the way in which municipalities operate and
cultural heritage perspective. manage planning processes. Stakeholder involve-
Not only the historical parts ment in planning and implementation facilitates
are of importance, but also other the achievement of appropriate and sustainable
areas/objects/environments that can be regarded results. Municipal participation processes include
as a significant features of a specific period, style planning forums, workshops, opinion surveys, call-
or design. The historical parts of towns need in radio programmes, information dissemination
protection, as important cultural heritage assets and public hearings.

39
Linköping – Norrköping
Linköping – norrköping
unique integration for sustainable development
Linköping and Norrköping are two of Sweden’s medium-
sized cities that have commenced a far-reaching cooperation
aimed at integration of the municipalities into a big-city region.
The distance between the two is only 40 km, but the history and
characteristics of the two are rather different. While Linköping has
a tradition of being a bishopric centre for the Church of Sweden as
well as the county residence centre, Norrköping was for over four
hundred years dominated by its textile industries. Its city centre
is dominated by old textile mill buildings. In the 1970s they were
left empty and in decay. Today everything is upgraded and with
new activities. Main businesses in Norrköping are paper, logistics,
transport, electronics, and trade and commerce, while in Linköping
they include high tech industry and food industries.
In the larger area of the two cities there are 420 000 inhabit-
ants, 36 000 companies and 50% of Sweden´s population within
a radius of 200 km. Linköping’s well-renowned university, which
Linköping and Norrköping are strategically located
has a branch in Norrköping, attracts around 26 500 students and within a ‘triangle’ with the capitals of Norway and
researchers. Denmark and the three biggest cities in Sweden easily
accessible by road, rail, and air transport.
contacts Karin Elfström (Head of comprehensive planning) Linköping, and Linda Apelgren (Urban and Regional Planner) Norrköping
Planning the future together Vision 2030 Why work together?

Around four years ago decision-makers The joint strategies envision that by Linköping and Norrköping decided to
in the two municipalities realized that 2030 the fourth big-city region will: work together as they saw that they
they risked to be left behind in develop- • Have 500 000 inhabitants could complement each other, instead
ment compared to the regions around • Have the same proportion of people of competing with one another. The
the three biggest cities in Sweden – working as the national average business sector in the two cities is highly
Stockholm, Göteborg, and Malmö. The • Have the same proportion of people complementary which speaks for a great
two municipalities thus worked together with higher education as the national potential to strengthen diversity and
to create a basis for a functional and inte- average stimulate economic growth.
grated area – the fourth big-city region! • Have the same total sum in salaries as Over the last two decades the
Together with neighbouring municipali- the national average commuting across municipal borders,
ties, they strive to create an integrated • Be one of the most attractive places in by both workers and students, have
region of housing, employment, educa- Sweden to live and increased significantly and will continue
tion, and culture. work to grow. This will demand extended and
Linköping and Norrköping have de- • Be forerunner in improved communications.
veloped a joint comprehensive plan. The climate change ad- The degree of integration between
aim is to reach sustainable economic, aptation and mitiga- Linköping and Norrköping is
social and ecological development and tion. still relatively low, and there are
to place Linköping and Norrköping in a functional and cultural inertia
larger regional context, as well as to cre- that needs to be overcome.
ate a structure that encourages public But processes have been
transport. The joint comprehensive plan started e.g. in the area of
is also complemented with two other infrastructure and transport,
strategies: Linköping–Nörrköping Com- Linköping University locating
mon Climate Vision, and Vision 2030. in both cities, cooperation
in child care services, and a
common administration for
rescue services and salaries.

Legislation related to sustainable ning. They provide the basis for current planning
planning and development processes, while various other
The legislative framework is the foundation for laws cover specific administrative, management
planning at municipal and regional development and technical matters.
planning. The Environmental Code (1999), the National policies and strategies establish
Planning and Building Act (1987) and the new more explicitly the national goals and objectives
Planning and Building Act (2011) are the most that will guide municipal and regional authori-
important legal documents for sustainable plan- ties in their development efforts.
The Planning and Building Act • Land, water and the physical environ- standards can be introduced nationwide
The Planning and Building Act of 1987 ment are used so that a long-term or for particular geographical areas, such
established the basis for decentralised, good management are ensured from as counties or municipalities.
autonomous municipal planning and an ecological and socio-economic Environmental Impact Assessments
limited possibilities for state interven- viewpoint (EIA) are required for all plans under the
tion. The Act aims to promote “societal • Eco-cycles are achieved by reuse and Planning and Building Act include EIAs.
progress towards equal and good living recycling material, raw materials and Most Comprehensive Plans now have
conditions and a good and lasting sus- energy EIAs that include environmental, social
tainable environment for the benefit of and economic aspects. Detailed devel-
the people of today’s society as well as of The sections that are of most importance opment plans require EIAs, unless the
future generations.” for planning deal with national interest in impact is considered insignificant.
The new Planning and Building Act terms of management of land and water,
of 2011 simplifies planning and building environmental quality standards and Implications of the Environmental Code
processes, while strengthening control of environmental impact assessments. The Environmental Code consolidated
building construction. The new Act puts regulations in earlier environmental
greater emphasis on the Comprehensive Management of land and water areas legislation, streamlined application and
Plans as strategic and developmental The municipal planning monopoly strengthening the means of control. The
documents. It requires that municipal means that central government can only Code has enhanced sustainable develop-
councils approve Comprehensive Plans intervene in matters of national interest, ment planning and implementation via
for each term of office, and further as specified by the Environmental Code. EIAs, environmental courts and environ-
acknowledges the political nature of Government must investigate whether mental quality standards (e.g. for vehicle
planning. large industrial and energy facilities are exhaust emissions). This limits municipal
locally acceptable, before preparing self-governance in some respects, as
The Environmental Code (1999) detailed development plans or applying sensitive and controversial decisions
The Environmental Code is the primary for a building permit. However, munici- regarding environmental protection and
environmental legislation, and replaced palities can, in most cases, refuse permis- localisation of activities that have an
fifteen Acts such as the Natural Resources sion for new developments, in spite of environmental impact have been moved
Act, the Environmental Protection Act, national interests. from the political to the judicial sphere
the Water Act and Agricultural Land through appeals to the Environmental
Management Act. The purpose of the Environmental quality standards and Courts.
Code was to simplify the administration environmental impact assessments
of environmental matters and to make it The Environmental Quality Standards County Administrative Boards control
easier to comprehend the legal require- may apply nationally, or to a county, Control is exercised by County Adminis-
ments. municipality or specific area. These stand- trative Boards, as government agencies at
ards are policy instruments for achieving regional level. Municipalities submit their
The Environmental Code promotes sus- environmental quality objectives defined comprehensive plans and detailed devel-
tainable development so that by government and the EU, and are an opment plans to County Administrative
• Human health and the environment example of coordinated EU policies. Boards, which add a statement regarding
are protected An environmental quality standard national interests and procedural mat-
• Valuable natural and cultural environ- may, for example, lay down the maximum ters, before the plan is submitted to the
ments are protected and conserved allowable concentration of a substance municipal council for approval. .
• Biological diversity is preserved in air, soil or water. Environmental quality

41
Planning instruments available strategic, developmental and visionary. Detailed Development Plan
to Swedish municipalities Most municipalities are now preparing (Detaljplan)
Types of municipal plans include regional the third or fourth generation of Com- A Detailed Development Plan guides
plans, comprehensive plans, detailed comprehensive Plans since the initial plans project implementation. It is legally
prehensive plans and detailed develop- for the 1989-1992 period. Processes for binding, and it regulates land use and
ment plans. plan preparation and the content of plans building rights. Detailed plans form the
have also improved in terms of long-term basis for projects implemented by private
Comprehensive Plans (Översiktsplan) and strategic planning perspectives. or public companies or individuals,
All Swedish municipalities must prepare a and specify implementation periods of
comprehensive plan for the entire munici- Detailed Comprehensive Plan between 5 and 15 years. They outline the
pality, which guides decisions regarding (Fördjupad Översiktsplan) respective responsibilities of the munici-
land use, new development and preserva- Municipalities may choose to prepare a pality and property owners.
tion of the built and natural environment. Detailed Comprehensive Plan for a part of
The plan is not binding but can be used for the municipality. This could cover an area Regional Plan (Regionplan)
guiding decisions, where detailed plans of specific concern, a sensitive environ- The Act provides for the preparation
are not available. At first, comprehensive ment or cultural heritage aspects, etc. It of Regional Plans by county/regional
plans were limited in scope and content, could also deal with an area that needs councils, but so far, only the Stockholm
dealing mainly with existing land uses and more investigation, in preparation of County Council has established a regional
expansion zones, but have become more future detailed planning. planning office to undertake this task. .
National policies and strategies Swedish Environmental Objectives of greenhouse gas emissions. Long-term
In the Swedish government system, 1. Reduced Climate Impact priority areas for action include heating,
national policies and directives in areas 2. Clean Air transport systems and electricity supply,
of central responsibility are issued to 3. Natural Acidification Only and municipalities increasingly cooperate
implementing authorities by national 4. A Non-Toxic Environment in these areas.
agencies, including the National Board of 5. A Protective Ozone Layer Binding regulations and incentives pro-
Housing, Building and Planning (Boverket) 6. A Safe Radiation Environment mote more energy efficient housing and
and the Environmental Protection Agency 7. Zero Eutrophication construction using renewable resources
(Naturvårdsverket). 8. Flourishing Lakes and Streams and recycled material.
The most significant policies related to 9. Good Quality Groundwater
sustainable development are as follows: 10. A Balanced Marine Environment, Flour- Local Agenda 21
ishing Coastal Areas and Archipelagos Agenda 21 is the international programme
Swedish Environmental Objectives 11. Thriving Wetlands initiated at the UN Conference on the Envi-
The Swedish Environmental Objectives 12. Sustainable Forests ronment in Rio in 1992, with Local Agenda
system was established in 1999 to accom- 13. A Varied Agricultural Landscape 21 as the related global municipal-level
modate EU Directives, and progress in 14. A Magnificent Mountain Landscape programme focusing on environmental
achieving the objectives is reviewed annu- 15. A Good Built Environment protection and sustainable development.
ally. The system sets goals and objectives 16. A Rich Diversity of Plant and Animal Life Local Agenda 21 emphasises local
on three levels responsibility and municipal facilitation of
• A generation goal, defining the direc- The impact of urban areas and urban sustainable development, with participa-
tion of changes in society that need development is multi-dimensional and tion of all sectors and stakeholders. Most
to occur within one generation, if affects most of the environmental qual- municipalities in Sweden have run Local
environmental quality objectives are to ity objectives, but especially in terms of Agenda 21 programmes for over 10 years.
be met clean air, non-toxic environment, reduced
• Environmental quality objectives, climate impact, a good built environment, Swedish Strategy for sustainable
defining the state of the Swedish envi- a rich diversity of plant and animal life. development
ronment which environmental action The Swedish Strategy for Sustainable
should achieve Climate and Energy Policies Development was adopted by the Govern-
• Milestone targets, which are steps on The National Sustainable Energy and ment in 2003 and then amended in 2005.
the way to achieving the environmen- Climate Policy for the environment, com- It outlines the vision for a sustainable
tal objectives and generation goal. petitiveness and long-term stability was society and how it will be achieved. Sus-
approved in 2009 to promote ecological tainability assumes democratic values and
sustainability and security of supply. It pri- transparency, equality, safety and justice. .
oritises increased use of renewable energy,
more efficient energy use and reduction

