UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA

DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
ACTIVITY 1
1. Describe the difference between
a. Signs and symptoms of disease
A sign is the effect of a health problem that can be observed by someone
else. A symptom is an effect noticed and experienced only by the person who
has the condition.
Any objective evidence of a disease, such as a skin rash or a cough, is a sign.
A doctor, family members, and the individual experiencing the signs can
identify these. However, less obvious breaks in normal function, such as
stomachache, lower back pain, and fatigue, are symptoms and can only be
recognized by the person experiencing them. Symptoms are subjective,
meaning that other people only know about them if informed by the individual
with the condition.
Signs fit into the following categories:
 Prognostic signs: These are signs that point to the future. Rather than
indicating the nature of the disease, they predict the outcome for the
patient, such as what is likely to happen to them and how severe the
disease will probably be.
 Anamnestic signs: These signs point to parts of a person’s medical history.
For instance, skin scars may be evidence of severe acne in the past.
 Diagnostic signs: These signs help the doctor recognize and identify a
current health problem. For example, high levels of prostate-specific
antigen (PSA) in the blood of a male may be a sign of prostate cancer or a
prostate problem.
 Pathognomonic signs: This means that a doctor can link a sign to a
condition with full certainty. For example, the presence of a certain
microbe in a blood sample can point to a specific viral infection.
There are three main types of symptom:
 Remitting symptoms: When symptoms improve or resolve completely,
they are known as remitting symptoms. For examples, symptoms of the
common cold may occur for several days and then resolve without
treatment.
 Chronic symptoms: These are long-lasting or recurrent symptoms.
Chronic symptoms are often seen in ongoing conditions, such as diabetes,
asthma, and cancer.
 Relapsing symptoms: These are symptoms that have occurred in the past,
resolved, and then returned. For instance, symptoms of depression may
not occur for years at a time but can then return.

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Zamora, Elizabeth O.
 UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Some conditions show no symptoms at all. For example, a person can have
high blood pressure for years without knowing, and some cancers have no
symptoms until the later, more aggressive stages. These are known as
asymptomatic conditions, and even though the idea of symptoms is often
linked to discomfort or abnormal function, a condition without symptoms can
be deadly.
A medical sign is a physical response linked medical fact or characteristic
that is detected by a physician, nurse, or medical device during the
examination of a patient. They can often be measured, and this measurement
can be central to diagnosing a medical problem.
Sometimes, a patient may not notice a sign, and it may not seem relevant.
However, in the hands of a medical professional that knows how this sign relates
to the rest of the body, the same sign can be the key to treating an underlying
medical problem.

b. Acute and chronic disease

Acute illnesses generally develop suddenly and last a short time, often only a
few days or weeks.
Acute conditions are often caused by a virus or an infection, but can also be
caused by an injury resulting from a fall or an automobile accident, or by the
misuse of drugs or medications.
Acute diseases come on rapidly, and are accompanied by distinct symptoms
that require urgent or short-term care, and get better once they are treated. For
example, a broken bone that might result from a fall must be treated by a doctor
and will heal in time. Sometimes, an acute illness, such as the common cold, will
just go away on its own. Most people with acute illnesses will soon recover.
Chronic conditions develop slowly and may worsen over an extended period
of time—months to years.
Chronic conditions are often caused by unhealthy behaviors that increase the
risk of disease—poor nutrition, inadequate physical activity, overuse of alcohol,
or smoking. Social, emotional, environmental, and genetic factors also play a role.
As people age, they are more likely to develop one or more chronic conditions.
Chronic conditions are slower to develop, may progress over time, and may
have any number of warning signs or no signs at all. Common chronic conditions
are arthritis, Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, heart disease, high blood pressure,
and chronic kidney disease. Unlike acute conditions, chronic health conditions
cannot be cured—only controlled. Controlling (or managing) the symptoms of a
chronic condition can often be done by creating a health care plan in partnership
with your physician—the plan may include taking medication, healthy eating,
physical or occupational therapy, exercise, or complementary treatments, such as
acupuncture or meditation. Frequently, chronic conditions can be prevented by
practicing healthy lifestyle behaviors, such as staying physically active;

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Zamora, Elizabeth O.
 UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
maintaining a healthy weight and nutritional status; limiting sun exposure; and
refraining from drugs, smoking, and excessive alcohol use.

