Pea

The pea is most commonly the small spherical seed or the seed-pod of
the pod fruit Pisum sativum. Each pod contains several peas, which can Pea
be green or yellow. Botanically, pea pods are fruit,[2] since they contain
seeds and develop from the ovary of a (pea) flower. The name is also
used to describe other edible seeds from the Fabaceae such as the pigeon
pea (Cajanus cajan), the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata), and the seeds
from several species of Lathyrus.

P. sativum is an annual plant, with a life cycle of one year. It is a cool-

season crop grown in many parts of the world; planting can take place
from winter to early summer depending on location. The average pea
weighs between 0.1 and 0.36 gram.[3] The immature peas (and in snow
peas the tender pod as well) are used as a vegetable, fresh, frozen or
Peas are contained within a pod.
canned; varieties of the species typically called field peas are grown to
produce dry peas like the split pea shelled from a matured pod. These
are the basis of pease porridge and pea soup, staples of medieval cuisine;
in Europe, consuming fresh immature green peas was an innovation of
early modern cuisine.

The wild pea is restricted to the Mediterranean basin and the Near East.
The earliest archaeological finds of peas date from the late Neolithic era
of current Greece, Syria, Turkey and Jordan. In Egypt, early finds date
from c. 4800–4400 BC in the Nile delta area, and from c. 3800–
3600 BC in Upper Egypt. The pea was also present in Georgia in the
5th millennium BC. Farther east, the finds are younger. Peas were
present in Afghanistan c. 2000 BC; in Harappan civilization around
modern-day Pakistan and western- and northwestern India in 2250–
1750 BC. In the second half of the 2nd millennium BC, this legume
crop appears in the Ganges Basin and southern India.[4]

Pea plant: Pisum sativum

Contents Scientific classification

Domain: Eukaryota
Description
History Kingdom: Plantae
Modern culinary use Clade: Tracheophytes
Manufacturing frozen peas Clade: Angiosperms
Grading
Clade: Eudicots
Nutritional value
Clade: Rosids
Varieties
Garden peas Order: Fabales
Sugar peas Family: Fabaceae
Field peas Genus: Pisum
Pests and diseases
Species: P. sativum
Peas in science
 Genome Binomial name
Peas in medicine Pisum sativum
Nitrogen-fixing ability L.
Etymology Synonyms[1]
See also
Lathyrus oleraceus Lam.
References
Pisum arvense L.
Bibliography
Pisum biflorum Raf.
External links
Pisum elatius M.Bieb.
Pisum humile Boiss. & Noe
Description
Pisum vulgare Jundz.
A pea is a most commonly green, occasionally golden yellow,[6] or
infrequently purple[7] pod-shaped vegetable, widely grown as a cool-
season vegetable crop. The seeds may be planted as soon as the soil
temperature reaches 10 °C (50 °F), with the plants growing best at
temperatures of 13 to 18 °C (55 to 64 °F). They do not thrive in the
summer heat of warmer temperate and lowland tropical climates, but do
grow well in cooler, high-altitude, tropical areas. Many cultivars reach
maturity about 60 days after planting.[8]

Peas have both low-growing and vining cultivars. The vining cultivars Pisum sativum : ripe pods dehiscing
grow thin tendrils from leaves that coil around any available support and to shed ripe seeds - MHNT
can climb to be 1–2 m high. A traditional approach to supporting climbing
peas is to thrust branches pruned from trees or other woody plants upright
into the soil, providing a lattice for the peas to climb. Branches used in this
fashion are sometimes called pea brush. Metal fences, twine, or netting
supported by a frame are used for the same purpose. In dense plantings,
peas give each other some measure of mutual support. Pea plants can self-
pollinate.[9]

