Journal of Counseling Psychology Copyright 1988 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.

1988, Vol- 35, No. 3, 472-478 0022-0167/8 8/$00.7 5

Perceived Social Support Among College Students: Factor Structure

of the Social Support Inventory
Steven D. Brown Dona Alpert
Department of Counseling and Department of Educational
Educational Psychology, and Psychological Studies,
Loyola University of Chicago University of Miami

Robert W. Lent George Hunt

Division of Counseling Psychology, Department of Counseling and
Michigan State University Educational Psychology,
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Loyola University of Chicago

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

Teresa Brady
Sister Kenny Institute,
Minneapolis, Minnesota

Brown, Brady, Lent, Wolfert, and Hall (1987) developed a measure of perceived social support
based on a person-environment fit model of satisfaction. This measure, the Social Support
Inventory (SSI), was scored according to a model of person-environment fit that assumed that
only an undersupply of resources for meeting social needs would result in dissatisfaction. We
tested this assumption empirically by comparing the original scoring model with three alternative
models. Our study also explored the factor structure of the SSI. Results supported the original
scoring model and suggested the presence of five social support factors on the SSI. We discuss
the limitations of the study and future research needs of the SSI and the person-environment fit
model.

A large and growing body of literature published over the
past decade has demonstrated the importance of social sup-
port in promoting mental health and preventing psychological
distress. Several recent reviewers (e.g., Cohen & Syme, 1985;
Heller, Swindle, & Dusenbury, 1986; Levy, 1983) have con-
cluded unanimously that the absence of social support is
associated with increased psychological distress and that this
general finding holds across diverse subject samples, social-
support and distress measures, and research designs. However,
most reviewers have also noted that despite the convincing
evidence of social support's value, we still have little basic
understanding of how social ties (or one's satisfaction with
them) function to protect mental health and promote psycho-
logical adjustment (e.g., Brown, Brady, Lent, Wolfert, & Hall,
1987; Heller et al., 1986; Levy, 1983; Thoits, 1986). This
limited understanding of social support's underlying mecha-
nisms has, according to reviewers, resulted largely from two
interrelated weaknesses in the literature, (1) a failure to embed
the construct into a consistent body of theory that would
suggest its mechanisms of action and antecedent processes
(e.g., Brown et al., 1987; Heller et al., 1986; Thoits, 1986),
We thank Dorothy Breen, Amy Culbertson, Karen Multon, Doris
Stormoen, Ellanora Ward, and Jenny Wolfert for their assistance
with this research; and Linda Heath for reading and commenting on
an earlier draft of this manuscript.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Steven D. Brown, Department of Counseling and Educational Psy-
chology, Loyola University of Chicago, 820 North Michigan Avenue,
Chicago, Illinois 60611.
and (2) a concomitant failure to define the construct ade-
quately into its component processes (e.g., Cohen & Syme,
1985; Heller et al., 1986; Levy, 1983).
In response to the first criticism, Brown et al. (1987) devel-
oped a measure of perceived social support from a person-
environment (P-E) fit conception of interpersonal satisfac-
tion. The fundamental tenet of the Brown et al. (1987) model
was that satisfaction with social support is a function of the
match between the strength of one's interpersonal needs (i.e.,
requirements for others that persons believe to be critical to
their success, survival, or emotional welfare) and the amount
of social resources provided to fulfill those needs. It was
further hypothesized that dissatisfaction resulting from the
failure of the interpersonal environment to provide ade-
quately for the individual's interpersonal needs would be
accompanied by behavioral, emotional, and physiological
strain and by a motive to achieve greater fit with the interper-
sonal environment.
The Social Support Inventory (SSI), developed by Brown
et al. (1987) from this model, contains 39 interpersonal need
statements (e.g., assistance in changing self-defeating behav-
ior) that respondents rate on two scales, (1) "How much of
this type of help or support have you needed in the past
month?" (Need Strength, 1 = none to 7 = very much), and
(2) "How much of this type of help or support have you
received in the past month?" (Perceived Supply, 1 = none to
7 = very much). A perceived fit (SSI-PF) score is derived by
subtracting Perceived Supply (S) from Need Strength (N)
ratings and summing over all 39 items. The SSI also contains
a direct measure of satisfaction in which respondents rate