2. Give examples of the following:

a. Signs and symptoms of disease
The key difference between signs and symptoms is who observes the effect.
For example, a rash could be a sign, a symptom, or both:
 If the patient notices the rash, it is a symptom.
 If the doctor, nurse, or anyone other than the patient notices the rash, it is
a sign.
 If both the patient and doctor notice the rash, it can be classed as both a
sign and a symptom.
Some examples of signs that can be linked to a disease by a clinician:
High blood pressure: This can indicate a cardiovascular problem, an adverse
reaction to medication, an allergy, or many other possible conditions or
diseases. This will often be combined with other signs to reach a diagnosis.
Clubbing of the fingers: This may be a sign of lung disease or a range of genetic
diseases.
Signs
 Nasal obstruction refers to some blockage of the nose or nasal cavity and
can be caused by a wide variety of problems. There are several common
causes of nasal obstruction: Inferior turbinate hypertrophy. On the inside
of the nose there are normal bony structures called turbinate.
 Cervical adenitis is an inflammation of a lymph node in the neck.
Tuberculous adenitis (scrofula) is a tuberculous infection of the skin of the
neck caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
 Hoarseness is a symptom and not a disease. It is a general term that
describes abnormal voice changes. When hoarse, the voice may sound
breathy, raspy, strained, or there may be changes in volume (loudness) or
pitch (how high or low the voice is).
 Mucopurulent nasal discharge is the emission or secretion of fluid
containing mucus and pus (muco- pertaining to mucus and purulent
pertaining to pus) from the eye, nose, cervix, vagina or other part of the
body due to infection and inflammation
 Sneezing-make a sudden involuntary expulsion of air from the nose and
mouth due to irritation of one's nostrils.

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Zamora, Elizabeth O.
 UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Symptoms
 The term “chills” refers to a feeling of being cold without an apparent cause.
You get this feeling when your muscles repeatedly expand and contract
and the vessels in your skin constrict. Chills can occur with a fever and
cause shivering or shaking.
 Malaise is a general feeling of discomfort, illness, or uneasiness whose
exact cause is difficult to identify.
 Headache is a continuous pain in the head.
 A sore throat is pain, scratchiness or irritation of the throat that often
worsens when you swallow. The most common cause of a sore throat
(pharyngitis) is a viral infection, such as a cold or the flu. A sore throat
caused by a virus resolves on its own.
 Facial pain is pain felt in any part of the face, including the mouth and eyes.
Although it's normally due to an injury or a headache, facial pain may also
be the result of a serious medical condition. Most causes of facial pain are
harmless
 Nasal congestion or "stuffy nose" occurs when nasal and adjacent tissues
and blood vessels become swollen with excess fluid, causing a "stuffy"
plugged feeling. Nasal congestion may or may not include a nasal discharge
or "runny nose."
 Watering eye, epiphora or tearing, is a condition in which there is an
overflow of tears onto the face, often without a clear explanation. There is
insufficient tear film drainage from the eye or eyes. Instead of the tears
draining through the nasolacrimal system, they overflow onto the face.
 Post-nasal discharge drip describes the feeling of mucus secretions moving
down the back of the throat, often causing cough. It's normal to swallow
some of the mucus that's made in your nose and sinuses without even
realising it. But if the mucus becomes thicker or if there is more mucus than
usual, you may get post-nasal drip.

b. Acute and chronic diseases

Acute Diseases
 During an asthma attack, also called an asthma exacerbation, the airways
become swollen and inflamed. The muscles around the airways contract
and the airways produce extra mucus, causing the breathing (bronchial)
tubes to narrow. During an attack, you may cough, wheeze and have
trouble breathing.
 Bronchitis is an inflammation of the lining of your bronchial tubes, which
carry air to and from your lungs. People who have bronchitis often cough
up thickened mucus, which can be discolored. Bronchitis may be either
acute or chronic
 Burn is an injury caused by exposure to heat or flame

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Zamora, Elizabeth O.
 UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
 The common cold is a viral infection of your nose and throat (upper
respiratory tract). It's usually harmless, although it might not feel that way.
Many types of viruses can cause a common cold.
 Influenza, or flu, is a respiratory illness that results from a viral infection.
Flu is highly contagious and spreads through respiratory droplets. A
person can pass it on while talking or through physical contact, such as
shaking hands.
 Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs.
The air sacs may fill with fluid or pus (purulent material), causing cough
with phlegm or pus, fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. A variety of
organisms, including bacteria, viruses and fungi, can cause pneumonia
 Respiratory tract infection (RTI) is defined as any infectious disease of the
upper or lower respiratory tract. Upper respiratory tract infections
(URTIs) include the common cold, laryngitis, pharyngitis/tonsillitis, acute
rhinitis, acute rhino sinusitis and acute otitis media
 Strep throat is a bacterial infection that can make your throat feel sore and
scratchy. Strep throat accounts for only a small portion of sore throats. If
untreated, strep throat can cause complications, such as kidney
inflammation or rheumatic fever