The Planning and Implementation As Comprehensive Plans take considerable time

Process to prepare, and require substantial inputs and
Municipalities have long been responsible for resources, many municipalities apply continuous
preparing all development plans, and have review and update the existing plan and carry out
well-established procedures and competencies. annual assessments. The political acceptance of
Comprehensive plans and detailed development the comprehensive plan is obtained at the start of
plans are generally prepared by the physical plan- each new four-year council term. Updated plans
ning office, while an integrated approach requires and implementation programmes are then linked
cooperation with other departments, as well as to the budget process.
other levels of government and interest groups Detailed Development Plans focus on imme-
such as the private sector and civic society. Most diate implementation but also involve a complex
municipalities have already establish new ap- planning process with specific requirements in
proaches and means for institutional cooperation. terms of legal requirements, environmental qual-
The process should involve active and ity standards, detailed technical and infrastruc-
continuous participation of stakeholders, inter- tural solutions, and costing and financing. Close
est groups, communities and the general public, cooperation and negotiation with developers and
and the stages of programming, planning and stakeholders is part of the planning process.
implementation and review should be linked in
an integrated manner. Phasing of the sustainable planning process
The planning process consists of three phases that
The municipal planning process are sequential and interconnected.
The Planning and Building Act provides guidance yy The Programming Phase
on preparing different types of municipal plans. yy The Planning Phase
Municipal councils initiate plan preparation, and yy The Implementation Phase.
Planning and Building Committees, or in the
case of Comprehensive Plans, Municipal Execu- The Programming Phase includes initiating plan
tive Boards, oversee actual plan preparation by preparation, formulating the purpose, preparing
Planning and Building Offices or equivalent units. a planning brief and approval of a planning pro-
A core-team or reference group is established gramme. The Planning Phase includes investiga-
to represent different departments and ensure tions, surveys, plan preparation, plan proposals,
cooperation (see chapter 3). exhibition of plans for comment and input,
Review
Review
1 3
Review
2
1 3
1 3 2
Programming Implementing
The planning and implementation process

is a continuous process with need for feedback through-
2 out the process and with evaluation of the outcome. The
Planning comprehensive planning process has an inbuilt requirement
for review and assessments, which also should be applied to
regional planning, strategies and visions. The feedback from
implemented plans will be the basis for new approaches.

43
and plan approval. The Implementation Phase All comments and objections together with the
includes an implementation programme, detailed municipal responses must be documented, and a
technical plans, negotiations and development consultation report must be submitted with the
agreements, cost estimates and budgets, financing plan to the County Administrative Board.
arrangements, construction and monitoring.
The planning process is not linear and
requires continuous feedback and evaluation. In Planning challenges
particular the comprehensive plans with assess- Municipalities and county/regional councils face
ments and political validation must be seen as a many obstacles and challenges in promoting
cyclic process. sustainable planning and development, including
Different municipal units oversee different the following.
activities in the process at different times, which
requires an integrated approach, open communi- Regional Planning
cation and good cooperation. The complexity of sustainable development
requires regional perspectives and cooperation,
The participatory planning process but many county councils lack the capacity to
The legislation requires public participation but engage in planning issues, and regional planning
allows municipalities to decide on the methods. is limited.
Councils can only adopt comprehensive plans and Regional associations have played an impor-
detailed development plans if there has been an tant role in coordinating planning in specific areas
adequate consultation process, including a public such as energy systems, economic development
exhibition of the proposal and plans.
In promoting sustainable development, plan-
ning authorities must take into account different
interests and concerns in an open process. Most
municipalities have established methods for pub-
lic communication and participation that extend
far beyond the basic legal requirements.
Different methods of communication can be
used, depending on the purpose and stage in the
planning process, including
yy Dissemination of information – in the initial
stages, to establish contact and increase
awareness
yy Consultation – when proposals are presented
and stakeholders submit comments
yy Participation – when alternatives are consid-
ered and active inputs are expected
yy Mobilisation – when stakeholders are encour-
aged to participate in operation or mainte-
nance. Involvement in planning and
development assumes exchange
of views and opinions. The differ-
ent approaches should be chosen to
provide avenues for participation and to
encourage stakeholders to get engaged. This may include
means to react to information, write statements, visit exhibi-
tions, attend discussion groups or take responsibility for
maintaining infrastructure.

and major infrastructure investments. Regional

associations of municipalities established to pre-
pare comprehensive regional plans and long-term
strategies have the potential to become effective,
but need to develop and apply regional planning
instruments.
Comprehensive planning
Comprehensive planning is cumbersome and
time consuming, and smaller municipalities
lack the capacity and resources to review their
plans regularly. In major towns and cities, rapid
change quickly makes plans obsolete, and some
municipalities review and update specific aspects
of plans more frequently.
Municipal cooperation
All available
Internal and external municipal coordination possibilities to
needs to be improved. Legislation requires national objective, and municipalities need to promote a green
urban environ-
consultation between neighbouring municipali- restrict traffic and promote sound agricultural ment should be
ties and most have good working relationships, practices and energy efficiency. The impacts of used. Even small
green areas con-
but there is a need for more formal and effective climate change will have to be addressed mainly tribute to a bet-
ter micro-climate
cooperation. by municipalities. and improve the
Within municipalities, the involvement of all Municipalities need to cooperate at regional urban environ-
ment. An other-
departments in the planning process is important, level on effective energy provision, public trans- wise unattractive
waste collection
and while there is good progress toward inte- port and improved housing, as well as on water installation is
grated approaches, administrative frameworks are management, secure infrastructure networks, given a green
facade.
rigid and tend to hinder cooperation. buffer zones and flood prevention.
Private sector involvement Coordinated planning, operation and mainte-

The evolving planning system emphasises the nance
role of the private sector in implementation, and The municipalities are largely responsible for op-
in operation and maintenance. Private sector eration and maintenance of service infrastructure,
involvement in public-private partnership or con- though in some areas, with support from other
tracted cooperation changes the role of munici- levels of government. Coordination in these cases
palities. Communication needs to be enhanced is crucial, especially regarding traffic and trans-
and partnership and contract negotiation and port control, safety and security, and emergency
management become key competencies, to ensure and rescue services.
that objectives are achieved and sustainability
is promoted. Private sector providers of public Sectoral approaches
service need to meet service quality standards, Central government operates via sectoral depart-
operate in a transparent way, and encourage ments, which in many instances causes confusion
public involvement and participation. at local level. Different ministries and agencies
issue recommendations and provide finance for
Climate change mitigation and adaptation services, and directives from the eu and govern-
Climate change is a national and global issue. ment are not always coordinated. Improved
Reducing emissions of greenhouse gases is a communication and coordination between

