Chapter 1

Introduction to Statistical Science

Objectives
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Define Statistics
2. Explain the role of Statistics in other fields
3. Differentiate descriptive from inferential Statistics
4. Differentiate sample from population
5. Differentiate quantitative variables from qualitative variables
6. Classify variables according to measurement scales.

Statistics came from the German term statistik, the study of political facts and figures;
from the Latin status (state); and from the New Latin statisticus (of politics). In its plural sense,
statistics is any set of quantitative data, such as live birth rate, blood pressure, peso-dollar
exchange rate, among others. In its singular sense, statistics is a science which deals with or a
process concerning with the collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data. Data is
the plural form of the Latin word datum, a fact or information which is accepted as a base for
inference.

Statistics exists because: 1) numeric data exists; 2) we want to quantify described

information; 3) variation is inevitable; 4) we don’t know everything but we can study a part of it;
and 5) we are not certain with the future. Statistics aims to uncover data structure, explain
variation in data and provide appropriate tools in analyzing quantitative data in research.

Statistics has two main branches: 1) descriptive and 2) inferential. Descriptive statistics
refers to the methods concerned with collecting, describing, and analyzing a set of data in a
research without drawing conclusions (or inferences) about a large group where summary
measures are used to describe data at hand: mean, standard deviation, percentages, skewness are
just some measures used in quantitative research. Inferential statistics, on the other hand, pertains
to the methods concerned with the data analysis in research leading to predictions or inferences
about the entire set of data or forecasts of a future value, where unknown values are estimated,
hypotheses are tested if they can be generalized about a bigger group. There are three main areas
of inferential statistics as: 1) estimation (point and interval), 2) hypothesis testing, and 3)
prediction.

The concepts of population and sample, parameter and statistic, census and survey, and
variables and measurement need to be defined for students. Population is a collection of all
elements under consideration in the research study while a sample is a subset or a representative
of the population from which information is collected. The method of collecting data from the
population is called a census, which is usually difficult or even infeasible to conduct. In a census,
parameters of interest are not estimated, they are known. On the other hand, the method of
collecting data from a sample is called a survey. From here we collect information and statistics.
 Parameter is a numerical characteristic of a population while a statistic is a numerical
characteristic of a sample. Parameters are estimated from the statistics measured in the sample.
Descriptive statistics describe the sample while inferential statistics generalize the findings to the
whole population.

Figure 1 shows an illustration explaining population and sample realtive to the main
branches of statistics.

Figure 1. Illustration explaining the population and sample relative to the main branches
of statistics.

Variables are characteristics or attributes which are observable or measurable on every

individual or subject of study. Measurement is the process of obtaining a value of a variable.
Observation is an entity with attributes or characteristics which are being measured.

Name of Variable Measurement/Possible Values

Number of beneficiaries X = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
Sex Male, Female
Educational Attainment Elementary, Secondary, College
Household Income PhP5,000.00 and above, …
Civil Status Single, Married, Widowed, Separated/Annulled
Weighted Average Grade 1.00, 1.01, 1.02, …, 1.25, …
 In research, it is important to distinguish the type of a variable, because different types
require different analysis. The two general types are: 1) qualitative and 2) quantitative.
Qualitative variables have characteristics that cannot be measured by numerical values but can
be categorized into two or more categories. It measures a characteristic on each individual or
object. Quantitative variables are those values that can be counted or measured with the use of
measuring devices or through mathematical formula.

Quantitative variables have two classifications namely: 1) discrete and 2) continuous.

Discrete variables consist of values obtained by counting and can assume only a finite or
countable number of values. Examples are number of students in a university, number of
flowering pots in a garden, number of books in the library, and others. Continuous variables are
obtained by measurements and can assume an infinite number of values corresponding to the
point on a line interval. Continuous data must be measured and rounded off because of the limits
of measuring device. Boundaries are written for convenience. Examples are length of ropes (in
meters) used by mountain climbers, daily tonnage produced by a mining company, length in time
(hours), and others.

There are four levels of measurement scale. These are: 1) nominal, 2) ordinal, 3) interval,
and 4) ratio. Nominal is a measurement scale that classifies a variable into two or more
categories, such as race, gender, civil status, dichotomous responses or preferences, among
others.

Ordinal is a measurement scale that classifies a variable according to rank or order of

categories, such as educational attainment, IQ (above average, average, low), hardness of
materials (very hard, hard, soft, very soft, level of satisfaction (very much satisfied, much
satisfied, moderately satisfied, slightly satisfied, and not satisfied), among others.

Interval is a measurement scale that has the properties of the ordinal scale wherein the
categories are broken down on a scale of equal units. Under this level, a zero value is arbitrary
and does not reflect the absence of an attribute. An example of this is the temperature in
Fahrenheit and Celsius scales. A 0oC temperature does not mean that there is no temperature as it
is considered as the freezing point.

Ratio is a measurement scale that has the properties of an interval scale but a zero value
indicates the absence of an attribute. Any variable with a ratio scale is measured by an
instrument and that all mathematical operations are permissible with ratio scale measurements.
Examples under this measurement scale are volume, height, weight, and others. Interval and ratio
scales represent or provide the highest level of measurement precision because they possess the
advantages of all lower scales.

To better understand the above-mentioned concepts, please refer to Figure 2

 Figure 2. Types of Variables

Activity No. 2. Introduction to Statistical Science

1. Define Statistics and explain its role in the other fields.

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2. Differentiate the following. Cite examples, if necessary.

Terms Comparison
1. Descriptive vs. Inferential
Statistics
2. Population vs. Sample

3. Parameter vs. Statistic

4. Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Variables
5. Discrete vs. Continuous

3. Classify whether the given variables have nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio measurement
scale.

Variables Classification
1. Height in centimeters
2. Membership in an
organization (member or non-
member)
3. Height described as short,
average, tall
4. Number of politicians in the
country
5. Satisfaction on a certain
government program as satisfied
or not satisfied
6. Satisfaction on a certain
government program as very
much satisfied, much satisfied,
moderately satisfied, slightly
satisfied, or not satisfied.
7. Volume of water as full, half-
full or empty
8. Volume of water in liters

9. Home address of students

10. Student ID card number