EDGE EFFECTS AND DELAMINATION

FAILURES

C.T.HERAKOVICH University of Virginia, Charlottesoille, V A

The fundamental relationship between the morphology of a composite laminate and the resulting free edge effects is
explored and related to delamination failures. Cross-ply, angle-ply, and quasi-isotropic laminates are discussed in
detail. It is shown that the local mismatch in elastic properties of adjacent layers and the global stacking sequence of a
laminate both have a significant influence on the interlaminar stresses and delamination failures.

1 INTRODUCITON exhibit isotropic inplane elastic response, but whose

A unique and important mode of failure in laminated
fibrous composite materials is delamination resulting
from interlaminar stresses which develop in a boundary
layer region along the free edges of bonded dissimilar
materials. The problem of edge delamination in lami-
nated composites was initially surprising to many engi-
neers working with these materials, primarily because of
their lack of previous experience with laminated, ortho-
tropic materials. The major exceptions might be those
engineersexperienced with laminated plywood.
Structures made with bonded dissimilar materials
have been in use for decades, if not centuries. One fairly
recent and common example is the use of bimetallic
strips in thermostats. Even though bonded dissimilar
materials have been in use for many years, delamination
failures were not a serious problem prior to the develop-
ment of advanced composites, primarily because the mis-
match in material properties was small. With the advent
of advanced composites this is no longer true. Unidirec-
tional, continuous, advanced fibre composites, such as
graphite-epoxy, are highly orthotropic. When layers of
such a material are bonded together in other than a
unidirectional alignment, the mismatch in elastic proper-
ties can be substantial. (It is noted that although inelastic
effects may occur locally on the micro level, macroscopi-
cally, resin matrix composites typically fail in it brittle
manner.) The variation in properties from layer to layer
gives rise to non-uniform internal (away from the edges)
inplane stresses in a laminate under the simplest of
loading conditions. This non-uniform distribution of
internal stresses must be equilibrated by interlaminar
(between the layer) stresses when ‘free’ edges are present.
Analysis shows that these interlaminar stresses are con-
centrated in a boundary region along the free edge. It is
the stress concentrations associated with these inter-
laminar stresses that may cause delamination failures at
loads which, otherwise, would be well below the load-
carrying capacity of the laminate.
Another important consequence of edge effects is that
their presence can result in gross misconceptions as to
the strength of a given laminate. Edge effects result in
strength characteristics which are anisotropic, even
though the laminate exhibits quasi-isotropic elastic
response. Quasi-isotropic laminates are those which
The MS.of this paper was received at the Institution on 14 February 1989 and
acceptedfor publication on 8 June I989
JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 24 NO 4 1989 0 IMechE 1989
bending stiffness is anisotropic. Finite width tensile
coupons cut at different orientations from a quasi-
isotropic laminate generally exhibit substantial aniso-
tropy in strength because the interlaminar stresses vary
significantly as a function of the orientation of the fibres
relative to the free edge. Strength tests on tubes do not
exhibit this same anisotropy in strength because of the
lack of edge effects.
Edge effects are present at all free edges. Thus the
failure characteristics of a laminate with a hole or other
type of notch can be very dependent on interlaminar
stresses in the vicinity of the notch. The notched strength
of a laminate does not exhibit the same degree of aniso-
tropy as the strength of the unnotched laminate because
the edge effects around the notch vary continuously,
whereas those along the straight side of a coupon are
constant. The variable strength of a composite, depend-
ing upon whether it is notched or unnotched, coupon or
tube, is a clear example of why laminated composites
must often be thought of as structures rather than
materials.
Delamination failures can be more critical for com-
pression loaded laminates than for those loaded in
tension. If delamination occurs, the effective moment of
inertia of the cross section is reduced with a correspond-
ing reduction in the buckling load. However, if delami-
nation occurs in a laminate under tensile load it is
possible that the laminate will continue to carry the load.
This paper presents a brief historical review of some of
the contributions influencingour understanding of edges
effects, a discussion of material mismatch considerations,
examples of interlaminar stress distributions, and exam-
ples of delamination failures in laminated composites.
The results presented in this paper are for typical
graphite-epoxies such as T300/5208 and AS4/3501-6 and
a graphite-polyimide, Celion 6000/PMR- 15. These
materials are highly orthotropic with the ratio of axial to
transverse modulus being greater than 12.0and the ratio
of axial to transverse tensile strength being greater than
25.0.
2 HISTORICAL REVIEW
Because of the exceptionally large numbers of papers on
the subject no attempt will be made to refer to or list all