History
In early times, peas were grown mostly for their dry seeds.[10] From plants
growing wild in the Mediterranean basin, constant selection since the
Neolithic dawn of agriculture[11] improved their yield. In the early 3rd
century BC Theophrastus mentions peas among the legumes that are sown Flowers of Pisum sativum
late in the winter because of their tenderness.[12] In the first century AD,
Columella mentions them in De re
rustica, when Roman legionaries still Mean land use of different foods compared to peas[5]
gathered wild peas from the sandy soils
of Numidia and Judea to supplement
Food Types Land Use (m2year per 100g protein)
their rations. Lamb and Mutton 185
Beef 164
In the Middle Ages, field peas are 41
Cheese
constantly mentioned, as they were the
staple that kept famine at bay, as Pork 11
Charles the Good, count of Flanders, Poultry 7.1
noted explicitly in 1124.[13] Eggs 5.7
Farmed Fish 3.7
Green "garden" peas, eaten immature
and fresh, were an innovative luxury of
Early Modern Europe. In England, the
distinction between field peas and
Worldwide pea yield
Groundnuts 3.5
Peas 3.4
Tofu 2.2
garden peas dates from the early 17th century: John Gerard
and John Parkinson both mention garden peas. Sugar peas,
which the French called mange-tout, for they were consumed
pods and all, were introduced to France from the market
gardens of Holland in the time of Henri IV, through the
French ambassador. Green peas were introduced from Genoa
to the court of Louis XIV of France in January 1660, with
some staged fanfare; a hamper of them were presented before
the King, and then were shelled by the Savoyan comte de
Soissons, who had married a niece of Cardinal Mazarin; little
dishes of peas were then presented to the King, the Queen,
Cardinal Mazarin and Monsieur, the king's brother.[14]

Peas, green, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 339 kJ (81 kcal)
Carbohydrates 14.45 g
Sugars 5.67 g
Dietary fiber 5.1 g
Fat 0.4 g
Pea in a painting by Mateusz Protein 5.42 g
Tokarski, ca. 1795 (National Museum
in Warsaw)
Vitamins Quantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv. 38 μg 5%
beta-Carotene 449 μg 4%
Immediately established and grown for lutein zeaxanthin 2477 μg
earliness warmed with manure and Thiamine (B1) 0.266 mg 23%
protected under glass, they were still a Riboflavin (B2) 0.132 mg 11%
luxurious delicacy in 1696, when Mme Niacin (B3) 2.09 mg 14%
de Maintenon and Mme de Sevigné each Vitamin B6 0.169 mg 13%
reported that they were "a fashion, a Folate (B9) 65 μg 16%
fury".[15] Vitamin C 40 mg 48%
Vitamin E 0.13 mg 1%
Modern split peas, with their indigestible
Vitamin K 24.8 μg 24%
skins rubbed off, are a development of
the later 19th century. Minerals Quantity %DV†
Calcium 25 mg 3%
Modern culinary use Iron
Magnesium
1.47 mg
33 mg
11%
9%
Manganese 0.41 mg 20%
In modern times peas are usually boiled
Phosphorus 108 mg 15%
or steamed, which breaks down the cell
walls and makes the taste sweeter and Potassium 244 mg 5%
the nutrients more bioavailable. Along Sodium 5 mg 0%
with broad beans and lentils, these Zinc 1.24 mg 13%
formed an important part of the diet of
most people in the Middle East, North Link to USDA Database entry (http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/li
Africa and Europe during the Middle st?qlookup=11304&format=Full)
Ages.[16] By the 17th and 18th Units
centuries, it had become popular to eat
peas "green", that is, while they are
immature and right after they are
picked.[17] New cultivars of peas were
developed by the English during this
time, which became known as "garden"
or
μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
IU = International units
†Percentagesare roughly approximated using US recommendations
for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient Database (https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html)
Split peas (raw)

Yellow split peas

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,425 kJ (341 kcal)
Carbohydrates 60 g
Sugars 8g
Fresh peas for sale in their Dietary fiber 26 g
pods on a UK market stall Fat 1g
Protein 25 g
"English" peas. The popularity of green Vitamins Quantity %DV†
peas spread to North America. Thomas
Thiamine (B1) 0.7 mg 61%
Jefferson grew more than 30 cultivars of
Pantothenic acid (B5) 1.7 mg 34%
peas on his estate.[18] With the invention
Folate (B9) 274 μg 69%
of canning and freezing of foods, green
peas became available year-round, and Minerals Quantity %DV†
not just in the spring as before. Iron 4 mg 31%
Units
Fresh peas are often eaten boiled and
flavored with butter and/or spearmint as μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
a side dish vegetable. Salt and pepper are IU = International units
also commonly added to peas when †Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations
served. Fresh peas are also used in pot
for adults.
pies, salads and casseroles. Pod peas
Source: USDA Nutrient Database (https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/index.html)
(snow peas and snap peas) are used in
stir-fried dishes, particularly those in
American Chinese cuisine.[19] Pea pods do not keep well once picked,
and if not used quickly, are best preserved by drying, canning or freezing
within a few hours of harvest.[20]