472
 PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT
each individual need statement in terms of "How satisfied
have you been with what you have received in terms of this
type of help or support over the past month?" (1 = not at all
to 7 = very much). A total Subjective Satisfaction (SSI-SS)
score is obtained by summing ratings over all 39 items.
As predicted by the P-E fit theory from which the SSI was
derived, Brown et al. (1987) found in a sample of undergrad-
uate college students, significant correlations between SSI-PF
and SSI-SS scores (r = -.77) and between SSI-PF scores and
measures of anxiety (/• = .54), depression (r = .57), psycho-
somatic symptoms (r = .31), and health risk behaviors (r =
.20). SSI-PF scores also correlated more substantially with
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direct satisfaction and strain measures than did measures of
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total network size, relationship quality, or frequency of receipt
of socially supportive behaviors. Finally, results suggested that
the SSI is independent of respondent mood state and experi-
mental demand and that it may be useful as a diagnostic tool
in counseling interventions for college students who have
difficulty adjusting to the university environment.
Left unanswered by this first study, however, is the question
of the multidimensionality of perceived support as measured
by the SSI. As noted previously, several writers (e.g., Cohen
& Syme, 1985) have advocated distinguishing among different
types of social support (e.g., esteem maintenance and cogni-
tive guidance) to determine what kinds of aid are most
beneficial in different circumstances. For example, the types
of support one needs during the transition to college may be
different from those needed during the bereavement process.
Support needs may also change over time, with needs in the
early stages of college transition being different from needs
during later stages of the process. According to this line of
reasoning, it is, therefore, necessary to develop taxonomies of
support and to derive multidimensional measures of them.
(For reviews of and commentaries on current taxonomic
schemes, see Cohen & Syme, 1985; Heller et al., 1986; Rook,
1984; Shumaker & BrowneU, 1984.)
Our study had two primary purposes. First, given the im-
portance of determining the SSI's dimensionality, we explored
the factor structure of the SSI-PF scale among undergraduate
college students. The specific questions addressed were (a)
does a single social-support dimension underlie the data on
the SSI, (b) is there empirical support for a multidimensional
(i.e., multifactor) structure of the SSI, and (c) is sufficient
reliability and concurrent validity achieved by using a simple
summated rating method to estimate factor and total scores?
The second purpose of this study was to test empirically
the adequacy of the scoring model used to estimate perceived
fit on the SSI. Brown et al.'s (1987) scoring model was based
on a theory of needs (e.g., Murray, 1938) that posited that
dissatisfaction, strain, and motive arousal occur only when
the interpersonal environment fails to provide sufficiently for
the individual's interpersonal needs, that is, under conditions
of deprivation in which Need Strength is greater than Per-
ceived Supply. An oversupply of resources to meet needs (i.e.,
Need Strength is less than Perceived Supply) would not,
according to this model, lead to greater or lesser satisfaction,
strain, or motive arousal than would perfect P-E correspond-
ence (i.e., Need Strength equals Perceived Supply). Thus, P-
E fit item scores were set at 0 both when N and S ratings were
473
identical and when S ratings were larger than N ratings (which
indicates an excess of resources to meet a particular interper-
sonal need).
However, at least two alternative models of the relation
between fit and satisfaction may be empirically reasonable, at
least for some types of interpersonal needs. All three models
are summarized schematically in Figure 1. (Positive numbers
on the horizontal axis indicate conditions of oversupply of
resources for needs; negative numbers represent conditions of
undersupply; and 0 indicates a condition of perfect lit between
needs and social resources.) The model on which the Brown
et al. (1987) scoring procedure was based is illustrated by
Curve B (a curvilinear function that plateaus at perfect P-E
fit, i.e., when N = S). Curve A represents a linear relation
between P-E fit and satisfaction, suggesting that an excess of
supplies relative to needs (N < S) results in increasing levels
of satisfaction over perfect P-E fit. Finally, Curve C represents
a situation in which both an excess (N < S) and deficit (N >
S) of supplies in relation to need strength leads to reduced
satisfaction. In the present study we compared the adequacy
of the Brown et al. (1987) scoring model with these two
alternative models at both the item and total score levels. Our
specific questions were, (a) at the item level, which model best
describes the relation between N — S difference scores and
subjective satisfaction ratings, and (b) at the total score level,
which model accounts for the greatest amount of variance in
satisfaction (SSI-SS) scores?
Method
Participants and Procedure
The subjects for this study were 340 undergraduate students sam-
pled from three different sites, the University of Minnesota, the
University of Wisconsin, and Madison, Wisconsin, area business and
junior colleges. The Minnesota sample was composed of 98 under-
graduates who took the SSI along with a battery of other question-
naires as part of an undergraduate introduction to applied psychology
course. The University of Wisconsin sample contained 60 students
in an undergraduate counseling-skills course, and the other Wisconsin
sample consisted of 182 students who volunteered during social
studies classes to complete a battery of questionnaires that included
the SSI as part of a larger study. No differences among samples were
found for gender or marital status, though significant differences did
emerge for age, F(2, 337) = 8.14, p < .01, and racial/ethnic compo-
sition, x 2 (l, A' = 280) = 12.09, p < .001. The Wisconsin junior
college sample was significantly older than the Minnesota sample
(Minnesota, M = 22.66, SD = 3.68; Wisconsin, M = 25.87, SD =
7.26) and contained a greater percentage of nonwhite participants
(Minnesota, 6% nonwhite; Wisconsin, 33% nonwhite). The Univer-
sity of Wisconsin sample's mean age (23.18, SD = 6.00) did not differ
significantly from the other two samples. No data were available on
the ethnic composition of this sample.
Despite these intersite differences on age and ethnic status, neither
variable related significantly to either SSI-PF (age, r = .04; ethnicity,
r = .11) or SSI-SS (age, r = .07; ethnicity, r = .06) scores. Further,
SSI-PF and SSI-SS scores did not differ among the samples. Thus,
data from the three samples were combined for all subsequent anal-
yses. The total sample was mostly female (62%), white (77%), and
unmarried (84%); the mean age was 24.45 years (SD = 6.16); and
mean SSI-PF and SSI-SS scores were 35.05 (SD = 36.33) and 185.85
(SD = 53.02), respectively.
 474 BROWN, ALPERT, LENT, HUNT, BRADY