of them. An attempt will be made to cite the early contri-
butions which provided the initial understanding of
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 C. T. HERAKOVICH
Fig. 1. Finite width laminated coupon under axial load
interlaminar stresses and methods of analysis, cite those
individuals who have made significant contributions in
this area of research, and cite some of the more recent
works. Hopefully, the interested reader will find sufficient
references to cover the literature in more depth by
searching the lists of references in the works cited herein.
Apparently the first published paper concerned with
interlaminar stresses in laminated fibrous composite
materials was that by Puppo and Evensen in 1970 (1)t.
Puppo and Evensen modelled the problem of anisotropic
composite layers separated by an isotropic shear layer;
their formulation did not admit the possibility of non-
zero interlaminar normal stresses. Later in that same
year Pipes and Pagano (2)published the first complete,
three-dimensional analysis of interlaminar stresses in
laminated composites. They formulated the elasticity
problem of a finite width, orthotropic, layered coupon
subjected to axial loading (Fig. 1). Solutions to the elas-
ticity problem were obtained using finite differences.
Their results demonstrated the existence of all three com-
ponents of interlaminar stress in a boundary layer region
along the free edges of the coupon. In the previously
cited and related papers (3)(7),Pipes, Pagano, and co-
workers published interlaminar stress distributions for a
variety of laminates and discussed the relationship
between interlaminar stresses and free edge delami-
nations. Their results showed that interlaminar stresses
are functions of the fibre orientation and stacking
sequence of the layers, and can be very large, if not singu-
lar, at free edges.
The work of Pipes and Pagano was followed by a
three-dimensional finite element analysis by Rybicki in
1971 (8), two-dimensional finite element analyses by
Foye and Baker in 1971 (9),and Herakovich (1976) (lo),
t Referencesare given in the Appendix
246
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and generalized, two-dimensional finite element analyses
by Renieri and Herakovich (1976) (ll),Herakovich et al.,
(1976) (12),Herakovich and co-workers (1979 and 1980)
(13)-(16), and A. S.Wang and Crossman (1977 and 1980)
(17)-(18). In 1982, S. S. Wang and Yaun (19)used singu-
lar hybrid finite elements to study interlaminar stresses.
These finite element solutions provided additional
insight into the nature and character of interlaminar
stress distributions and also provided results for inter-
laminar stresses resulting from thermal and hygroscopic
loading.
Approximate analytical solutions for the free edge
problem were presented by Tang in 1975 (20),Hsu and
Herakovich in 1977 (21),Ting and Chou in 1981 (22),
S. S. Wang and Choi in 1982 (23)and S. S. Wang in 1983
(24). S. S. Wang’s work is particularly noteworthy in that
complete elasticity solutions are obtained for a class of
singular composite laminate problems.
Experimental investigations of the free edge problem
include those by Pipes and Daniel in 1971 (29, Oplinger
et al. in 1974 (26),Reifsnider et al. in 1977 (27),and
Herakovich et al. in 1985 (28).The experimental results
have verified the presence of large displacement gra-
dients and large, but finite, strain concentrations at the
free edge of a tensile coupon. It has also been verified
experimentally that the strain concentrations are limited
to a narrow boundary layer region along the free edges.
Delaminations have been observed experimentally. A
number of experimental investigations have been con-
cerned with the identification and quantification of
damage (including delaminations) along free edges.
Several papers addressing the subject of edge delami-
nations can be found in references (29)and (30).A recent
review article on the free edge problem was presented by
this author (31).One of the most recent articles is that by
Sun and Zhou (32) on the strength of quasi-isotropic
laminates.
2.1 Basic considerations
Unless stated otherwise, the discussion and results in this
paper refer to the specific problem of a symmetric, finite
width, laminated coupon subjected to an axial strain E ,
as shown in Fig. 1. Each layer of the laminate is treated
as a homogeneous orthotropic material for stress
analysis purposes. This is the problem which has been
investigated most extensively and, because of its simpli-
city, it is the best application for illustrating the funda-
mental character of the factors influencing edge effects.
Results will be presented for cross-ply, angle-ply and
quasi-isotropic laminates. The principles exhibited by
these laiminates generally can be applied to arbitrary
laminates.
2.1.I Mismatch considerations
The morphology of an off-axis unidirectional or lami-
nated composite may be classified in terms of the fibre
orientation, 8, of the individual layers and the stacking
sequence of these layers. Varying the fibre orientation
can have a dramatic influence on some mechanical and
thermal properties of composites. Figure 2 shows the
variations of inplane Poisson’s ratio vxy, and the coeffi-
cient of mutual influence I‘*, ,for unidirectional off-axis
laminae. Poisson’s ratio is the ratio of induced lateral
JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 24 N O 4 1989 0 IMechE 1989
 EDGE EFFECTS AND DELAMINATION FAILURES