45
different departments and spheres of government instruments. Comprehensive plans and strategies
is needed to achieve an integrated and holistic cover entire municipalities, though urban and
approach to development planning. rural areas in municipalities have different char-
A coherent national urban development acteristics, conditions and development needs.
policy is needed, to provide a common under- Detailed plans are primarily project oriented,
standing of the requirements for sustainable focus on immediate implementation in limited
urban development. areas, and therefore often lack contextual per-
spective. The complex urban structure would
The legislative framework benefit from more flexible planning approaches
The complexity of urban development and new with planning instruments that link the overall
planning requirements are not appropriately strategic planning to the detailed plans.
reflected in the legal framework and planning
Pr o t e c ti o n
o
Com p a c
tu
fa
Acc
gri
es
rb
c ul tu ra l res
an
s ib
ion
s t ruct uri n g
ili t y
c ti o n of c u
uc t
o te lt
Pr
od
o
ur
ur
pr ce s
al h
ub
a n d fo o d
lic
er ita g e an
t ra n s p o r t
t
en
Wa s te re d uc Ren ew able e
m th
eb
ti u i l t e n v i ro n
n
on
er
gy
, re
economic
& energy
c y c lin g &
Viab
it able
ef
re
l e Equ
-u fic
se ie n
cy
I nt
sustainable Saf
eg et
ya
ra
Tolerable
social
t io
environmental
nd
n
s e c u r it y
Tra
Di n s
pa
ve
re n
r si t
c y an d p
y
Lo c
M ixe d al
de e
v
co
Pro
ar
el
no m
op
i ci
t
pat
te
m ent
ion
c
ic d e v e
tion
ronment
of green
lo p
m
nvi
ent
le
ea
r
ra sa
nd th e natu
Vision for sustainability

This vision and its key principles can guide urban planning to achieve environmental, social and
economic sustainability. The challenge is how to apply and integrate these principles to create
dynamic and diverse living environments in specific situations. This is the question that all
stakeholders in urban planning processes need to debate, in order to arrive at creative, optimal
and widely-supported solutions.
All three aspects need to be addressed. If for instance environmental and social aspects are
addressed but economic aspects are neglected, the situation may be tolerable but not sustainable.
Illustration based on Arch. M. Sc Raul Marino Zamudio

7.
Addressing climate
change
The well-known adage »think globally,

act locally« is very relevant to climate change The Delegation for
adaptation and mitigation efforts in Sweden. Sustainable Cities
Global commitments and international policies One example of national government
support is the Delegation for Sustainable
are needed, and Sweden follows the work of the
Cities, initiated in 2008 to stimulate sus-
un Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change
tainable urban development. The Delega-
(ipcc) closely, and works actively within the eu. tion consists of experts such as planners,
At national level, the Swedish Government con- architects, engineers, export promoters,
tinuously develops its climate change framework, politicians, etc., who work with local
sets targets, finances research, makes investments, authorities, businesses and other organisa-
allocates resources to programmes and projects, tions. The Delegation also provides funding
and coordinates development and planning of for innovative projects (340 million SEK in
2009–2010), disseminates good practices,
climate change activities. However, municipalities
promotes green technology, facilitates col-
and citizens need to take concrete local initiatives laboration in research and development,
to realise co2 emission reduction targets, and adapt and arranges and participates in seminars,
to changes. Yet local initiatives often depend on conferences and other events around
national government or eu support. Sweden.
The present situation

Though the Swedish economy grew by 48% from
1990 to 2007, production-related emissions of
greenhouse gases decreased by 9%. Among the
most important causes of this reduction was
the extension of district heating and reduced
photos: SCA Image bank
use of fossil fuels. In 2007, emissions amounted

to 7 000 kg of co2 equivalents per resident in
Sweden, compared to just over 10 000 kg for the
eu, and about 15 000 kg for oecd countries.
About one third of energy in Sweden is used for industrial
production. A few energy intensive branches stand for a However, studies indicate that emissions
bulk of industrial energy consumption. These include paper from Swedish consumption may be 25% higher
and pulp, iron and steel, and chemical industries.

47
Addressing climate change
than from production (see box below). Though Biofuel accounts for approximately 20% of energy
Sweden has been able to combine economic supplied in Sweden, of which about ⅓ is used for
growth with a reduction in emissions, the fact is district heating, which meets half the country’s
that through increased consumption, Sweden’s heating requirements for commercial and resi-
overall contribution to climate change has dential buildings. Only 20% of heating uses fossil
increased. fuels and electricity. It is estimated that the public
With renewable energy amounting to 44% of sector could save 15–20% of energy costs through
the total in 2007, Sweden had the largest percentage improved energy efficiency in heating, ventilation
of renewable energy inputs in the eu. Electricity and lighting of buildings.
production and usage is among the highest in the 80% of Swedish production-related green-
world per capita, both in industry and households, house gas emissions are from transport, buildings
due to many years of comparatively low electric- and industry, with most of the rest coming from
ity prices. Most of electricity in Sweden comes agriculture. Public transport accounts for only
from hydroelectric and nuclear power, in equal about 15% of all travel in Sweden, while car travel
proportions. Sweden is far behind countries like constituting the bulk. The proportion of public
Denmark, Germany and Spain in terms of wind transport is considerably higher in urban areas,
power, though production is increasing. e.g. in Göteborg, ⅓ of commuters use public
transport to get to work, while long distances in
northern Sweden encourage car travel.
Swedish consumers produce Local and regional efforts can make a major
greenhouse gases difference. For example, in the less-populated
Although Swedish production-related co2 emissions are low Bergslagen area of central Sweden, regional train
compared to the rest of the EU, a different picture emerges travel has nearly tripled since 2001, when the four
when looking at consumption. Measured in relation to the county councils and all municipalities assumed
population, emissions from consumption in Sweden are
broader, coordinated responsibility. Emissions
equivalent to just over 10 000 kg co2 per capita. Approxi-
from new cars have dropped rapidly in recent
mately 80% of emissions are caused by private consump-
tion and 20% by public consumption. Private consumption years, as cars have become more energy efficient,
activities include eating – 25% of emissions, housing – 30%, and more cars use non-fossil fuels. However,
travel – 30% and shopping – 15%, with purchasing of Sweden still has the car fleet with the largest and
clothes and shoes being the largest sub-item. As over half of most energy consuming vehicles in Europe.
all emissions are due to private consumption, the following Public procurement accounts for about
questions are significant, if Sweden is to reduce emissions 25% of gdp in Sweden – two thirds by national
yy How much do we drive and in what sort of car?
government and one third by local and regional
yy How do we heat our homes?
authorities. According to a 2007 study, 78% of
yy How much electricity is used at home?
yy How much meat do we eat and what type? public sector procurement included environ-
yy How far do we fly and how often? 15%– eat mental requirements. The Swedish Envi-
ing
ng ronmental Management Council (mrs)
pi
Emissions can be reduced by changing develops and supplies information,
–2
op
5%
sh
our behaviour, and by developing and tools and training on environmental

applying new technologies that con- requirements in public procure-
sume less energy.
ment. The mrs is jointly owned
travel –
by the national government, the

Federation of Swedish Enterprise
and salar.
30
%
0
%
–3
ng
housi
travel – 30%

Malmö City/Jenny Leiman
Malmö City
photo
photo
Many city buses in Sweden are fueled by biogas, while long Five years ago, Malmö City launched a successful campaign called »No ridicu-
distance buses to a larger extent use diesel. An increasing lous car trips« to decrease private car traffic and get people on bikes instead.
number of bus drivers have been trained in ‘eco driving’, The number of people using bikes has increased from 20% to 30% and the city
i.e. ways to apply a more environmentally friendly driving has invested in infrastructure like protected bike lanes, safe crossings, bike park-
approach. ing, and railings to hold on to at traffic lights. Malmö has 2 100 km of pedestrian
lanes, 450 km of protected cycle lanes, and 1 125 km of streets.
Getting groups of people to change behaviour is not easy. Malmö planners
How is Sweden affected by climate used a number of small positive encouragements, like putting orange rain caps
on saddles of bicycles, to nudge people to get on the bike.
change?
Sweden, like most countries, is and will continue deteriorate, and efforts to maintain the good
to be affected by climate changes in different quality of drinking water will be needed.
ways, and needs to prepare to adapt to these yy Mountains in the north of Sweden will increas-
changes. In 2007, the government commissioned ingly be covered by bushes which will affect
an administrative investigation into »Climate and reindeer herding and tourism.
Vulnerability«. Among the possible scenarios that yy Warmer climate will affect peoples’ health and
the commission described were lead to more deaths from extreme heat during
yy The risks of flooding, landslides and erosion summers, and increases in contagious diseases.
will increase considerably due to higher levels
of precipitation, and there is a need to take
precautionary measures. Swedish national policy on climate
yy The rise in sea levels is ongoing and will change
continue for several hundred years. Around The official aim of Sweden’s climate efforts is that
150 000 buildings (many of them in urban the country should be a role model of a modern
settlements) are located in erosion risk areas society that is environmentally sustainable, built on
if there is a rise of 88 cm in sea levels – a likely renewable resources, and where economic growth
scenario according to the ipcc. This will is achieved in harmony with the earth’s conditions.
put increasing demands on the planning of Sweden’s national climate strategy includes
new developments as well as precautionary instruments introduced since the early 1990s in
measures for existing constructed areas. the areas of energy, transport, environmental and
yy Growth in forests will be substantial, and the tax policy. More targeted measures and instru-
prerequisites for agricultural production will ments have been introduced since 2002, princi-
improve. However, it is important to take ac- pally in the form of increased co2 taxes, climate
tive measures to preserve biological diversity. information initiatives and special climate invest-
yy The Baltic Sea risks dramatic changes in its ment subsidies. The long-term aim is to make the
eco-systems. Climate change will worsen the country independent of fossil fuel energy.
situation and there is a need to intensify efforts In 2009, a new and coherent climate and en-
to decrease the levels of pollution. ergy policy was developed. The target is to reduce
yy The quality of water in lakes and streams will greenhouse gas emissions by 40% by 2020.