HIGH
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B,C

C/5

LOW

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 +1 +2 +3 +4 +5

P - EFIT

Figure 1. Three alternative person-environment fit models of satisfaction with social support. (From "Perceived Social Support Among
College Students: Three Studies of the Psychometric Characteristics and Counseling Uses of the Social Support Inventory" by S. D. Brown, T.
Brady, R. W. Lent, J. Wolfert, and S. Hall, 1987, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, p. 352. Copyright 1987 by the American Psychological
Association. Reprinted by permission.)

Data Analyses
Model testing. Two analytic methods were used to address the
questions of scoring model adequacy (see Figure 1). First, Pearson
product-moment and eta correlation coefficients were calculated
between fit and subjective satisfaction ratings for each item, by using
the full range of fit scores (-6 to +6), and then tested for linear and
curvilinear trends. If the eta coefficient was found to be significantly
larger than the Pearson correlation (p < .05; Guilford & Fruchler,
1973) and an analysis of variance (ANOVA) for trends (Hays, 1963)
revealed significant curvilinearity (p < .05), the true relation between
fit and satisfaction for that item was judged to be curvilinear and not
a chance deviation from linearity. Scatterplots were then inspected to
see if the curvilinear trends tended to match Model B (asymptotic)
or Model C (inverted U). If the eta coefficient was not significantly
larger than the Pearson correlation, the product-moment correlation
was positive and significant (p < .05), and the ANOVA for trends
revealed significant linearity (p < .05) but no significant deviations
from linearity, the relation was judged to be linear and conforming
to Model A (linear).
Second, to explore further the fit of the theoretical models to SSI
data, we developed two alternative scoring systems to represent the
different models displayed in Figure 1. In the first, the absolute value
of N — S difference scores was calculated for each item and summed
over all items to yield a total SSI-PF score. In the second, the total
SSI-PF score was obtained by finding the difference between N and
S ratings, ranging from —6 to +6, and summing the item scores. The
former method is representative of the inverted U model (Model C)
in that higher total scores on the SSI-PF scale reflect greater dissat-
isfaction (i.e., less fit) and N - S differences representing overload (N
< S) and underload (N > S) are allowed to contribute positively to
the total score. The latter method represents the linear model (Model
A) in that negative N - S differences (N < S) contribute to the total
score by lowering it.
Additionally, a third alternative scoring model was developed from
the possibility that N ratings do not indicate how much of a particular
item is needed but rather how important that type of need is to the
respondent. This suggests a multiplicative rather than a difference
model in which the S ratings are weighted by the N ratings in a
multiplicative fashion (N X S) and then summed.
After calculating total SSI-PF scores for each subject under all
models, the different scoring systems were compared in terms of the
variance accounted for in SSI-SS scores to estimate which system
(and, hence, which model) best describes the relation between P-E
fit and satisfaction with social support as measured by the SSI.
Factor analyses. To explore the underlying factor structure of the
SSI, we used factor analyses (principal components factor extraction
with varimax orthogonal and oblimin oblique rotations). The prin-
cipal components factor extraction solution was used to assess the
proportion of variance in the interitem correlation matrix that was
 PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT
accounted for by the first extracted factor. The proportion ought to
be substantial and the magnitude of loadings high across all items to
support the hypothesis of a single underlying social-support factor
and to justify calculating a total SSI-PF score by using all items.
Varimax orthogonal and oblimin oblique rotations were then used
to estimate whether a multifactor solution could be used to describe
SSI-PF data and to identify items to be included on each factor-
based scale. Conclusions about the item content of each factor-based
scale were based on both convergent- and discriminant-validity cri-
teria (Veil & Ware, 1983). Convergent validity was judged to be
satisfactory when an item's loading with a factor equaled or exceeded
.40. Discriminant validity was judged to be satisfactory when the
difference in magnitude between an item's highest and second highest
factor loading was greater than .10. Thus, items included on each
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scale were only those with a factor loading greater or equal to .40 on
that scale and a difference of at least .10 between its primary and
secondary factor loading.
Results
Model Testing
Analyses of the relation between SSI-PF and SSI-SS item
scores revealed significant curvilinear trends for 33 of the 39
items. The remaining six items, representing needs for infor-