interface because of the mismatch in Poisson’s ratio

between the f 3 0 ‘group’ and the 90 degree layer.
Poisson’s ratio of a +30 laminate is very large
(approximately 1.25 for T300/5208) compared to the very
small Poisson’s ratio of the 90 degree layer (approxi-
mately 0.06). From the standpoint of interlaminar
normal stress, this laminate represents a very good lami-
nate for studying delaminations; however, it should be
recognized that the interlaminar shear stress,,z, , is also
non-zero at this interface because of the mismatch in
qxy,,between the two layers.
XY x /
I / 2.1.2 Cross-ply laminates
-0.4 - vy; = 0.37 Q 223” I
I /
/ -
The layers in a cross-ply laminate are oriented at either 0
- I /h-%y.x - or 90 degrees. Hence there is no mismatch in qXy,, (it is
-0.6
I / identically zero for both layers), but the mismatch in vXy
I /
-0.8 - T300/5208 I / - is relatively large. Since there is no mismatch in ftXy,,
\ I there are no interlaminar shear stresses ;,z, however,
-1.0 I I I I
\ , I
associated with the mismatch in vXy there are non-zero
interlaminar normal stresses, u,, and interlaminar shear
8 (degrees) stresses, zyz. Free edge boundary conditions require that
the interlaminar shear stress, zyz,be zero at the free edge,
Fig. 2. Normalized Poisson’s ratio and coefficient of mutual influence
but there is no such restriction on 6,,and indeed analyti-
cal solutions show that c, may be ‘mathematically’ sin-
gular at the free edge. Thus, edge delaminations of
strain to applied axial strain cross-ply laminates’ are initiated by the interlaminar
normal stress, 0,. Equilibrium considerations require
v,, = -Ey/Ex
that the distribution of u, be equivalent to a couple and
and the coefficient of mutual influence is the ratio of the analysis shows that the maximum interlaminar normal
induced shear strain to applied axial strain stress is at the free edge (Fig. 3).
Since tensile interlaminar normal stresses initiate
ftxy, x = YxylEx delamination whereas compressive interlaminar normal
Poisson’s ratio represents a ‘coupling’ between axial and stresses suppress delamination, the sign of c, is impor-
transverse response and the coefficient of mutual influ- tant. The sign of 6, at the free edge is a function of the
ence represents a ‘coupling’ between axial and shear sign of the axial load and the stacking sequence of the
response. The variation in vXyis sy-mmetric about 8 = 0, laminate. For elastic response, reversing the sign of the
whereas the variation in qxy,,is antisymmetric. Poisson’s axial load simply reverses the sign of the stresses.
ratio of a unidirectional lamina varies over a relatively However, reversing the stacking sequence does not result
small range (e.g., from 0.06 for 8 = 90 degrees to 0.37 at
8 = 23 degrees for T30015208 graphite-epoxy). The small
I
variation in Poisson’s ratio of the,unidirectional lamina I I I I

is in stark contrast to the large variation in qxy,(, +2.166 250 -

to -2.166) (33). Because of the large variations possible
in qXy,x , it can be a very important material property.
-
A mismatch in Poisson’s ratio between layers of a 200 -
laminate gives rise to non-zero normal stresses, uy,
-
whereas a mismatch in q X y , , results in non-zero shear
stresses, zxy. Equilibrium considerations then require 150 -