Chronic Diseases
 Alzheimer's disease is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that
slowly destroys memory and thinking skills and, eventually, the ability to
carry out the simplest tasks. In most people with the disease—those with
the late-onset type—symptoms first appear in their mid-60s.
 Arthritis is the swelling and tenderness of one or more of your joints. The
main symptoms of arthritis are joint pain and stiffness, which typically
worsen with age. The most common types of arthritis are osteoarthritis
and rheumatoid arthritis.
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is the name for a group of
lung conditions that cause breathing difficulties. It includes: emphysema –
damage to the air sacs in the lungs. chronic bronchitis – long-term
inflammation of the airways.
 Depression is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness
and loss of interest. Also called major depressive disorder or clinical
depression, it affects how you feel, think and behave and can lead to a
variety of emotional and physical problems
 Diabetes is a disease in which the body’s ability to produce or respond to
the hormone insulin is impaired, resulting in abnormal metabolism of
carbohydrates and elevated levels of glucose in the blood and urine.
 Overweight and obesity are defined as abnormal or excessive fat
accumulation that presents a risk to health. A crude population measure of

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Zamora, Elizabeth O.
 UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
obesity is the body mass index (BMI), a person's weight (in kilograms)
divided by the square of his or her height (in meters).
 Osteoporosis causes bones to become weak and brittle — so brittle that a
fall or even mild stresses such as bending over or coughing can cause a
fracture. Osteoporosis-related fractures most commonly occur in the hip,
wrist or spine. Bone is living tissue that is constantly being broken down
and replaced
 A stroke occurs when the blood supply to part of your brain is interrupted
or reduced, preventing brain tissue from getting oxygen and nutrients.
Brain cells begin to die in minutes. A stroke is a medical emergency, and
prompt treatment is crucial. Early action can reduce brain damage and
other complications.

3. What are the factors that could cause illnesses and disease among human?
A predisposing factor is a condition or situation that may make a person more
at risk or susceptible to disease. Some predisposing factors include heredity, age,
gender, environment, and lifestyle.
 Heredity is a predisposing factor when a trait inherited from a parent puts an
individual at risk for certain diseases. Heredity is not easily controlled,
changed, or altered. Cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and trisomy 21 or Down
syndrome are examples of hereditary diseases related to genetic
abnormalities.
 Age is a risk factor related to the life cycle. For example, adenoid hyperplasia,
acute tonsillitis, and otitis media are more common among children than
adults. Older adults are at greater risk than younger adults for degenerative
arthritis and senile dementia. Older adults have unique problems that arise
from the aging process itself. Physiological changes occur in the body systems,
and some of these changes can cause functional impairment. Older persons
generally experience problems with temperature extremes, have lowered
resistance to disease as the result of decreased immunity, and have less
physical activity tolerance.
 Gender is a predisposing factor when the disease is physiologically based. For
example, prostate cancer occurs only in men; ovarian cancer occurs only in
women. Men are more likely to develop gout, whereas osteoporosis is more
common in women. However, lung cancer is as prevalent in women as in men.
Also, women experience heart disease as often as men do.
 The external environment can be a risk factor. Exposure to air, noise, and other
environmental pollutants may predispose individuals to disease. For example,
drinking water became contaminated with methane during drilling at some
fracking sites because of faulty well construction. With a warming climate and
increased logging in our forests, new fungal growths are now identified where
they previously did not exist. Some geographical locations have a higher
incidence of insect bites and exposure to venom. Living in rural areas where