mation and services, showed strong and significant linear
relations between fit and satisfaction. Inspections of the re-
sulting scatterplots suggested that all 33 items showing signif-
icant deviations from linearity most nearly matched Model B
(see Figure 1) by becoming asymptotic near perfect P-E fit
(N — S = 0). No support was found for the model predicting
that both over- and undersupply for needs is associated with
decreasing feelings of satisfaction (Model C).
The results obtained when total SSI-PF scores, calculated
by the four alternative scoring models, were correlated with
total SSI-SS scores were largely consistent with those obtained
in the item analyses. First-order partial correlations (control-
ling for gender) were used in these analyses because gender
correlated significantly (p < .05) with fit scores obtained from
Models A and C. Although all four scoring methods yielded
nearly identical internal consistency estimates (.94 to .96),
there were differences among them in their correlations with
total SSI-SS scores (linear, Model A = -.56; asymptotic
curvilinear, Model B = -.69; inverted U curvilinear, Model
C = -.38; multiplicative importance model = .18). The
correlation between SSI-PF and SSI-SS using the asymptotic
model (B) was significantly larger than the correlations ob-
tained using the linear model (A), z(337) = 2.07, p < .05; the
inverted U model (C), ((337) = 5.27, p < .001; and the
multiplicative model, ((337) = 9.39, p < .001. Thus, the
Brown et al. (1987) scoring model (B) accounted for more
variance in total satisfaction (SSI-SS) scores than the other
three models and was used in all subsequent analyses.
Factor Analyses
The principal components analysis of the 39 SSI-PF item
scores yielded six components with eigenvalues greater than
1. The only large differences between eigenvalues for the
components was between Component 1 (eigenvalue = 16.39,
475
percentage of variance = 42.0) and Component 2 (eigenvalue
= 2.50, percentage of variance = 6.4). Further, all items
showed uniformly large loadings on the first unrelated com-
ponent (.34 to .76). Taken together, these results suggest a
general underlying Perceived Fit (support) factor on the SSI
and support the use of a total SSI-PF score that is a sum of
the N - S difference scores across all items.
Nevertheless, because of the potential theoretical and prac-
tical utility of a multidimensional conception of perceived
support, we decided to examine the nature of the principal
components. The scree test (Cattell, 1966) suggested that five
of the six components with eigenvalues greater than 1 be
retained for rotation. However, because of the subjectivity
involved in the use of the scree test, we retained and separately
rotated five and six components orthogonally and obliquely.
The five-factor orthogonal and oblique solutions yielded the
most interpretable factors, and the use of oblique or orthog-
onal rotations did not seem to change the interpretability of
the five-factor solution.
Finally, because of the substantial loadings of all items on
the first unrotated component, we inspected the number of
noteworthy residual correlations for the one-, five-, and six-
factor orthogonal models for further evidence on the useful-
ness of a multidimensional solution for the SSI. These anal-
yses revealed that the number of large residual correlations
was substantially greater for the single-factor solution (103
residuals > .10; largest residual = .43) than for the five-factor
solution (17 residuals >. 10; largest residual = . 14). There was
no further reduction in the number of large residuals for the
six-factor solution (17 residuals > .10; largest residual = .14).
Thus, the five-factor orthogonal solution was chosen to rep-
resent the factor structure of the SSI-PF scale (accounting
together for 59.7% of the variance in the original correlation
matrix).
Items and their factor loadings for our final five-factor
orthogonal model are presented in Table 1. The components
(hereafter called scales) are interpretable and may be described
as follows: (1) Acceptance and Belonging, (2) Appraisal and
Coping Assistance, (3) Behavioral and Cognitive Guidance,
(4) Tangible Assistance and Material Aid, and (5) Modeling.
Reliability, Validity, and Scale Intercorrelations
The upper panel of Table 2 presents summary statistics and
internal consistency estimates of each scale as well as the
intercorrelations of the five scales. Scale scores were calculated
by a simple summated ratings method (i.e., by summing over
N — S difference scores of items included on each scale). The
reliability (internal consistency) estimates for all scales appear
to be satisfactory for research purposes, ranging from .79 to
.91.
Scale intercorrelations ranged in absolute magnitiude from
.35 to .76. Although several of the intercorrelations are high,
all are lower than their respective internal consistency esti-
mates, which suggests that the scales contain a noteworthy
amount of unique reliable variance.
We also conducted a principal components analysis with a
varimax rotation to five factors on the SSI-SS scale. The
resultant factor solution was similar enough to the five-factor
 476 BROWN, ALPERT, LENT, HUNT, BRADY