I
that, in the presence of a free edge, non-zero interlaminar
shear stresses, zyz, and interlaminar normal stresses, c, , h

are associated with the non-zero uy and non-zero inter- a”

laminar shear stresses, ,z, , are associated with the non-
z
zero zXy. Thus we see that the mismatch in properties of - 500
adjacent layers near a free edge leads directly to the
development of interlaminar stresses (33).
Mismatch considerations are not limited to two adjac-
ent layers. It is also possible to gain insight in delami- I I0
nation failures through consideration of the mismatch in
properties between groups of layers. For example, the
[ f 30/90], or similar laminates have been used exten-
-50
sively to study delamination in resin matrix composites 0.80 0.83 0.86 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.98
(34)(35) (36).This particular laminate is chosen because
of the large interlaminar normal stress, u, at the - 30190 Y/b
interface. The interlaminar normal stress is large at this Fig. 3 Interlaminar normal stress on midplane of a [02/902],laminate

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 C. T. HERAKOVICH

I 1 I I I I I 5 I I 1
1
‘tf
3

- 500

g
h

-000 - 1O 0 30 60 T
90

9 (degrees)
(a)
- 1500

-240 t
-300
1 -2000

I
-3600.80 0.83 0.86 0.89 0.92 0.95 0.9E

Yh
Fig. 4. Interlaminar normal stress on midplaneof a [90JO,], laminate

0 30
9 (degrees)
in an exact reversal of the interlaminar normal stress. (b)
Figures 3 and 4 show the distribution of 6, along the
midplane of [0,/90,], and [go,&], laminates, respec- Fig. 5. qxy,I mismatch (a) and maximum 7- (b)in angle-ply laminates
tively. Clearly the stresses in the two laminates are of
opposite sign. However, the distributions are not exact
mirror images. This is because of the different three-
dimensional effects near the free edges of the two lami- but changes to transverse cracking at higher fibre angles.
nates. These damage states correspond very closely to the
variations with fibre orientation of both the qxyVxmis-
match and 7, at the free edge (Fig. 5). Obviously, angle-
2.1.3 Angle-ply laminates ply laminates with low fibre orientations should be
Angle-ply laminates are composed of an equal number of avoided in order to reduce the possibility of delami-
layers with fibres oriented at + 8 and -8. Since vxy is an nation failures.
even function of 8 (Fig. 2), there is no mismatch in
Poisson’s ratio for angle-ply laminates and hence both
the interlaminar normal stress, cr,, and the interlaminar
shear stress, zyz, are negligible throughout the laminate.
However, the mismatch in qxy, is non-zero resulting in
potentially large non-zero interlaminar shear stresses,
zZx. The interlaminar shear stress,, ,z at the edge of a
tensile coupon is maximum for resin matrix angle-ply
laminates with fibre orientations of +15 degrees as
determined by finite element stress analyses at 5 degree
intervals. As indicated in Fig. 5, the variation in magni-
tude of the interlaminar shear stress, z,, corresponds
very closely to the variation in the mismatch of qxy,x
between layers.
The effects of the high interlaminar shear stresses on
delaminations are shown in Figs 6-8. These figures show
enlarged replicas of the damage on the edges of three
graphite-polyimide, angle-ply laminates at various
stages of loading. As indicated in the figure, the dominate
mode of failure is delamination at low fibre orientations, Fig. 6. Edge damage in a [( f lo),], laminate

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 EDGE EFFECTS AND DELAMINATION FAILURES