49
(The eu has committed to reduce emission by to planning, which should have beneficial climate
20% by 2020). Other aims are that affects. People increasingly reside in cities and
yy renewable energy sources will provide half of towns, and the bulk of co2 emissions occur in
Sweden’s energy by 2020 urban areas. In general, the character, structure,
yy vehicles will be independent of fossil fuel organisation and operation of urban centres deter-
energy by 2030 mine how easy or difficult it is to reduce emissions.
yy net greenhouse gas emissions will be zero by Local and regional government has a key role
2050 to play in climate change adaptation and mitiga-
yy overall energy efficiency will increase by 20% tion through development planning, as a property
by 2020 owner, and in procuring goods and services.
yy renewable sources will provide 10% of energy As described in the previous chapter, sustain-
in the goods transport sector in 2020. able urban development requires more compact
towns to decrease transport needs, more effective
and environmentally friendly energy provision,
Local initiatives on climate change and increased public transport use, walking and
bicycling. In short, it requires the proximity and
Municipalities must be the drivers integration of functions in everyday life, and
and inspirers and not leave urban ‘ecological infrastructure’ such as parks and green
development solely to private areas to mitigate climate change effects.
actors. Municipalities are funda- The extension of district heating and reduced
mental actors when the threat from use of fossil fuels have contributed most to reducing
climate change is to be averted. co2 emissions in Sweden in recent decades. Munici-
Professor Ulf Ranhagen, palities provide 60% of district heating, and systems
KTH Royal Institute of Technology can be further extended and improved. There is also
increasing interest in district cooling, using water
The municipal planning monopoly creates favour- from the ocean, lakes or snow, to replace electric
able conditions to adopt a more holistic approach cooling for industrial purposes and air conditioning
photo Elisabeth Molin of public buildings, shopping malls, etc.
Most local governments now actively ad-
dress climate change issues. A salar survey of
municipalities and county councils/regions in 2007
showed extensive climate efforts in many areas.
52% of municipalities have, and 28% plan cross-
sector action plans for reducing emissions. 70%
of county councils/regions have action plans and
targets and 20% percent were working on them.
Responses emphasised that financial constraints
necessitate a gradual approach, and that national
government has a major role to play in developing
infrastructure and policy instruments.
In general, local and regional authorities can
play an important role in
yy promoting safe and competitive energy supplies
yy investing in efficient and sustainable public
On the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea around 30% of electricity comes transport systems
from wind power. Even though this in the long-term is a cost-efficient and en-
vironmentally friendly way to produce energy, there are also challenges such yy expanding renewable and efficient energy
as conflicting interests with nature and cultural heritage conservation, and production
potential disturbances for inhabitants in e.g. noise and esthetical interference.

yy promoting energy efficiency and conservation urgent challenges in upgrading large apartment
yy orienting spatial planning and urban devel- blocks constructed during the 1960s and 70s in
opment to climate change mitigation and the suburbs of major cities.
adaptation According to the mandate given by the
yy stipulating clear energy, environmental and Planning and Building Act, physical planning has
climate requirements significant potential to help reduce greenhouse gas
yy focusing on dialogue with citizens and greater emissions. Strategic planning of construction and
public participation. housing, transport, infrastructure, energy supply,
greening of areas etc. in municipal comprehensive
However, though many authorities are taking plans can reduce the impact human activities on
climate change seriously in long-term planning, climate.
there is criticism that climate change has fallen off The need for transport can be reduced by plan-
the political agenda since its peak during the Co- ning attractive local housing, shops, businesses,
penhagen Climate Conference in 2009, and that infrastructure, meeting places and recreational op-
environmental targets are being compromised portunities in or near urban areas. Green house gas
by shorter-term economic considerations at both emission levels are included in the environmental
national and local level. consequences analysis required when Swedish
municipalities develop comprehensive plans.
A 2010 salar survey on physical planning
Planning for local climate change and climate change indicated that most mu-
adaptation and mitigation nicipalities are locating housing, infrastructure
Municipal planning and development often affect and workplaces to encourage the use of public
a larger geographic area, especially in terms of transport or bicycles, and reduce car use and co2
environmental impacts. Climate change has thus emissions. 77% of municipalities are planning for
led to a stronger conviction that issues need to the location of wind generators, and 40% have
be addressed regionally, or through cooperation strict energy efficiency requirements for construc-
between municipalities and coordination between tion on municipal land.
levels of government, in order to reach national
targets. Short-term benefits from climate change
efforts are seldom evident, and as municipalities Efficient food transport in
have limited resources, regional cooperation and Dalarna County
The four municipalities in Dalarna County in the middle of Sweden
national funding are essential.
– Borlänge, Gagnef, Säter, and Smedjebacken – are cooperating to
Areas of strong local climate action in Swe-
procure joint transport for food distribution to schools, pre-schools
den include district heating, combined heat and and elderly care in the region. Decision-makers were looking for
power generation, green public transport, waste holistic solutions, and over the past seven years the model has had
recycling and green public procurement, and how many positive effects on the environment, work efficiency, traffic
solutions are planned and implemented through safety and local markets.
dialogue with citizens and cooperation with local The county has 175 schools, pre-schools and elderly care
businesses. centres, and instead of each supplier delivering their products
with their own truck, everything is sent to a distribution centre and
The consumption of energy and the emission
one contractor transports all food to public institutions. With less
of greenhouse gases in buildings and households distance travelled and lower transport costs, municipalities can
depends on the nature of buildings, their location procure more ecological products from smaller, local producers.
and energy sources. The possibility of supplying It is also safer for children, as there are fewer trucks arriving
buildings with more climate friendly energy in schools and pre-schools during the day, and fewer stops and
is also affected by their structure and location. shorter distances have significantly diminished co2 emissions.
For example, district heating is only possible in In addition, the staff are more efficient, as they now receive one,
instead of six or seven deliveries per day.
compact settlements. Sweden faces major and

51
Stockholm – the accessible city
stockholm
Stockholm is one of the oldest urban settlements
in Sweden, dating back to the 13th. It soon became the
largest town of the country, but it did not gain the status
of capital city of Sweden until 1634. The economy of
Stockholm was based mainly on trade and the political
and administrative role became increasingly important.
Today, Stockholm is the main centre in the country, with
a growing economy incorporating finance, services,
research, education and tourism.
Stockholm is recognised for its progressive engage-
ment in environmental protection and innovation, and has
achieved great progress in protecting air and water quality
and the green environment.
Jürgen Howaldt
The Old Town is the medieval core of Stockholm with an enchant-

ing environment that is attractive and of great historical value.
Most of the area is designated a cultural heritage and thus build-
ings and the urban environment are protected. The area includes
photo
mixed uses with a considerable share of residential properties.
INTERVIEWS Niklas Svensson (City Planning Strategist), Jonas Claeson (Urban Planner), Lisa Enarsson (Project Manager)
Stockholm City Council
Vision Stockholm 2030 Regional Plan are traffic and public ment that reduces the ‘barrier effect’
Vision Stockholm 2030, presented in transport, development nodes and and creates new links
2007, emphasises the city’s strengths service centres, energy provision, and • preserve and develop Stockholm’s
and the opportunities provided by the protection of natural resources and character and beauty
rapid growth in the area. Challenges the environment. • develop a cohesive network, linking
are related to the city’s role in the wider strategic nodes
Stockholm-Mälar Region. Environmen- The Walkable City – the Stockholm • create attractive public spaces in
tal sustainability will be promoted by City Plan parks and recreation areas
a strong drive towards fossil-free fuel, The 2010 Stockholm City Plan is based
improved public transport and compact on the Stockholm Vi-
urban development. The segregated sion and Environmental
character of the urban structure and par- Programme, and is related
ticularly the suburbs will be addressed to the Stockholm Regional
both through a renewal of housing and Plan. The plan identifies as-
urban environment and through social sets and qualities to be pre-
and educational investments. served, and priorities such
Vision Stockholm 2030 is the basis for as the natural environment,
a new Environmental Programme, which public transport and eco-
emphasises climate change mitigation nomic diversity. Challenges
through reduction of harmful emissions include accommodating
and promotion of renewable energy the increasing population, Stockholm City Council
provision. employment creation, a

diverse society needing
Regional cooperation harmonisation, disparities
The Stockholm County Council is the between different areas,
only regional planning authority in and addressing the causes
Sweden that actively prepares regional of climate change.
photos and map
plans. The 2010 Regional Plan provides a

framework and guidelines for municipal Main objectives are to
planning, based on consensus regarding • preserve green areas and
The Stockholm City Plan emphasizes the importance of
overall goals and objectives, and close improve their relation to accessibility. The compact development, mixed land uses,
coordination between municipalities. the built environment walkways and bicycle paths and public transport are the
The key matters addressed by the • undertake new develop- main features in the proposed concept.