Table 1
Factor Loading Estimates on the Five-Factor Orthogonal Model

Factor scale/Hem summary I II III IV V

I. Acceptance and Belonging
Assurance that loved .76 .28 .20 .03 .15
Know others willing to talk about anything .68 .24 .16 .20 .12
Assurance that needed .67 .41 .18 .03 .19
Know others willing to talk about good aspects of life .65 .25 .31 .15 .12
Assurance that accepted .64 .35 .20 .03 .16
Know others willing to talk about good feelings .63 .02 .41 .17 .15
Assurance that respected .62 .51 .15 .06 .10
Assurance that belong to a caring group .61 .20 .07 .29 .15
Know others willing to talk about hopes .53 .18 .41 .26 .05
Know others willing to talk when you're down and blue" .48 .31 .41 .24 .16
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Know others willing to talk about your insecurities" .48 .17 .44 .18 .15
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II. Appraisal and Coping Assistance

Reassurance that it is normal to feel down about life .20 .70 .19 .04 .24
Help to see optimism in the future .30 .64 .19 .17 .12
Encouragement to talk of good aspects of life .33 .63 .34 .16 .08
Help to set realistic goals .24 .58 .16 .17 .21
Reassurance that fears are normal .26 .58 .29 .19 .17
Reassurance that it is normal to feel hopeful .38 .57 .19 .25 .11
Reassurance that it is normal to feel down now .27 .52 .31 .00 .21
Information on how to cope .15 .52 .32 .08 .39
Information on services" .14 .50 .02 .30 .29
Help in seeing positives' .27 .50 .47 .21 .15
Encouragement to talk of future positively" .45 .48 .34 .21 .02

