CONDITIONS LEADING TO QUENCH CRACKING

OTHER THAN SEVERITY OF QUENCH

R.R. Blackwood1 L.M. Jarvis1, D.G. Hoffman2 and G.E. Totten3

1. Tenaxol Inc., Milwaukee, WI USA

2. Metallurgical Services Inc., Chicago, IL
3. Union Carbide Corporation, Tarrytown NY USA

ABSTRACT during the quenching cycle. Besides the

monetary expense of the material involved, there
One of the greatest concerns in the heat is a loss of production time which is in addition
treating process is cracking of finished and to the monetary loss.
semi-finished material during quenching. Many
times, the only source of cracking considered is
the quenchant. However, there are various
sources of steel cracking other than the quench
which must be considered. A tutorial on
microstructural identification of various sources
of cracking including: quench severity, prior
steel structures, transformation temperature
range, surface condition and others will be
provided here.

INTRODUCTION

One of the greatest phenomenon of Figure 1 - Diagram of hardening and tempering

most ferrous materials is their ability to be
heated and cooled to produce higher physical
properties. This procedure consists of heating the
metal to a high temperature (austenitizing) for a
specified time to complete transformation to
austenite and diffusion of constituents and then
cooling in a quenching medium that produces
the desired microstructure and as-quenched
hardness.
This hardening treatment is most often
followed by a lower temperature heating process
(tempering) for stress relieving and finalizing
the required microstructure to achieve the
necessary physical properties. This sequence is
illustrated in Figure 1.
cycle.
Unfortunately, when cracking is
encountered, it is often attributed to the severity
of the quenching medium without
microstructural verification. Although excessive
quench severity is often the cause of quench
cracking, there are many other sources that must
also be considered. This paper will provide a
tutorial on microstructural identification of
various sources of steel cracking during heat
treatment including: quench severity, prior steel
structures, transformation temperature range,
surface condition and others.

A major concern of the heat treater is

cracking of finished and semi-finished material DISCUSSION

A. Quench Cracking Related to Severity of
Quench
One major source of cracking is
excessive cooling rates during the quench
(quench severity). This is illustrated in Figure 2.
Note that the crack passes straight from the
surface to the core.
Excessive cooling rates (high quench
severity) will produce greater thermal stresses in
addition to greater transformation stresses. (Steel
cracking during transformation to martensite is
largely due to the volumetric increase that
accompanies martensite formation.) If the total
residual stresses in the part are sufficiently high,
quench cracking, as illustrated in Figure 2, will
occur.
Figure 2 Micrograph of AISI 4340 quenched
and tempered steel illustrating macroetched pure
quench crack.
B. Quench Cracking Related to Non-
Uniform Heat Transfer
It is important to note that quenchant-
related problems, other than excessive quench
severity, are also often major contributors to
steel cracking. These include: non-uniform fluid
flow around the part due to poor racking of the
parts prior to the quench, incompatible fluid
contamination (oil -in-water or water-in-oil),
excessive foaming and air entrainment, etc. All
of these phenomena are capable of producing
increased thermal gradients resulting in quench
cracking.
The effect of non-uniform quenching
was illustrated with forged AISI 1045
crankshafts. Microstructural examination
showed a mixture of non-uniform cross-sectional
microstructures. Areas of tempered martensite
adjacent to pearlite, bainite, acicular ferrite and
ferrite at prior austenite grain boundaries were
observed. . Some of the microstructures are
illustrated in Figures 3 and 4.
Figure 3 - Micrograph of AISI 1045 steel as-
quenched and tempered, microstructure shows
bands with banded tempered martensite and
some bainite. The crack profile revealed
evidence of tempering oxide and secondary
cracking. (Magnification: 200 X; Etchant 2%
Nital.)
Figure 4 - Micrograph of AISI 1045 steel as
quenched and tempered, illustrates representative
under-heated microstructure observed adjacent
to cracking. (Magnification: 400 X Etchant 2%
Nital.)
C. Prior Steel Structure
The structure of the steel prior to
hardening, e.g., extruded, cast, forged, cold-
formed, etc., may enhance the potential for
cracking during the quench. Each as-formed
structure requires a specific time and
temperature cycle to condition the material for
proper hardening. For example, cast structures
must be homogeneous, cold-formed structures
require normalization and annealing and forged
structures must be grain-refined by
normalization.
Cracking may be caused by
microstructures resulting non-uniform heating
or cooling. In Figure 5, microstructures obtained
on forged AISI 403 stainless steel valve stems
that exhibited longitudinal cracking after
quenching. Microstructural analysis suggested
that cracking was caused by thermal stresses
during forging or during heating prior to forging.
Figure 5 illustrates evidence of a coarse grain
condition associated with high-temperature
surface oxidation. Further examination revealed
evidence of high and low thermal oxidation
within the crack profile. The presence of this
condition suggests cracking occurred prior to, or
during, forging.
Figure 5 - Micrograph of AISI 403 stainless
steel as-forged; microstructure is predominantly
a mixture of carbide particles in a matrix of
ferrite. No evidence of quenching and tempering
was observed. High and low temperature
oxidation can be observed on the surface of the
sample and within the crack profile.
(Magnification 100X; Etchant Villelas)
D. Non-Uniform Heating
Cracking may also be due to localized
over-heating is provided in Figure 6 which is a
microstructure of AISI 4140 tube end sections.
Circumferential cracking at a mid-thickness
location of the sample was reported on the tube
end. The tubes were reportedly austenitized and
then spray-quenched.
Microstructural examination of the steel
revealed a coarse grain condition due to
overheating during austenitization prior to
quenching. The cracking occurred along the
coarse grain boundary as illustrated in Figure 6.
However, microstructural analysis of samples
from other regions of the tube indicated fine
grain martensite. Taken together, these data
suggest that the austenitization furnace contained
hot spots which caused localized overheating
and grain coarsening. The overheated locations
cracked in the presence of quench stresses.
Cracking occurred in the mid-thickness locations
due to the inherent weakness of the material
centers carried over from the original billet or
casting.
Figure 6 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered coarse grain martensite with
intergranular quench cracking along the prior
austenite grain boundaries.. (Magnification
100X; Etchant 2% Nital)
E. Excessive Heating Rate
One source of cracking, which may
appear similar to quench cracking, can also
occur due to excessive heating rate to the
austenitizing temperature. This is illustrated for
AISI 4140 steel illustrated in Figure 7. In this
case, surface oxidation and decarburization
within the crack, which would not have been
obtained if the cracking occurred during the
quench was observed.
Figure 7 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite with evidence of
decarburization and high-temperature oxidation
on the surface of the crack profile.
(Magnification 50X; Etchant 2% Nital)
F. Transformation Temperature Range
The steel transformation temperature
range (MS - Mf) may exhibit substantial effects
on cracking propensity. Table 1 provides a
listing of the MS and temperatures of a number
of selected steel alloys with varying
hardenability. [1] In general, as steel
hardenability increases, there is a greater depth
of transformation to martensite producing greater
transformational stresses. In addition, if the Mf
temperature is sufficiently low, the
transformation to martensite will be incomplete
and resulting in increases retained austenite.
There will be a corresponding increase in
residual stresses as the retained austenite slowly
transforms to martensite with time.
 Table 1