• create a cohesive and vibrant city in
• project Sustainable Järva / Husby transport alternatives like cycling, to reduce
the Stockholm’s inner suburbs
Stockholm has initiated an upgrading and traffic.
• promote sustainable urbanisation and improvement programme for the Järva area
environmentally effective solutions on the north-western periphery of the city. The strategy also includes
• support higher education and scien- This long-term programme aims at social in- • improving linkages to major green
tific research. tegration, connectivity between neighbour- zones and neighbouring areas
hoods and a diversified urban environment. • improving accessibility within the area
Järva includes six main neighbourhoods, • developing the central activity corridor
The plan includes strategies to strength- including the Husby-area. • improving walkways and cycle paths,
en the city centre through infilling and The objectives for the Husby-component and restructuring the road network
redevelopment, and improved acces- are good housing and a more varied • adding complementary buildings and
sibility and connectivity. Strategic nodes environment, safety and security, employ- functions
ment creation and skills development. The • creating an attractive urban image
will support a balanced development programme aims to provide complemen- • preserving and developing existing
pattern, linking presently separated sub- tary functions and activities that facilitate qualities and assets.
urbs to achieve social integration and a functional, social and cultural integration.
vibrant urban environment. There will be a variety of housing options, Specific emphasis is put on the participa-
workplaces and employment opportuni- tory approach and the involvement of the
This comprehensive plan involves a
ties, recreation facilities and provisions for inhabitants in the process. A number of
new planning approach that includes easy access to green areas. Other priorities communication strategies have been used.
continuous assessment and evalua- are renewable energy, energy efficiency, The means of communication includes
tion. A ‘rolling’ planning process aims at waste management involving recycling newsletters, information brochures, public
greater efficiency and more flexibility in and reuse, improvement of green areas and meeting, exhibitions and discussion groups.
guiding detailed development planning. TODAY TOMORROW
Development focus areas

The Stockholm City plan identifies
priority objectives such as compact
development in the inner city and com-
plementary development in suburbs.
The prominent couple of projects are
Norra Djurgårdsstaden/Royal Seaport and
Järvalyftet/Sustainable Järva, initiated in
2001 and 2007 respectively.
Complementary land uses and activities and improvements of the urban environment
will give Husby a new image and character. Walkways that will link different parts of
the suburb need to be attractive and provide a variation of experiences. Meeting places,
public service facilities and green urban space along activity corridors will encourage
social interaction.
• project Royal physical and socio-economic structure, a mix exhibitions, information brochures, opinion
Seaport of living and work places, safety and security, surveys, discussion groups and walking tours
Norra Djurgårdstaden is lo- and access to green areas. in development areas. Local information
cated close to the city centre and The planning process is based on active offices have been established to facilitate
at present it includes harbour facilities, indus- participation with frequent consultations, participation.
trial land and smaller residential areas. The
envisaged development is one of the largest
urban development projects in Europe, and
will provide 10 000 housing units and 30 000
workplaces.
The new area will be environmentally
sustainable and climate-smart, with energy-
efficient solutions for transport and housing,
passive-energy housing, climate adaptation,
renewable energy sources, fossil-free fuel for
private and public transport, and recycling
and composting of waste.
The urban structure will be compact and
multi-functional, with mixed uses, a variety of The development will make use of the potential of the locational assets
housing options and easy access to services, with proximity to the water, nature parks and the city centre. The high
recreation and green areas. The emphasis is density structure will incorporate urban greenery, access to services, work
on a varied urban environment with a diverse places, high quality public transport and a variation of housing options.

53 53
8.
dialogue, cooperation
and participation
joining forces for sustainable development
Sustainable development requires and support of communities, if they are to succeed.

holistic thinking that integrates different dimen- Requirements include
sions and sectors, and cooperation and coordina- yy Coordination and cooperation between mu-
tion among international, national, regional nicipalities in developing and operating joint
and local stakeholders. Democratic governance services and addressing regional challenges
involves not only different levels of government, yy Cooperation between municipalities and other
but citizens, businesses and civil society, and good stakeholders such as business and civil society
results depend on effective government institu- to create cities that are attractive for inhabit-
tions, and addressing and balancing the interests of ants, students, visitors and investors
all stakeholders. yy Dialogue between municipalities and County
The Swedish Constitution states that »All pub- Administrative Boards to develop a common
lic power in Sweden proceeds from the people«, vision for sustainable cities
so it is essential that citizens play an active part in yy Dialogue between municipalities and na-
defining and developing a sustainable society. tional government on how to balance different
national sector interests and interpret national
polices
Horizontal and vertical cooperation yy Cooperation in municipalities between differ-
To achieve a quality and sustainable living en- ent functions
vironment, both sector-specific knowledge and yy Cooperation between municipalities and
cross-sector cooperation are needed. Sector-based research institutions, so that approaches to
departments at national level need to support an sustainable urban development are informed
integrated approach by local authorities. This is a by research.
challenge, as municipalities sometimes find eu and
national government directives confusing and even Coordination
contradictory, quite apart from having to balance
them with different local interests.
Development of sustainable cities requires
Cooperation
coordination, cooperation, participation and ho-
listic perspectives. Long-term development plans Dialogue
sometimes propose radical changes that require
broad political agreements and the involvement

dialogue, cooperation and participation
Regional approach to Stakeholder consultation in developing

managing waste the comprehensive plan for Skurup
In the southern region of Skurup is a small municipality in southern Sweden with
Skåne, 14 municipalities around 14 000 inhabitants. In 2009, the local council adopted
with a total of 700 000 in- an updated comprehensive plan. As required, a consultation
habitants, have come to- process was organised, after the first draft plan was devel-
gether to jointly own the oped. The draft was disseminated in circulars and on the
Solid Waste Company of Southwest Scania municipality website, and concerned authorities, organisa-
(SYSAV), creating a regional waste service tions, neighbouring municipalities, interest groups and the
company. The company is responsible for public had the opportunity to give feedback.
treatment and disposal of all different forms
of waste. SYSAV have 280 staff members and The various points of view and inputs were summarised
besides private citizens, 6 000 companies in and commented upon by the municipality. Comments and
Skåne get waste management services from feedback were given by the County Administrative Board
the company. The annual turnover of the in Skåne, the self-governing authority Region Skåne, two
company is 795 million sek. SYSAV is owned political parties, nine branches of state agencies, two private
by the 14 municipalities lead by a board with companies, eight municipalities and municipality-owned
elected politicians from the municipal coun- companies, four interest groups (e.g. village associations),
cils. The headquarters is placed in Malmö. but only five individuals.

Skurup Municipality followed this up by organising four pub-
Consulting and involving citizens lic consultation meetings to discuss the draft comprehensive
and other stakeholders plan and feedback with inhabitants. After the consultation
process, the draft plan was revised, in line with stakeholder
As described in Chapter 6, municipalities are expectations.
legally obliged to organise consultation processes
so that County Administrative Boards, other au-
thorities, businesses, and inhabitants can give input
on comprehensive and detailed development plans.
Proposed plans must be exhibited publicly for at Involving the public in local development
least two months. In some cases, this is a formality, and democracy
but in others, there is comprehensive and inclusive In recent years, many municipalities have im-
public participation. proved public participation in local development,
Besides the formal municipal planning proc- in order to
esses, local and regional governments involve the yy strengthen local democracy by actively involv-
public to varying extents in discussions on econom- ing more people in local processes
ic, social and environmental sustainability issues. yy increase transparency and effectiveness
yy better understand citizens’ priorities and use
citizens’ knowledge as a planning resource
yy inform citizens about the purpose and services
of the municipality
yy increase participation in local elections
yy increase citizens’ contributions to local
development.
Megafonen
Knowledge and information are basic prerequisites for

participation and influence in decision-making. How
information is disseminated and knowledge is created
photo
varies, depending on the purpose and situation.

55
Swedish citizens participate in decision-making in

Strengthening youth participation and various ways. Some prefer to be active in advocacy
influence in Järva organisations, others want to be consulted directly
on local development issues; some like to dem-
»Things have gone too far when decision-makers are syn- onstrate, others prefer to write letters to the local
onymous with politicians. Let’s distribute power and include
newspaper. The important principle is that there
everyone in common decisions.«
Megafonen
should be a range of options for participation in
public decision-making processes.
Järva consists of a number of very different suburbs in In Sweden, 194 of the 290 municipalities have
northern Stockholm, including Kista and Husby. Kista has introduced citizen’s proposals. Anyone registered
over 1500 companies, plenty of new construction and devel- in a municipality has the right to propose an issue
opments, and very low unemployment rates. In Husby, youth for discussion at a council meeting. Councils can
unemployment is 43%, and average incomes are consider- delegate citizens’ proposals to relevant committees,
ably lower than in Kista. Both suburbs have a majority of
which report annually to council on decisions
inhabitants of foreign origin.
Some years ago, a group of youth in Husby formed an
resulting from citizens’ proposals. On average,
organisation, Megafonen (the megaphone), to address their municipalities receive 26 proposals annually. Most
concerns. They decided to be part of the solution and to proposals concern streets, parks and technical
strengthen the political participation and influence of youth matters, and on average, 30% of proposals gain
in Järva. Megafonen works to create more jobs for young municipal support.
people, and to improve educational, leisure and cultural
activities. It encourages belief in the future, and provides
Levels of participation
support in everyday life.
salar uses a ‘participation ladder’ to describe the
Their vision is a society in which everyone has an equal
opportunity to have a good life – regardless of their name, different levels of citizens’ engagement. The five
what they call god, or where they live. Young women are steps are
under-represented in organisational life in Järva, and special yy Information to enable citizen’s participa-
efforts are made to engage young women in projects such tion
as the following. yy Consultation of citizens regarding pre-
Harakat is an informal forum for dialogue on social and ferred alternatives proposed by the authorities
political issues. Young people gather weekly for discus-
yy Dialogue between citizens and decision-
sion nights and ‘lecture cafés’ to exchange experiences and
discuss how to improve the situation for youth in Järva. Local
makers, to discuss issues and make suggestions
decision-makers are invited to participate in these events. – Everyone should have their say, and be heard
InPower is a project that aims to influence politics at the (including via municipal websites)
sub-municipal level and challenge structures that inhibit yy Influence by citizens via participation in
youth engagement. The project newspaper Our Line is dis- processes over time, as partners
tributed in five local suburbs, and several young people from yy Decision-making based on citizens’
the area have been employed and trained as journalists. preferences, expressed in referendums or
Husby Youth Arena is a cultural festival of poetry, music,
consultation process.
lectures, debates, workshops, art, etc., arranged every Au-
gust, in cooperation with local youth.
decision-making
influence
dialogue
consultation
information
Megafonen
photo