I I

0.8 -

\ Jpq :
2.1.4 Layer thickness effects 0.2 -

with
The strength
different
andlayer
mode thicknesses
of failure of angle-ply
(different laminates
stacking
sequence) clearly demonstrates the influence of laminate - 1 -15 y ,
0 1 I I I I I I I

morphology on interlaminar stresses and delamination

Fig. 8. Edge damage in a [( *45),],
Fig. 9. Failure modes in clustered and alternatingangle-ply laminates
JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 24 NO 4 1989 0 IMechE 1989
failures. Graphite-epoxy tensile coupons of the same
total thickness and having the same number of plies at
specified fibre orientations, but with different stacking
sequences, were loaded to failure with the results shown
in Fig. 9 (37) (similar results on graphitepolyimide
have also been obtained by the author). The two stacking
sequences investigated are designated alternating
([ k0)J8),and clustered ([8z/-0z]s). The thicknesses of
the individual layers in the clustered laminates are
laminate double those of the individual layers in the alternating
laminates.
As indicated in Fig. 9, the mode of failure in the two
laminate types is very different for the 10 degree and 30
degree fibre angles. Failure of the clustered laminates is
dominated by matrix and fibre/matrix interfacial failure.
The failure surfaces of these two low angle clustered
laminates consists of cracks parallel to the fibres in both
the + 8 and -8 layers and delaminations between the
layers. For the 30 degree fibre orientation, there is no
fibre failure in the clustered laminates. In contrast, the
alternating laminates exhibit fibre failure in half of the
layers and matrix of fibre/matrix debond failures in the
remaining layers. The failure surface of the [(k30),],
laminate is a single plane at 30 degrees to the coupon
axis. Thus half of the layers fail in the matrix mode
whereas the other half of the layers fail in a fibre break-
age mode. The modes of failure of the 10 degree lami-
nates are very similar to those of the 30 degree laminates,
with the exception of additional fibre breakage in the
[( & 10)2]8laminate which appears to be associated with
bending during the fracture process.
The alternating laminates (with fibre breakage) exhibit
ultimate stresses as much as 50 per cent higher than the
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 C. T. HERAKOVICH

(GPa) original axes. Thus the choice of which quasi-isotropic

-40 -20 0 laminate is to be used becomes unwieldy very quickly.
1.o I I It is possible, however, to gain additional insight into
Al the relationship between laminate morphology and edge
delaminations through consideration of quasi-isotropic
laminates. The 4 4 laminates represent various com-
binations of cross-ply and +45 degree angle-ply lami-
nates. Thus both components of interlaminar shear
stress, zzx and zy, ,and the interlaminar normal stress, c,,
generally are non-zero in the boundary layer along the
free edge. Hence, delamination may be initiated by inter-
laminar shear stress, interlaminar normal stress or a
combination of the two. Since the boundary condition
that zyz be zero at the free edge continues in force and,
further, since both T= and 0, can be singular at the free
edge, it is the latter two components of stress which are
of prime interest.
Examples of interlaminar stress distributions in two
quasi-isotropic laminates are presented in Figs 12 and
13. These figures show the through-the-thickness dis-
tribution of u, and ,z near the free edge of a [90/45/0/
-451, laminate and a [f45/0/90], laminate. For the
[90/45/0/ -451, laminate, the dominant stress com-
ponent for delamination is zzx since u, is either relatively
small in magnitude or compressive. The shear stress t,, is
i)
izx/&,(ks very large at both the -45/0and the 0/45interfaces.
In contrast, for the [+45/0/90], laminate u, is quite
Fig. 11. C, near free edge of a [lSJ- 15JSlaminate
large and tensile near the midplane. The inter-laminar
shear stress, zw, is a maximum at the f45 degree inter-
ultimate stress of the clustered laminates. These results face as expected. The distribution of c, is interesting in
can be attributed to the differences in the interlaminar that it attains a maximum tensile value a small distance
shear stress distributions for the two types of laminates. below the 0/90interface, in the 90 degree layer. Thus,
Through-thickness distributions of interlaminar shear delamination due to u, is expected in the 90 degree layer
stresses, t,, at the free edge of both types of laminates just below this interface, whereas delamination due to t z x
are shown in Figs 10 and 11 for 8 = 15 degrees. It is
observed from these figures that the maximum magni-
tudes of the interlaminar shear stresses are significantly
higher in the clustered laminates. These higher inter-
laminar shear stresses initiate delaminations and speci-
men failures at the lower load levels.
The higher interlaminar shear stresses in the clustered
laminates can be traced directly to equilibrium require-
ments. The distribution of interlaminar shear stress,,z, ,
on interfacial planes must equilibrate the through-the-
thickness distribution of the inplane shear stresses, zXy,
on transverse planes. As the thickness of the layers
becomes larger the total force to be equilibrated becomes
correspondingly larger. Hence the higher interlaminar
shear stresses in the clustered laminates.
2.1.5 Quasi-isotropic laminates
As mentioned previously, quasi-isotropic laminates
exhibit isotropic inplane elastic response, but anisotropic
bending stiffness and anisotropic strength. There are
many laminate configurations which are quasi-isotropic.
The n/4laminates with fibres oriented at 45 degree inter-
vals will be discussed here. There are twelve unique con-
figurations of symmetric n/4laminates if the +45 degree
and -45 degree layers are assumed interchangeable. The
twelve configurations can be separated into two groups
of six each, those with adjacent f45 degree layers and -1500 -1003 -500 0
those with interspersed +45 degree and -45 degree Stress/&,(ks i)
layers. Further, each of these laminates may be cut such
that the free edge is at an arbitrary orientation to the Fig. 12. r , and ur near free edge of a [90/45/0/-45], laminate