HI. Behavioral and Cognitive Guidance

Information to change self-defeating behavior .12 .45 .67 .00 .15
Information to change negative feelings .24 .31 .64 .06 .13
Reassurance that normal to feel good .36 .12 .60 .16 .18
Assistance when act in self-defeating ways .21 .42 .60 .06 .14
Encouragement to face reality .26 .43 .57 .06 .09
Help to change self-defeating behavior .32 .20 .52 .09 .29
Encouragement to talk when down" .42 .37 .46 .00 .15
Encouragement to talk of insecurities" .44 .33 .46 .13 .12

IV. Tangible Assistance and Material Aid

Financial assistance for maintenance .16 .13 .00 .80 .09
Nonfinancial aid for maintenance' .13 .11 .10 .74 .15
Financial assistance for emergencies .04 .03 .15 .72 .09
Information on sources of financial assistance" .08 .22 .01 .69 .09
Nonfinancial aid for emergencies" .13 .06 .41 .53 .17

V. Modeling
Information on how others feel" .19 .10 .14 .10 .83
Information on how others handle situations" .11 .21 .19 .16 .80
Information on how others think .23 .24 .11 .25 .70
A model or example to follow .14 .27 .33 .26 .51
* These items failed to meet the discriminant validity criterion. They are, therefore, not used to calculate scale scores, but are used to calculate
total SSI-PF (and SSI-SS) scores. " These items showed a linear relation between perceived fit and satisfaction.

orthogonal SSI-PF solution (median Salient Variable Simi-
larity Index = .94; Cattell, Balcar, Horn, & Nesselroade, 1969)
to allow us to construct five SSI-SS factor-based scales iden-
tical in content to the five SSI-PF scales. Correlations calcu-
lated among these SSI-PF and SSI-SS scales are displayed in
the lower panel of Table 2. Convergent validity correlations
between corresponding SSI-PF and SSI-SS scales were signif-
icantly larger than discriminant-validity correlations of each
SSI-PF scale with the other four SSI-SS scales, all dependent
sample rs(337) > 2.11, all ps < .05. It, thus, appears that fit
scores obtained from the SSI-PF scales are valid operational
and conceptual indicators of satisfaction with corresponding
types of support.
Discussion
The purposes of this study were to explore the factor
structure of the SSI-PF scale and to test the comparative
utility of different scoring models for deriving SSI-PF scores.
Two different tests, one at the item level and one at the total
score level, of alternative scoring systems suggested that the
model predicting satisfaction to plateau at perfect P-E corre-
 PERCEIVED SOCIAL SUPPORT 477

Table 2 The second factor (Appraisal and Coping Assistance) seems

Summary Data on Social Support Inventory-Perceived Fit to combine the emotional regulatory functions of support
(SSI-PF) and Social Support Inventory-Subjective suggested in other taxonomies (cf, Cohen & Syme, 1985)
Satisfaction (SSI-SS) Scales with appraisal functions suggested by Lazarus and his associ-
Reli- SS1-PF Scale ates (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) in their model of stress,
abil- coping, and adaptation. Specifically, the second factor appears
Scale Ka M SD ityb I II III IV V to assess the degree to which the social environment provides
SSI-PF the individual during times of stress with emotional support,
I. 9 7.60 9.59 .91 — hope, and coping assistance through (a) assurances that feel-
II. 9 8.24 9.42 .89 .74 — ings are normal, (b) positive reinterpretations of the situation
III. 6 5.57 7.04 .88 .73 .76 —
and future, and (c) information on coping skills.
IV. 5 3.55 5.44 .79 .40 .44 .35 —
V. 4 4.44 5.29 .83 .52 .61 .54 .44 — The third (Behavioral and Cognitive Guidance) and fifth
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ssi~ss (Modeling) factors appear to measure the degree to which the