In India, fresh peas are used in various dishes such as aloo matar (curried
potatoes with peas) or matar paneer (paneer cheese with peas), though
they can be substituted with frozen peas as well. Peas are also eaten raw,
as they are sweet when fresh off the bush. Green Peas known as Hasiru
Batani in Kannada are used to make curry and Gasi.[21] Split peas are also
used to make dal, particularly in Guyana, and Trinidad, where there is a Frozen green peas
significant population of Indians.
Dried peas are often made into a soup or simply eaten on their own. In
Japan, China, Taiwan and some Southeast Asian countries, including
Thailand, the Philippines and Malaysia, peas are roasted and salted, and
eaten as snacks. In the Philippines, peas, while still in their pods, are a
common ingredient in viands and pansit. In the UK, dried yellow or green
split peas are used to make pease pudding (or "pease porridge"), a
traditional dish. In North America, a similarly traditional dish is split pea
soup.

Pea soup is eaten in many other parts of the world, including northern
Europe, parts of middle Europe, Russia, Iran, Iraq and India.[22] In A basket of peas in pods
Sweden it is called ärtsoppa, and is eaten as a traditional Swedish food
which predates the Viking Age. This food was made from a fast-growing
pea that would mature in a short growing season. Ärtsoppa was especially
popular among the poor, who traditionally only had one pot and
everything was cooked together for a dinner using a tripod to hold the pot
over the fire.

In Chinese cuisine, the tender new growth [leaves and stem] dou miao ( ⾖
苗 ; dòu miáo) are commonly used in stir-fries. Much like picking the
leaves for tea, the farmers pick the tips off of the pea plant.

In Greece, Tunisia, Turkey, Cyprus, and other parts of the Mediterranean,

peas are made into a stew with lamb and potatoes. Peas in fried rice

In Hungary and Serbia, pea soup is often served with dumplings and
spiced with hot paprika.[23][24][25]

In the United Kingdom, dried, rehydrated and mashed marrowfat peas, or cooked green split peas, known as
mushy peas, are popular, originally in the north of England, but now ubiquitously, and especially as an
accompaniment to fish and chips or meat pies, particularly in fish and chip shops. Sodium bicarbonate is sometimes
added to soften the peas. In 2005, a poll of 2,000 people revealed the pea to be Britain's seventh favourite culinary
vegetable.[26]

Processed peas are mature peas which have been dried, soaked and then heat treated (processed) to prevent
spoilage—in the same manner as pasteurizing. Cooked peas are sometimes sold dried and coated with wasabi, salt,
or other spices.[27]

In North America pea milk is produced and sold as an alternative to cow milk for a variety of reasons.[28]

Manufacturing frozen peas

In order to freeze and preserve peas, they must first be grown, picked, and shelled. Usually, the more tender the
peas are, the more likely that they will be used in the final product. The peas must be put through the process of
freezing shortly after being picked so that they do not spoil too soon. Once the peas have been selected, they are
placed in ice water and allowed to cool. After, they are sprayed with water to remove any residual dirt or dust that
may remain on them. The next step is blanching. The peas are boiled for a few minutes to remove any enzymes
that may shorten their shelf life. They are then cooled and removed from the water. The final step is the actual
freezing to produce the final product.[29] This step may vary considerably; some companies freeze their peas by air
blast freezing, where the vegetables are put through a tunnel at high speeds and frozen by cold air. Finally, the peas
are packaged and shipped out for retail sale.

Grading
Pea grading involves sorting peas by size, in which the smallest peas are graded as the highest quality for their
tenderness.[30] Brines may be used, in which peas are floated, from which their density can be determined.[30]

Nutritional value
Peas are starchy, but high in fiber, protein, vitamin A, vitamin B6, vitamin C, vitamin K, phosphorus, magnesium,
copper, iron, zinc and lutein.[31] Dry weight is about one-quarter protein and one-quarter sugar.[32] Pea seed
peptide fractions have less ability to scavenge free radicals than glutathione, but greater ability to chelate metals and
inhibit linoleic acid oxidation.[33]

Varieties

Garden peas

There are many varieties (cultivars) of garden peas. Some of the most common varieties are listed here. PMR
indicates some degree of powdery mildew resistance; afila types, also called semi-leafless, have clusters of tendrils
instead of leaves.[34] Unless otherwise noted these are so called dwarf varieties which grow to an average height of
about 1m. Giving the vines support is recommended, but not required. Extra dwarf are suitable for container
growing, reaching only about 25 cm. Tall varieties grow to about 2m with support required.