Vara Municipality prioritizes youth Quick feedback for decision-makers in Kinda

participation through the citizens’ panel
Vara is a medium-size municipality in Kinda is a small municipality with 9 800 inhabitants in south-east
south-west Sweden. It has 16 000 inhabit- Sweden. Decision-makers in Kinda saw that citizens had many
ants, with half living in rural areas. Vara has opinions and much experience to share, but it was difficult to get
a lower proportion of inhabitants of foreign them to attend meetings.
origin than the national average, yet deci- Kinda thus started a citizens’ panel in 2008, as part of a SAL-
sion-makers became concerned that two AR project involving 30 municipalities. At the start, 35 people were
xenophobic political parties were gaining on the panel, but a year later, there were 116. The citizens’ panel
ground rapidly among young people. The is consulted by the municipality via SMS and e-mail on various
municipality thus introduced forums where matters, from opening hours at the recycling station to willingness
people could discuss matters of concern, to to pay more tax to improve elderly care. About ten matters are put
strengthen local democracy. to the panel each year. Answers are summarized and sent to the
Young people were a particular target relevant committee and department, then back to the panel.
group of the initiative. From 2006, a youth »I want to give my opinion, but I am not interested in spend-
council was established with 221 of the 680 ing hours in meetings or getting involved in a political party«
high school students in Vara, and partici- says Lina Jensen, a member of the panel. The municipal manager
pants are regularly consulted by the munici- Anders Lind reflects: »It is becoming increasingly important for the
pality via a web-based discussion forum. municipality to use social media, and the citizens’ panel. Every-
thing from Facebook, blogs and Twitter
to e-petitions and referendums can
inform political discussion.«
Information technology and public
participation
Development in the Swedish public sector has and Twitter are increasingly important
been facilitated by rapid developments in technol- for reaching people and for political
ogy. Today, authorities and citizens can share discussion.
information and interact more easily and quickly IT solutions are often used to
using modern information and communications engage citizens in local government affairs and in
technologies. This has facilitated increased com- local development, through interactive websites,
munication and transparency, which has improved citizen panels, online surveys and Internet discus-
accessibility and responsiveness to citizens’ needs. sions, petitions and referendums.
Sweden is well-placed to use IT for demo- E-petitions are citizens proposals posted on
cratic purposes. The Global Information Technol- municipal or county council websites, where other
ogy Report 2009–2010 placed Sweden first among citizens can sign them. Municipal Internet-based
133 countries in Internet use, and mobile phones referendums invite citizens to vote on alternative
are the most common communication tool. For solutions, and promise that the results will guide
politicians, parties and opinion-makers, blogs the final decision.
Sigtuna Municipality invites citizens to have the final say

Sigtuna Municipality is 40 kilometers north of Stockholm, referendums were on elderly care in the municipality, rural
and has around 40 000 inhabitants. Politicians, worried development and general municipal development issues.
about declining voter turnouts in local elections, decided on Voting in referendums is web-based, but the municipal-
a number of measures to enhance citizens’ input and influ- ity also arranged meetings to inform citizens about the is-
ence between elections. sues and voting procedures. This led to a significant increase
One method introduced was deliberate referendums. in voter turnout in the last local election, and the council
Between 2005 and 2008, Sigtuna organized 14 referendums, has decided to continue to use referendums for important
mostly on physical planning issues, e.g. the design of new issues.
developments and the location of roads and parks. Other

57
Malmö – from crisis to a successful model
malmö
for sustainable development
INTERVIEWS Inger Nilsson (City Director), Johan Emanuelson, Anna Lethagen and Fritjof Brandt, City Planning Office
si-
Malmö City has changed dramati-
r re
ors
cally over the last two to three decades.
isit
y fo
dv
cit
Older industries such as shipbuilding
an
afe
and textile manufacturing have been
ess
ds
sin
an
replaced by construction, logistics, new
Div
, bu
ve
technologies and commerce. With 300 Social diversity and good
in c
c ti
ers
nts
ra
SOCIAL
ity
living conditions for all
ifie
000 residents from 170 nationalities,
de
Att
and
de
Malmö is an international city.
con
reg
A new university with 15 000 students
om
ion
is part of an innovative and entrepre-
y
neurial environment. Huge infrastruc-
ture investments, including a bridge to
Denmark and a re-engineered railway SUSTAINABLE
OMIC
ENVIR
network with an 8 km tunnel, have laid CITY
a foundation for local and regional eco-
ON
O
nomic development.
and
NM
EC
Den
NT
mix
nt
AL
me
A turn-around strategy out of a crisis
se,
ed-
n
gre
viro
use
Resource efficiency
rgy
In the 1990s, Malmö faced a crisis due to
en
l en
ene
city
a long period of economic decline and and sustainable mobility
sta
ble
stagnation. The city administration had
ony coa
wa
a huge deficit, and all departments had
arm ral/
ene
in h an/ru
to cut costs year after year, resulting in
al r
Loc
deteriorating infrastructure and public
Urb
spaces. Political life was fraught by con- Image: Malmö City
frontation and infighting.
The 1994 elections brought in new The great challenge for Malmö City is rious socio-economic inequality creates
political leaders, willing to stop con- now to address residential and socio- social instability, which affects economic
frontation and unite behind a vision for economic segregation and develop development negatively. A divided city
a complete turn-around for the city. A greater equality, social justice, diversity is not attractive or sustainable. Invest-
strategy was agreed and the first steps and democracy, as the social dimension ments in ecological sustainability can
were to facilitate economic growth and of sustainability. spur economic development and social
development by building attractive new sustainability.
residential areas close to the sea (the Value based and inclusive planning An important aspect of social sustain-
old shipyard), and to establish a modern processes ability is to support and strengthen local
university, with support from national Sustainable cities like Malmö are shaped initiatives and partnerships in neigh-
government. by a common vision and values, rather bourhoods and districts. This goes hand-
These developments brought new than technical considerations. Instead in-hand with the municipal responsibil-
life to the economy. They coincided with of detailed control and regulations, city ity to ensure that planning processes are
major national infrastructure develop- planners should ensure that a shared democratic and built on dialogue and
ments in the region, with Malmö City as vision is maintained among politicians, active participation.
an active partner - building the bridge residents and the business community. The population of Malmö has
between Sweden and Denmark, and Developing a sustainable city requires changed, and is today one of the young-
constructing a connecting railway tun- an integrated approach. Without a est in Sweden, with 53% of residents
nel under the city, with new stations in healthy eco-system, economic and social living as singles. What impact will this
the urban landscape. sustainability cannot be achieved. Main- have on the future? What housing will
The strategy succeeded, and Malmö taining and developing ecological sus- be needed by different family con-
has seen a decade of economic develop- tainability requires economic resources. figurations and changing lifestyles? The
ment and become an international Economic development creates jobs that City has employed a number of young
model for ecological sustainability. are necessary for social sustainability. Se- academics as part of the Young People

Participation by all
in Focus Project, and placed them in all central heating system. A pipe system has Residents carried out traffic surveys, and
main sections of the municipal admin- been installed under a gravel sports field. certain streets were restructured to mini-
istration to inspire management with During winter, the system is connected mise through-traffic and increase safety
young people’s perspectives and values, to a refrigerating machine and the field is for cyclists and pedestrians. Residents
and to develop ways for young people turned into an ice rink. The rest of the year started a car pool, with the support from
to influence the development of the the sports field functions as a huge solar the city administration.
municipality. collector. A wind power plant has been The district’s green areas have been
installed at a local school. developed, leading to greater biodiversi-
Creative environments are good for All residents sort their waste at 15 ty, cooling in hot summer months, traffic
city development recycling units situated in the yards of noise reduction and better surface water
Malmö City Planning Office has defined the housing area. There are containers management. Green roofs, flowering per-
the public realm as a variety of places for paper, cardboard, coloured glass, ennials, fruit trees and wetlands are key
and spaces where different people see uncoloured glass, metal, plastic and bat- features. Malmö City built a new ecologi-
and meet one another, and are brought teries. Composting of food waste started cal drainage system in the housing area,
closer together in their daily lives. By early in the ecological reorientation and 90% of stormwater from roofs and
considering individual lifestyles and programme, and since 2008, Augusten- hard surfaces is collected in gutters and
movement patterns, architects and plan- borg has been a pilot area for separating channelled into 6 km of ditches, canals
ners can create conditions for natural, food waste to make biogas. Today, 70 % and small ponds, which have improved
everyday, positive encounters between of household food waste goes to biogas the aesthetics of the district and stopped
people of different origins, to develop a production. flooding in the area.
greater sense of community.
Eco-city Augustenborg
Eco-city Augustenborg is a programme,
started in 1998, to make the district more
sustainable. Augustenborg has now
become an attractive, multicultural neigh-
bourhood, and an example of ecologically
sensitive urban renewal.
Augustenborg is also a good example
of how to mobilise residents for ecological
City of Malmö
reorientation. Residents, pupils and peo-
ple working in the area have been actively
involved in various practical surveys and
photos
other research activities, in development
planning and in designing the physical
Eco-city Augustenborg is one of Sweden’s
environment.
largest urban sustainability projects. It
Main parts of the district established in was supported by the government’s Local
the 1950s had declined significantly and Investment Programme and co-financed
the challenge was to involve residents by Malmö City and its housing company.
in a process to revitalise the area and One key aim is to enable residents to take a
leading role in the design and implementa-
turn it into a model for sustainable urban tion of the project in partnership with the City
development. Achievements include the administration, local schools and businesses.
following. A number of demonstration photovoltaic
A new school was built using modular systems have been installed (upper left). This
natural materials, which can be disman- was the starting point for Solar City Malmö,
another component of Malmö’s urban
tled and relocated to another area in sustainability development initiatives. There
the future, should the number of pupils are some 11 000 m2 green roofs in the area
decrease in Augustenborg. The school (upper right). Rooftop vegetation reduces and
has a ground-source heat pump and solar detains stormwater and has an insulation
effect on the buildings. It also adds to greater
panels. biodiversity. The City’s Water & Wastewater
Energy efficiency measures have been department built a new ecological storm-
implemented throughout the neigh- water drainage system conveying the water
bourhood. Some apartment buildings through canals, ditches, ponds and wetlands.
have achieved a 35% increase in energy The system added another aesthetic quality
to Augustenborg.
efficiency through better insulation. Solar
collectors have been connected to the