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I. 9 35.71 10.08 .93 -.76 -.56 -.57 -.32 -.42 social environment meets the individual's needs for direct
II. 9 42.36 13.14 .88 -.53 -.66 -.56 -.33 -.44 and modeled feedback about appropriate behaviors and
III. 6 27.68 9.79 .81 -.50 -.54 -.63 -.27 -.38
IV. 5 24.30 8.52 .78 -.33 -.33 -.27 -.56 -.29 thoughts. These factors appears to differ from the Appraisal
V. 4 17.06 6.89 .83 -.40 -.44 -.45 -.29 -.63 and Coping Assistance factor in that they do not include
Note. SSI-SS scales were constructed to be identical to their corre- needs for emotional support and appraisal and do not appear
sponding SSI-PF scales in item content. I = Acceptance and Belong- to be tied to a specific stressful circumstance. Rather, they
ing; II = Appraisal and Coping Assistance; III = Behavioral and appear to reflect what Shumaker and Brownell (1984) have
Cognitive Guidance; IV = Tangible Assistance and Material Aid; V termed self-identity needs (i.e., needs for feedback regarding
= Modeling. Correlations in italics in the lower panel represent
aspects of self and appropriate behavior in ambiguous situa-
convergent validity coefficients between corresponding SSI-PF and
SSI-SS scales. tions). The fourth factor (Tangible Assistance and Material
• Number of items in scale. " Internal consistency estimates by Cron- Aid) clearly measures the degree to which instrumental needs
bach's alpha. (cf., Cohen & Syme, 1985) for money, goods, and services are
met by the social environment.
Although this study yielded useful data on the SSI, the P-
spondence fit the data best. In item analyses 33 of the 39 SSI E fit model from which it was derived, and the SSI's compo-
items matched the asymptotic model, whereas at the total nent social-support functions, we need to acknowledge the
score level, this scoring model accounted for a greater per- study's limitations and the need for continued research on
centage of variance in total satisfaction (SSI-SS) scores than the instrument and theory. First, an inspection of Table 2
did the alternative scoring models. These results suggest that reveals that all SSI-PF scale scores were positively skewed,
college students' satisfaction with social support is linearly with means near the low ends of the N - S distributions
related to perceived P-E fit up to the point where social (indicating substantial P-E fit). Whether these score distribu-
resources match need strength levels; excesses of social re- tions are representative of those of the undergraduate college
sources beyond need strength levels generally neither decrease student population as a whole or are simply a function of
nor increase subjects' reported satisfaction. These findings sample size and sampling error needs to be addressed in future
offer tentative support for Brown et al.'s (1987) scoring model research.
for the SSI. Second, although the asymptotic model accounted for sig-
The factor analytic investigation revealed that using the nificantly more variance in satisfaction scores than did the
total SSI-PF score derived from the asymptotic model as a alternative models, all models correlated significantly with
global measure of fit and therefore satisfaction is appropriate. satisfaction scores and the linear model seemed to describe
The first principal component was considerably larger than the relation of fit and satisfaction best for 6 of the 39 SSI
any others in both SSI-PF and SSI-SS scales, and the total items. Thus, future research should continue to explore the
scores derived from these scales seemed to correlate substan- relations of the various models to satisfaction ratings before
tially with each other, suggesting that an asymptotic model of the reliability of these results can be firmly established. Espe-
P-E fit is a good (but not perfect) operational index of cially needed are studies that use samples of sufficient size
satisfaction with support among undergraduate college stu- and heterogeneity to achieve a balanced distribution across
dents. all levels of perceived fit. The number of subjects expressing
Retaining and rotating five components, however, yielded fit scores in the high levels of overload (i.e., where social
a solution that appears to be empirically justified, theoretically resources far exceed needs) in this study was smaller than the
meaningful, and consistent with past taxonomic schemes. The number of subjects expressing other levels of fit. Thus,
first factor (Acceptance and Belonging), similar to esteem and whether satisfaction turns downward (as suggested by the
social integration functions of support included in other tax- inverted U model), continues upward (as suggested by the
onomies (cf., Cohen & Syme, 1985), appears to measure the linear model), or stabilizes (as suggested by the asymptotic
degree to which the individual's needs for affiliation and model) after perfect P-E fit is reached needs to be studied
esteem are met through the provision of love, acceptance, further with samples containing substantial numbers of sub-
respect, belonging, and shared communication. jects in the high range of overload (N < S) scores on SSI-PF.
 478 BROWN, ALPERT, LENT, HUNT, BRADY