Alaska, 55 days (smooth seeded)

Tom Thumb / Half Pint, 55 days (heirloom, extra dwarf)
Thomas Laxton (heirloom) / Laxton's Progress / Progress #9, 60–65 days
Mr. Big, 60 days, 2000 AAS winner
Little Marvel, 63 days, 1934 AAS winner
Early Perfection, 65 days[35]
Kelvedon Wonder, 65 days, 1997 RHS AGM winner[36]
Sabre, 65 days, PMR
Homesteader / Lincoln, 67 days (heirloom, known as Greenfeast in Australia and New Zealand)
Miragreen, 68 days (tall climber)
Serge, 68 days, PMR, afila
Wando, 68 days
Green Arrow, 70 days
Recruit, 70 days, PMR, afila[37]
Tall Telephone / Alderman, 75 days (heirloom, tall climber)

Sugar peas

Sugar peas or edible-pod peas (French: pois mange-tout, "eat-all pea"), lack the tough membrane inside the pod
wall and have tender edible pods.[38] There are two main types:[39]

Snow peas have flat pods with thin pod walls. Pods and seeds are eaten when they are very
young.
Snap peas or sugar snap peas have rounded pods with thick pod walls. Pods and seeds are eaten
before maturity.

The name "sugar pea" includes both types,[38] and therefore it can be synonymous with either snow peas or snap
peas in different dictionaries.[40]
Snow peas and snap peas both belong to Macrocarpon Group,[41][42][43] a cultivar group based on the variety
Pisum sativum var. macrocarpum Ser. named in 1825.[44] It was described as having very compressed non-
leathery edible pods in the original publication.

The scientific name Pisum sativum var. saccharatum Ser. is often misused for snow peas. The variety under this
name was described as having sub-leathery and compressed-terete pods and a French name of petit pois.[44] The
description is inconsistent with the appearance of snow peas, and therefore botanists have replace this name with
Pisum sativum var. macrocarpum.[45]

Field peas

The field pea is a type of pea sometimes called P. sativum subsp. arvense
(L.) Asch. It is also known as dun (grey-brown) pea, Kapucijner pea, or
Austrian winter pea, and is one of the oldest domesticated crops, cultivated
for at least 7,000 years. Field peas are now grown in many countries for
both human consumption and stockfeed. There are several cultivars and
colors including blue, dun (brown), maple and white. This pea should not
be confused with the cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) which is sometimes
called the "field pea" in warmer climates.[46][47]

It is a climbing annual legume with weak, viny, and relatively succulent

stems. Vines often are 4 to 5 feet (120 to 150 cm) long, but when grown
alone, field pea’s weak stems prevent it from growing more than 1.5 to 2
feet (45 to 60 cm) tall. Leaves have two leaflets and a tendril. Flowers are
white, pink, or purple. Pods carry seeds that are large (4,000 seeds/lb),
nearly spherical, and white, gray, green, or brown. The root system is
relatively shallow and small, but well nodulated.[48] Pod 'Blue Schokker'

The field pea is a cool-season legume crop that is grown on over 25

million acres worldwide. It has been an important grain legume crop for
millennia, seeds showing domesticated characteristics dating from at least
7000 years ago have been found in archaeological sites around what is
now Turkey. Field peas or "dry peas" are marketed as a dry, shelled
product for either human or livestock food, unlike the garden pea, which is
marketed as a fresh or canned vegetable. The major producing countries of
field peas are Russia and China, followed by Canada, Europe, Australia
and the United States. Europe, Australia, Canada and the United States
raise over 4.5 million acres and are major exporters of peas. In 2002, there
were approximately 300,000 acres of field peas grown in the United
States.[49]

Pests and diseases

A variety of diseases affect peas through a number of pathogens, including Field Pea Plant in Bloom
insects, viruses, bacteria and fungi.[50] In particular, virus disease of peas
has worldwide economic importance.[51]