Martensite Start (MS) and Martensite

Finish (Mf) Temperatures Obtained on
Selected AISI Steels
A.I.S.I. Quench
No. Temp oF Ms M f - oF
1065 1500 525 300
1090 1625 420 175
1335 1550 640 450
3140 1550 630 440
4130 1600 710 550
4140 1550 640 525
4340 1550 550 330
4640 1550 640 490
5140 1550 630 460
8630 1600 690 540
8695 1550 275 --
9442 1575 620 410
Figure 8 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
quenched and tempered: microstructure is
tempered martensite with quench crack in the
Excessively high austenitizing area of dimensional change. (Magnification:
temperatures increase the surface-to-core 100X; Etchant 2% Nital)
temperature differentials which results in a
corresponding increase in residual stress and
cracking potential.

G. Stress Risers from Prior Machining, Laps

and Seams

Surface conditions from prior

machining conditions will act as stress risers
which are areas of dimensional changes (Figure
8). Examples of such stress risers include: fillets
(Figure 9) , thread and gear roots, machining
marks (Figure 10 and 11), and rolling seams
(Figures 11, 12 and 13) and forging laps
(Figures 14. and 15) Forging laps are due to
concentrations of oxides which are folded in
during the forging process. The presence of
these oxides prevents the hot steel from welding
to itself during the forging process. This will
lead to cracking as shown (Note: the sample is Figure 9 - Micrograph of AISI 4142 steel as
first viewed in the unetched condition to locate quenched and tempered; microstructure is
the crack. Then the sample is etched, if desired, tempered martensite with quench crack at fillet
for microstructural identification.) radius. (Magnigication 100X; Etchant 3% Nital.)
Figure 10 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite with quench crack initiating
from machine groove.(Magnification: 100X;
Etchant: 2% Nital.)
Figure 12 - Micrograph of AISI 8630 steel as
quenched; microstructure is martensite where
cracking initiated from rolling seam.

Figure 13 - Micrograph of AISI Type 403

Figure 11 - Micrograph of AISI 4118 carburized
stainless steel as quenched and tempered;
steel as quenched and tempered; microstructure
microstructure is tempered; microstructure is
is tempered martensite (unetched) with quench
predominantly tempered martensite with
crack propagating from machine burr
cracking promoted by the seam. (Magnification
(Magnification 200X.)
100X; Etchant Vilelias.)