59
Gender and influence When analyzing environmental issues and climate

Gender is an important aspect of participation change from a gender perspective on a global
and influence in society, concerning how men and level, there are vast differences in how men and
women respectively are involved in and benefit women are affected, in who protects and who af-
from decision-making. Sustainable development fects the environment, and in who takes decisions
entails equal respect for all human beings. In about development. Gender inequalities often
Sweden, it is often argued that it is important to mean that women have less influence, but are
acknowledge the role of gender in our lives, and most affected in times of crisis.
discuss its validity and impact, as it affects
yy the way we organize work - who does what and
why
yy who has access to formal and informal decision The 3Rs method of gender analysis
The 3Rs method is used by many Swedish
making power
municipalities to review and plan activities
yy who decides what is important at home, at work
from a gender perspective. The method
and in society seeks to answer the question: Who gets
yy who takes care of children and why what, and on what terms? The three R’s are
yy who has control over resources and why yy Representation – How many men and
yy who should be leaders and managers and why. how many women are involved?
yy Resources – How are organisational
Gender concerns power distribution, human rights, resources (money, space and time) dis-
tributed between men and women?
democracy, and social and economic development.
yy Reasons – Why are representation and
Gender inequalities are unfair, and costly in terms
resources distributed between the sexes
of reduced outputs, well-being and efficiency. Wom- in this way?
en and men contribute to development in different
ways and on different levels. Women and men Lundby, a neighborhood council in
sometimes have different priorities, perspectives Gothenburg Municipality, used the 3Rs
and contributions. The best guarantee of sustain- method to change procedures. During a
able development in organisations and society is to training seminar on the 3Rs method, politi-
cians asked themselves how much of their
include the priorities, needs and potential of both
local civil society funding support went to
sexes in all activities. men and women respectively. All organisa-
photo GU Image bank
tions that received support in the last year
were asked about the proportion of men
and women among members, leaders, staff,
board, and participants in activities.
The results showed that organisations
dominated by men were given more gener-
ous funding support than those dominated
by women. After realizing this, new applica-
tion procedures were developed, and all
organisations now need to provide com-
prehensive gender statistics in their funding
applications.
Even though the political representation of men and

women in Sweden is fairly equal, real political influ-
ence and power sometimes is unevenly distributed.
One analysis of municipal council meetings showed
that even though the proportion of men and women
is close to 50/50, only a third of contributions to de-
bates came from women. Men also used more time
than women for speaking.

9.
Movements and initiatives influencing
policies and attitudes
Sweden has a tradition of concern for nature

and the environment, and of popular movements A right to roam freely in the countryside
»Don’t disturb – Don’t destroy.«
to influence other people and decision-makers. The Right of Public Access summarised
Sweden was and is a comparatively egalitarian so- by the Environment Protection Agency
ciety, with limited hierarchic structures restricting
social mobility and relationships. The country is In Sweden, the Right of Public Access is a unique right
to roam freely in the countryside, guaranteed in the
also consensus-oriented, with a political culture of
Swedish Constitution, though not exactly defined in any
compromise rather than conflict. Decision-makers, statute. Swedes regard this right as part of their cultural
experts, and the public thus often join forces to heritage, and a matter of national pride. Its origins go
address challenges such as environmental issues back to laws and customs in the Middle Ages. The Right
and sustainable development. Ordinary citizens of Public Access permits anybody to walk, camp or pick
and civil society are able to mobilize, and influence berries and mushrooms freely, even on private land. But
politicians at national and local levels. with the right comes responsibilities – to take care of na-
ture and wildlife and to show consideration for landown-
ers and others enjoying the countryside.
Popular movements in Sweden The reasons why Swedes spend time in the coun-
tryside have changed – today nature also provides an
Until the end of the 19th century, Sweden was arena for popular activities
largely a country of independent family farmers, but such as mountain-biking,
increasing trade and industrialization forced less paragliding, white-water
prosperous farmers into industrial towns as workers. rafting and climbing. With
From this time, popular movements devel- most people living in cities
and towns, the result has
oped, such as the workers’ movement, the temper-
been greater pressure
ance movement and nonconformist churches,
on countryside nearby. A
demanding rights and challenging the status quo. new issue is the increasing
These organisations introduced comprehensive commercialization of such
adult education for the working class. activities by tour opera-
As political ideologies became more influential tors, who make use of the
than old religious and aristocratic dogmas, the Right of Public Access
tradition of Nordic liberal adult education was to make money on land
belonging to others.
born, in opposition to classical education, which
focused mainly on educating the elite. By meeting

61
Policies and attitudes
to discuss political issues and learn together, they and other toxic substances. This led to demands for
improved their own situation in life and influenced complete restructuring of production processes,
social conditions. Free elementary education for all and alternative production and alternative living
children from 1842 on led to high literacy rates. became common terms. Early environmental
The popular movements fostered a democratic mobilization included protests against the building
culture through their meetings and protests, and of dams, and expanding car traffic and traffic plan-
democratic member-governed organisations. They ning. The world’s first national environment agency
no longer accepted that the upper classes should was established in 1967.
photo Scania image bank make all decisions concerning cultural life, The expansion of nuclear power in 1973–74
or what was taught in schools. sparked mass resistance by environmental or-
Many movements founded in the 19th ganisations, and led to demands to reduce energy
century are still a vital part of Swedish consumption, based on public regulation and
society, but today there is a multitude of democratic participation, instead of escalating
new civil society organisations in Sweden. consumption.
An estimated 200 000 such organisations In 1980, pressure from this movement led to a
have over 32 million members, from a national referendum on nuclear power in Sweden.
population of 9 million people – an average The environmental movement lost, but the result of
of over 4 memberships per inhabitant. the referendum is still open to interpretation and
Liberal adult education also endures, debate. The alternative that got the most votes was
and today there are ten different study a slow reduction in nuclear power, as energy from
associations in Sweden, with about 350 000 other sources was increased.
study circles and three million participants, After this, the environmental movement
which study a broad range of issues, includ- lost momentum, as the professionalization and
ing many related to the environment and bureaucratization of environmental issues began,
sustainable development. and many government environmental offices were
As Sweden became established. It was not until the 1990s that the
industrialized, many
independent farmers left environment and sustainable development issues
rural areas to become
industrial workers. When
100 years of environmental again mobilized people to a significant extent.
popular movements movements The Green Party, established in 1981, was
developed, and workers
organized and educated In 1909, Sweden’s first environment organisation, elected to the Riksdag for the first time in 1988,
themselves, the demand the Swedish Society for Nature Conservation and in the 2010 election won 7,34% of the vote,
increased for good work-
ing environments and (ssnc) was established, and today it is the biggest making it the third biggest party in Sweden. Now,
protection of the public
and natural environment member-based environmental organisation in all political parties have environmental policies and
from the harmful effects the country, with over 190 000 paying members. programmes, due to the urgency of climate change
of industry.
ssnc’s main focus areas are climate, the oceans, and other sustainable development issues.
forests, environmental toxins, and agriculture.
Other popular movements took an interest in
environmental and quality of life issues from the
late 19th century. Workers movements and trade Environmental attitudes
unions were particularly concerned about good of women and men
working environments and the effects of industry »Men’s struggle for dominance over nature
on the public and local environment. has been fought side by side with their
However, it was not until the 1960s that struggle for domination over women. The
environmental movements gained significant influ- victory over domination must be a double
ence. People from the peace and healthy lifestyle victory if it is to be complete.«
movements joined forces to address environmental Elin Wägner in her book Alarm Clock, 1941
threats such as ddt, mercury build-up in biomass,