Alternatively, it may be that the distribution of overload scores
obtained in this study accurately represents the reality of
college student life (i.e., comparatively few perceive that their
social resources far exceed their needs). Such a possibility may
also be examined in replications and extensions of this study.
Finally, the factor structure of the SSI-PF scale was derived
from a single exploratory factor analysis with a single sample
of college students. The robustness of the results and the
reliability of the factor solution reported here need cross-
validation with other samples.
Nonetheless, the results of this investigation and the Brown
et al. (1987) study suggest that the SSI may have both theo-
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
Cattell, R. B., Balcar, K. R., Horn, J. L., & Nesselroade, J. R. (1969).
Factor matching procedures: An improvement of the s index; with
tables. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 29, 781-792.
Cohen, S., & Syme, S. L. (1985). Issues in the study and application
of social support. In S. Cohen & S. L. Syme (Eds.), Social support
and health (pp. 3-22). New York: Academic Press.
Guilford, J. P., & Fruchter, B. (1973). Fundamental statistics in
psychology and education (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hays, W. L. (1963). Statistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Heller, K., Swindle, R. W., Jr., & Dusenbury, L. (1986). Component
social support processes: Comments and integration. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 466-470.
Lazarus, R. S., & Falkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping.
New York: Springer Publishing.

retical and practical usefulness. Theoretically, it appears to be

Levy, R. L. (1983). Social support and psychological disorder: A
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.

a valid operationalization of the P-E fit model of perceived

support. Thus, its use in research on social support may add
greater theoretical and conceptual clarity concerning the
structure and functions of social support. Practically, the SSI
may serve a useful diagnostic function by enabling counselors
to identify more accurately clients' major unmet support-
related needs. The usefulness of the SSI for this and other
applied purposes also deserves further research attention.
References
Brown, S. D., Brady, T., Lent, R. W., Wolfert, J., & Hall, S. (1987).
Perceived social support among college students: Three studies of
the psychometric characteristics and counseling uses of the Social
Support Inventory [Monograph]. Journal of Counseling Psychol-
ogy, 34, 337-354.
Cattell, R. B. (1966). The scree test for the number of factors.
Muhivariate Behavioral Research, 1, 140-161.
review. Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 3-21.
Murray, H. (1938). Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Rook, K. S. (1984). Research on social support, loneliness, and social
isolation: Toward an integration. In P. Shaver (Ed.), Review of
personality and social psychology (Vol. 5, pp. 239-264). Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
Shumaker, S. A., & Brownell, A. (1984). Toward a theory of social
support: Closing conceptual gaps. Journal of Social Issues, 40(4),
11-36.
Thoits, P. A. (1986). Social support as coping assistance. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 416-423.
Veil, C. T., & Ware, J. E., Jr. (1983). The structure of psychological
distress and well-being in general populations. Journal of Consult-
ing and Clinical Psychology, 51, 730-742.
Received October 15, 1987
Revision received December 31, 1987
Accepted January 7, 1988 •

Editor Named for APA's Clinician's Research Digest

The Publications and Communications Board has named George Strieker of Adelphi Uni-
versity's Gordon F. Derner Institute of Advanced Psychological Studies Editor of Clinician's
Research Digest (CRD), which is being published by the American Psychological Associa-
tion as of July 1988.

The six-page newsletter reports on research related to approaches to treatment modalities,

including any systematic empirical study, as well as some coverage of child and gerontologi-
cal issues. Although therapy is the main focus, key assessment and diagnostic questions as
well as forensic issues are covered. CRD is an easy-to-read, fact-based, findings-oriented
digest of research that summarizes for practitioners relevant material from the science base
of practice. Complete citations are included so that clinicians interested in more information
can request the full article from the author.

Although all published material will originate with the Editor, readers of CRD are invited to
refer to Strieker any references or reprints of articles they find valuable.