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Zamora, Elizabeth O.
 UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
fertilizers and pesticides are commonly used can predispose individuals to
disease. Even office employees may be affected by environmental or
occupational health problems, as seen with carpal tunnel syndrome and eye
strain, which can result from heavy computer use.
 Lifestyle choice may predispose some diseases. Lifestyle is the consistent,
integrated way of life of an individual, as typified by mannerisms, attitudes,
and possessions. From the time a person is born, lifestyle is influenced by (1)
modeling of family members and peers, (2) education and knowledge, (3)
personal attitudes, (4) degree of self-confidence, (5) individual
responsibilities, and (6) life’s opportunities. Lifestyle choices have great
influence, whether positive or negative, on personal health and the health of
others.
An increasing number of individuals suffer from such diseases as diabetes,
heart disease, and some cancers that are preventable or delayed when lifestyle
factors are appropriately addressed. Numerous medical studies identify highly
effective preventive measures and lifestyle choices that include following a
healthy diet, exercising regularly, maintaining an ideal weight, managing stress,
and quitting smoking.
4. What are steps taken in diagnosing a disease?
The steps of the diagnostic process fall into three broad categories:
 Initial Diagnostic Assessment – Patient history, physical exam, evaluation of the
patient’s chief complaint and symptoms, forming a differential diagnosis, and
ordering of diagnostic tests
 Diagnostic Testing – Performance, interpretation, and communication of test
results
 Referral, Consultation, Treatment & Follow-Up – Physician follow-up, referrals
and consults, discharge process and patient compliance.
Step 1: Medical History
The first thing your doctor will do when you come to the office is get your
complete medical history. This involves collecting information about any past and
current symptoms, any diseases that your family members may have, and
collecting any other information that may be helpful such as medications you may
be taking. You might think that lab tests and other diagnostic tools are more
important than your medical history, but they can carry important clues the
doctor might need.
The doctor will also to you about how you are feeling, how long you have been
feeling that way, and any external influences that may be factors. This gives your
doctor a good foundation from which to move forward.

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Zamora, Elizabeth O.
 UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
Step 2: Physical Exam
After talking with your doctor, they will want to examine you physically. This
includes collecting your vital signs like your blood pressure, pulse, and
temperature. These measurements can provide a lot of information to your
doctor. Your doctor may also listen to your lungs and heart with a stethoscope,
feel or palpate parts of your body like your lymph nodes and abdomen, test your
reflexes, use percussion or tapping to listen to sounds in your body, look at your
eyes, ears, and mouth, and examine any other places they think may be important.
This physical exam allows the doctor to see, feel, and test your body to find out
what is abnormal and what hurts (if you are experiencing pain). It's important to
let your doctor know where you are experiencing symptoms so that they can more
closely examine those parts of your body and collect more information for their
diagnosis.
Step 3: Performing Diagnostic Tests
The next step in the diagnostic process is to run some tests. Usually by this
step your doctor already has a good idea of what the diagnosis is and the tests are
run simply to confirm this diagnosis. Other times though, your doctor may not be
quite sure and the tests are used to rule out certain diagnoses to narrow down the
field of possible options.
What kind of tests will your doctor run? It depends entirely on your symptoms
and the suspected diagnosis. Your doctor may order bloodwork that will tell them
how different organs are functioning, or imaging tests like a magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI) scan, X-ray, ultrasound, or computed tomography (CT) scan to look
inside your body. Respiratory tests, exercise tests, or any number of other
diagnostic tools can also be used to provide information.
Step 4: Formulating A Diagnosis
The process of formulating a diagnosis is called clinical decision making. The
clinician uses the information gathered from the medical history and physical and
mental examinations to develop a list of possible causes of the disorder, called the
differential diagnosis. The clinician then decides what tests to order to help refine
the list or identify the specific disease responsible for the patient’s complaints.
During this process, some possible diseases will be discarded and new ones added
as tests either confirm or deny the possibility that a given disease is present. The
list is refined until the physician feels justified in moving forward to treatment.
Even after treatment has begun, the list of possible diagnoses may be revised
further if the patient does not progress as expected.

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Zamora, Elizabeth O.
 UNIVERSIDAD DE MANILA
DEPARTMENT OF NURSING
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY
References:

Felman, A. (2018). Signs and symptoms: Definition, importance, and uses. Retrieved
September 17, 2020, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/161858

Friedl, S. (n.d.). Diagnosing Disease: Definition, Process & Steps. Retrieved September 17,
2020, from https://study.com/academy/lesson/diagnosing-disease-definition-
process-steps.html

Healthy Aging Team | 8.11.2016. (2016, August 11). Acute VS Chronic Diseases - Healthy
Aging Blog. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from
https://www.ncoa.org/blog/chronic-versus-acute-disease/

Syzek, T. (n.d.). The Diagnostic Process: Rediscovering the Basic Steps. Retrieved
September 17, 2020, from
https://blog.thesullivangroup.com/rsqsolutions/diagnostic-process-rediscovering-
basic-steps

Tamparo, C. (2016). Diseases of The Human Body (Sixth ed.). United States of America: FA
Davis Company.

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