ganisations usually engage in formal dialogue with

public authorities, and are often used as consulta-
tion partners in decision-making processes.
In recent decades, traditional organisations co-
While the women’s movement in early 20th
century focused on equal civil rights and exist with flexible network organisations to address
opportunities for women, the movement single issues by protesting against e.g. fur-trading,
of the 1960s and 1970s demanded gender landmines, car traffic, demolition of a specific
equality in all areas of life – economical, building, or more globally, advocating the freeing
social, and political. Women in the Swedish of particular political prisoners. However,
environmental movement were inspired by these single issues are often positioned in a
Elin Wägner (1882–1949), a feminist who
broader political framework that advocates
connected environmental and feminist is-
alternative ways of life, more solidarity
sues. They were often most active on issues
that threatened human health and repro- between human beings, less consumerism in
duction, such as nuclear power, pesticides, society, etc.
harmful work environments and deteriorat- These organisations do not always
ing food quality. have a formal structure or membership, but
mobilize people around different issues,
Nowadays, both men and women are often globally, using the Internet. In this
actively engaged in environmental sustain-
way, organisations and people with different
ability and climate change debates. How-
ever, surveys show that women are more
agendas find common cause and a stronger
concerned than men, and are more willing voice.
to actively contribute. For example: In the urban sector, in Sweden and
yy 60% of Swedes are worried about internationally, there are various move-
climate change, but least concerned ments which address urban development
group is men aged 15– 29 issues such as segregation, gentrification,
yy 36% of women and 24% of men see
or commercialization. Street art is a form of
environment as an important factor artist-initiated, often
illegal, activity in urban
when investing in shares environments. The basic
yy 46% of women and 37% of men buy idea of street art is that
Gentrification citizens themselves take
locally produced or organic food
changes that result when wealthier people responsibility for the dec-
yy 74% of Swedes recycle their household oration of public space.
(gentry) acquire property in low-income and Sometimes it is purely
waste, 77% of women and 70% of men
working class communities, resulting in the about artistic expression
yy 69% of women and 49% of men save while at other times the
poorer original residents being unable to aim is to reshape the
energy switching off equipment and by
pay increased rents and house prices. Often, urban environment by
using less hot water. adding more personal,
old industrial buildings are converted to
meaningful, and critical
residences, shops and new businesses cater- messages as an alterna-
ing for more affluent people, who progres- tive to commercial
advertisements.
Contemporary urban movements sively displace the poor. Urban gentrification
sometimes changes a culturally heterogene-
Traditional social movements and civil soci-
ous community into a more economically
ety organisations continue to be important in
homogeneous community.
Swedish society, also in relation to sustainable
development and urban planning. There are large
membership organisations advocating for cyclists’ Urban movements are very heterogeneous and
rights, public health, park conservation, etc. many are best described as sub-cultures. Some
Temporary interest groups also form around manifest in outright protest, e.g. against a planned
specific planned urban developments that will new development, through occupation of empty
affect inhabitants and local businesses – positively buildings that are to be demolished, or blocking
or negatively. Both permanent and temporary or- traffic to protest against pollution and/or the

63
marginalization of pedestrians or cyclists in cities.

Others focus on re-conquering public space Fare-dodging as advocacy
and fighting gentrification or situations where Planka.nu is a civil society network active in
they believe authorities have ‘sold out’ their different cities in Sweden, founded in 2001
to oppose increasing costs and privatiza-
city to private interests. Such initiatives include
tion of public transport. The goal of Planka.
Reclaim the street and Reclaim the city parties nu is tax-financed free public transport, and
and protests organized in streets. These events it uses ordinary advocacy methods such as
have often become riots. Street art movements seminars, participating in debates, and writ-
and graffiti artists ‘decorate’ public spaces. Many ing newspaper articles.
see such behaviour as vandalism, while others see
it as legitimate expression and participation in But it also uses direct action called ‘self-
reduction’ of public transport costs by
public debate.
fare-dodging on buses and subways. This
There are also movements that work to
semi-criminal activity is financed by a fund
improve the quality of urban life and environments ‘p-kassan’ – a kind of free-riding insurance.
by organizing urban greening and agriculture, Members pay an annual fee, and if they get
promoting organic and locally produced food, and caught and are fined, they pay a small part
establishing allotment garden associations. and the p-kassan fund pays the balance. The
surplus from p-kassan is used e.g. to buy
subway passes for paperless migrants, or to
fund underground publishing.
Planka.nu argue that tax-financed public

transport would help fight segregation and
so create a better urban environment, as
poorer people mostly live in suburbs far
away from city centres. There are some who
support the goals of Planka.nu, but not its
methods. Not surprisingly, public transport
companies and municipalities are very frus-
trated by the activities of Planka.nu, which
they see as stealing from other citizens.
With inspiration from Germany and Denmark, allotment gardens emerged in Sweden
more than a hundred years ago, as the society transformed from mostly rural to ur-
ban and industrialized. This change often had chocking effects on family farmers who
left rather free work and nature for monotonous work inside industries and living in
cramped barracks. Allotment gardens became a welcome and affordable refuge for
the new urbanites. Since then the allotment gardening movement has gone through
many phases, from being a contributor to public health, to providing important
cultivation opportunities in times of crisis, to being a place for leisure for stressed city
people, often with often considerable monetary value.
Allotment gardens are strictly regulated (size, construction permits etc.) and every
member belongs to an association which is managed by a democratically elected
board. Associations and their umbrella organisations work closely with local authori-
ties on issues of urban development. The International Allotment Garden Association
has over 3 million members and has a participative status at the Council of Europe.

Selected references
Among the main references used to develop this booklet are:
Books and other printed materials

A Northern Democracy, ICLD/ SIPU International, 2010
11 tankar om medborgardialog i styrning, SALAR, 2010
The Economy Report, SALAR, 2009
Effektivt och hållbart transportsystem, positionspapper, SALAR 2010
Energi och klimat, positionspapper, SALAR 2008
En svensk strategi för hållbar utveckling – ekonomisk, social och miljömässig, Regeringskansliet, 2003
The Environmental Code – a summary, Regeringskansliet, 1998
Forskning om energi – ett urval projekt, Formas, 2011
Fysisk Riksplanering, Bostadsdepartementet/Statens Planverk 1985
Gender Equality in Public Service, Government Offices of Sweden, 2007
History of Sweden, Swedish Institute, 2008
Hållbar stadsutveckling, positionspapper, SALAR 2010
Levels of Local Democracy in Sweden, SALAR, 2010
Miljömålen på ny grund, Naturvårdsverket, 2011
Municipalities and regions on the competitive edge, SALAR, 2009
Planer som styrmedel för att minska samhällets klimatpåverkan, Boverket 2009
Planning for climate change, UN-Habitat,draft version 2011
Planning System of Sweden, Gösta Blücher,2006
Public Finances in Sweden, SCB, 2007
Samhällsbyggande för klimatet, kommuner som visar vägen, SALAR 2011
Sustainable energy and climate policy for the environment, competitiveness and long-term stability,
Regeringskansliet, 2009
Swedish Government Offices Yearbook 2009, Government Offices, 2009
Taxes in Sweden, Swedish Tax Authority, 2009
Uthållig kommun, etapp 3, Energimyndigheten, 2011
Laws
The Instrument of Government of 1974
Act on Local Government of 1991
Environmental Code 1999
Planning and Building Act of 2011
Websites
Government of Sweden www.regeringen.se
Göteborg City www.goteborg.se
Malmö City www.malmo.se
Swedish Parliament www.riksdagen.se
SALAR www.skl.se
Statistics Sweden www.scb.se
Stockholm City www.stockholm.se
Sundsvall municipality www.sundsvall.se
Växjö municipality www.vaxjo.se
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency www.naturvardsverket.se
Swedish National Board of Housing, Building www.boverket.se
and Planning
Other
In addition to the above sources of information, much valuable input to this booklet has been given
through discussions and interviews with several central and local government officials and their organi-
sations. Furthermore, valuable information has been gathered from official documents such as visions
& strategies, policies, guidelines, and manuals, stemming from Swedish public sector organisations and
municipalities and regions.
swedish international development cooperation agency
This publication was financed by Sida

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developing Sustainable

ICLD, Visby, Sweden

SKL International, Stockholm, Sweden

1. A country of democratic traditions 2

göteborg – the harbour city 20

sundsvall – industrial city and regional centre 28

LINKÖPING–NORRKÖPING – integration for sustainable development 40

STOCKHOLM – the accessible city 52

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Basic facts on Sweden

2 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

SCA image bank

Sweden has gradually moved from having

4 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

CENTRAL LEVEL State

REGIONAL County Regional County

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

yy The Freedom of the Press Act of 1949 guar-

The Riksdag elects a Prime Minister who forms

The Swedish parliament, the Riksdag, is situated in the

6 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Policy area Responsible ministries

Elections and political parties National election results 2010

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Government implementing County Administrative Boards support municipal

8 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

esses involve many actors at different levels of

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

10 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Early industrialisation Early municipal reforms

Jonsered is an example of an industrial establishment that

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Strengthening municipalities New planning instruments resulting from this

The emphasis on qualitative and

12 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

photo Stockholm Stadsmuseum

14 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Support for strong local Municipal councils appoint an Executive Board

16 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

efficiency. Municipalities decide what functions Democratic decision-making

yy A decision cannot be in conflict with laws or

yy A decision must be concerned with non-

speculative activities and any fees that are

to encouraging young people to

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Tasks and responsibilities assigned

Municipalities may take responsibility for

Tasks and responsibilities of county

See more in chapter 4.

18 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Sustainable development of our society requires

and information brochures, will assist the debate,

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

The »Klippan reserve« is a cultural heritage site

20 developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

New aspects of development

developing sustainable cities in sweden • 2011

Education and childcare services

yy Language training for new immigrants

yy Education for persons with special needs. ity, county council