Additionally, insects such as the pea leaf weevil (Sitona lineatus) can damage peas and other pod fruits. The pea
leaf weevil is native to Europe, but has spread to other places such as Alberta, Canada. They are about 3.5
millimetres (0.14 in)—5.5 millimetres (0.22 in) long and are distinguishable by three light-coloured stripes running
length-wise down the thorax. The weevil larvae feed on the root nodules of pea plants, which are essential to the
plants' supply of nitrogen, and thus diminish leaf and stem growth. Adult weevils feed on the leaves and create a
notched, "c-shaped" appearance on the outside of the leaves.[52]
Peas in science
In the mid-19th century, Austrian monk Gregor Mendel's observations of
pea pods led to the principles of Mendelian genetics, the foundation of
modern genetics.[53] He ended up growing and examining about 28,000
pea plants in the course of his experiments.[54]

Mendel chose peas for his experiments because he could grow them
easily, develop pure-bred strains, protect them from cross-pollination, and
control their pollination. Mendel cross-bred tall and dwarf pea plants,
green and yellow peas, purple and white flowers, wrinkled and smooth
peas, and a few other traits. He then observed the resulting offspring. In
each of these cases, one trait is dominant and all the offspring, or Filial-1
(abbreviated F1 ) generation, showed the dominant trait. Then he crossed
members of the F1 generation together and observed their offspring, the
Filial-2 (abbreviated F2 ) generation. The F2 plants had the dominant trait
in approximately a 3:1 ratio.
Pea flowers
Mendel reasoned that each parent had a 'vote' in the appearance of the
offspring, and the non-dominant, or recessive, trait appeared only when it
was inherited from both parents. He did further experiments that showed
each trait is separately inherited. Unwittingly, Mendel had solved a major problem with Charles Darwin's theory of
evolution: how new traits were preserved and not blended back into the population, a question Darwin himself did
not answer. Mendel's work was published in an obscure Austrian journal and was not rediscovered until about
1900.[55]

Recently, extracts from garden pea have shown inhibitory activity on porcine pancreatic lipase in vitro.[56]

Genome

The pea karyotype consists of seven chromosomes, five of which are acrocentric and two submetacentric.[57]
Despite its scientific popularity, its relatively large genome size (4.45Gb) made it challenging to sequence
compared to other legumes such as Medicago truncatula and soybeans. The International Pea Genome Sequencing
Consortium was formed to develop the first pea reference genome, and the draft assembly was officially
announced in September 2019. It covers 88% of the genome (3.92Gb) and predicted 44,791 gene-coding
sequences. The pea used for the assembly was the inbred French cultivar "Caméor".[58]

Peas in medicine
Some people experience allergic reactions to peas, as well as lentils, with vicilin or convicilin as the usual
allergens.[59]

Favism, or Fava-bean-ism, is a genetic deficiency of the enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase that affects
Jews, other Middle Eastern Semitic peoples and other descendants of the Mediterranean coastal regions. In this
condition, the toxic reaction to eating most, if not all, beans is hemolytic anemia, and in severe cases the released
circulating free hemoglobin causes acute kidney injury.[60][61]

Nitrogen-fixing ability
Peas, like many legumes, contain symbiotic bacteria called Rhizobia within root nodules of their root systems.
These bacteria have the special ability to fix nitrogen from atmospheric, molecular nitrogen (N2 ) into ammonia
(NH3 ).[62] The chemical reaction is:

Ammonia is then converted to another form, ammonium (NH4 +), usable by (some) plants by the following
reaction:

The root nodules of peas and other legumes are sources of nitrogen that they can use to make amino acids,
constituents of proteins. Hence, legumes are good sources of plant protein.[63]

When a pea plant dies in the field, for example following the harvest, all of its remaining nitrogen, incorporated
into amino acids inside the remaining plant parts, is released back into the soil. In the soil, the amino acids are
converted to nitrate (NO3 −), that is available to other plants, thereby serving as fertilizer for future crops.[64][65]

Etymology
The term pea originates from the Latin word pisum, which is the latinisation of the Greek πίσον (pison), neuter of
πίσος (pisos) "pea".[66] It was adopted into English as the noun pease (plural peasen), as in pease pudding.
However, by analogy with other plurals ending in -s, speakers began construing pease as a plural and constructing
the singular form by dropping the -s, giving the term pea. This process is known as back-formation.[67]

See also
Black-eyed pea
Black pea
Chickpea
Dixie lee pea
Sweet pea

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External links
Sorting Pisum names (http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Pisum.html)
USDA plant profile (http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PISA6)
https://web.archive.org/web/20150303184216/http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search/

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