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 EDGE EFFECTS AND DELAMINATION FAILURES
(MPa)
-5000 0 5000 10000 15000
1.0, I A 1 I
Stress/&,(ks i )
Fig. 13. T~ and u, near free edge of a [f 45/0/90], laminate
is most likely at the k 4 5 degree interface. Edge replicas
of the [+45/0/90], laminate (Fig. 14) (16)do indeed
exhibit delaminations in the 90 degree layer near both
0/90 interfaces on either side of the midplane. The
delamination ‘wanders’ back and forth across the mid-
plane and is generally connected by transverse cracks.
3 SUMMARY
The relationship between property mismatch, laminate
stacking sequence, and fibre orientation on the inter-
laminar stresses in the boundary layer region along free
edges has been reviewed and related to delamination fail-
ures. It has been shown that the interlaminar shear stress,
T,, ,and the interlaminar normal stress, 6,, are the domi-
Fig. 14. Edge damage in a [f45/0/90], laminate
JOURNAL OF STRAIN ANALYSIS VOL 24 NO 4 1989 0 IMcchE
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nant stresses initiating delamination failures. Further, it
has been shown that strength is anisotropic because of
edge effects.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The author is indebted to the many students and co-
authors (G. D. Renieri, A. P. Nagarkar, G. L. Farley,
D.A. OBrien, M.B. Buczek, E. C. Klang, P. W.Hsu, and
E. A. Strauss) and the supporting agencies (NASA,
Hercules, and CIT) who have assisted in and sup-
ported his research on edge effects.
APPENDIX
REFERENCES
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laminated composites under plane stress’, J. Comp. Mater., 1970,
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(2) PIPES, R. B. and PAGANO, N. J., ‘Interlaminarstress in compos-
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(3) PAGANO, N. J. and PIPES, R. B., The influence of stacking
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(12) HERAKOVICH, C. T., RENIERI, G. D., and BRINSON, H. F.,
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(13) HERAKOVICH, C. T., NAGARKAR, A. P., and OBRIEN, D.
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(IS) HERAKOVICH, C. T. and NAGARKAR, A. P., ‘On failure
modes in finite width angle-ply laminates’,Proceedings ICCM-Ill,
1980 (Edited by Bunsell et 01.)p. 425.
(16) HERAKOVICH,C. T., ‘Failuremodes and damage accumulation
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