Figure 14 - Micrograph of AISI 1030 steel as
direct forge-quenched and tempered;
microstructure is tempered martensite (unetched)
with forged in scale adjacet to cracking.
(Magnification 100X.)
H. Grinding Cracks
An AISI G-3500 gray iron camshaft
was induction hardened to a depth of 0.060-
0.150 inches and a lobe hardness of HRC=45.
Cracking was observed by magnetic particle
inspection of the cam lobe after subsequent
machining.
Figure 15 Micrograph of AISI 1045 as-forged
steel illustrating a forging lap. (Magnification
30x, 2% Nital)
Elemental analysis shored that the
carbon content of the steel was higher than the
specification value (3.56% C versus 3.10-3.45 %
C). The surface hardness was 52HRC versus a
specification value of 45HRC. The hardness
was 94HRB. Microstructural evidence
suggested quenching from an excessively high
austenitizing temperature which contributed to
the formation of excessive amounts of retained
austenite at the Core lobe surface and within the
induction hardened case, as shown in Figure 16.
Figure 16 Micrograph of induction hardened
AISI G-3500 gray iron illustrating retained
austenite at the lobe tip. (Magnification 200X,
3% Nital)
Grinding stresses, apparently caused
during machining of the cam lobe surface
apparently caused localized martensitic
transformation of the retained austenite.
Cracking occurred due to the martensitic
conversion, as shown in Figure 17.
Figure 17. Micrograph of induction hardened
AISI G-3500 gray iron illustrating crack
propagation into the induction hardened case.
(Magnification 100X, 3% Nital)
I. Alloy Inclusion Defects
 Another common source of steel
cracking problems is alloy inclusions due to poor
homogenization of the steel composition. The
most common alloy inclusions are sulfides,
silicates, oxides and scale. Examples are
provided in Figures 18-22.

In addition to microstructural analysis,

elemental analysis may also provide an
invaluable insight into potential for inclusion
formation. For example, sulfide inclusions may
be obtained if insufficient manganese is present.
Generally, the manganese content should be
approximately five times the sulfur content to Figure 19 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
convert sulfur to manganese sulfide. quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite (unetched) with quench
cracking promoted by non-metallic inclusions.
(Magnification 100X.)

Figure 18 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered; micristructure is
tempered martensite (unetched) with cracking at
inclusions. (Magification 100X).
Figure 20 - Micrograph of AISI 1144 steel as
quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite where cracking is promoted
by inclusion defects. (Magnification 200X;
Etchant 2% Nital.)

Figure 21 - Micrograph of AISI 1144 steel as
quenched and tempered; microstructure is
martensite (unetched) where cracking is
promoted by inclusion defects. (Magnification:
100X)
Figure 22 - Micrograph of AISI 4150 steel as
quenched and tempered; cracking initiates from
silicate and sulfide inclusions. (Magnification:
100X; Etchant 2% Nital.)
J. Chemical Segregation - Banding
As indicated above, steel cracking may
result from material chemical (segration which
was evident from banding as shown in Figure
23. Microstructural analysis showed that bands
of tempered martensite were associated with
bands of tempered martensite and bainite. The
bainite appeared to originate from carbon and
manganese segragation. Within the material.
Which would lead to increased internal stresses.
Both surface and subsurface cracking was
observed. Figure 24 shows subsurface cracking
which appreared to be intergranular.
Figure 23 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
quenched and tempered; microstructure shows
bands of tempered martensite and tempered
martensite/bainite. (Magnification: 50 X, Etchant
2% Nital.)
Figure 24 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as
quenched and tempered, microstructure shows
bands with banded tempered martensite and
tempered martensite/bainite microstructure
illustrated in Figure 20. Here a representative
view of subsurface cracking that was obtained is
illustrated. (Magnification: 100 X, Etchant 2%
Nital.)
 In a similar case, AISI 1144, a
resulfurized steel, pins were with subsequent
cracking at the pin tips accompanied with soft
spotting. (The pins were through-hardened prior
to induction hardening of the pin tip.)
Microstructural analysis showed that the
cracking and soft spotting condition was due to
stringer inclusions with bands of gross chemical
segregation, significantly greater than normally
observed with this grade of steel. The stringers
act as stress concentration sites for crack
initiation in the presence of quenching stresses.
(See Figure 25)

Figure 26 - Micrograph of AISI 4140 steel as

quenched and tempered; microstructure is
tempered martensite where cracking is promoted
by alloy depletion. (Magnification: 100X;
Etchant: 2% Nital.)

L. Porosity

Steel porosity, variation which is due to

voids steel castings due to trapped gases, is
another source of potential steel cracking. This
is illustrated in Figure 27.

Figure 25 - Micrograph of AISI 1144 steel as

quenched; microstructure shows shows ferrite
bands and inclusions exiting the pin tip.
(Magnification: 100 X; Etchant 3% Nital.)

K.. Alloy Depletion

Figure 27 - Micrograph of AISI 8630 cast steel
Another source of non-homogeneous
as quenched and tempered; microstructure is
steel composition is alloy depletion. As with
tempered martensite, pearlite and ferrite showing
non-metallic inclusions, alloy depletion leads to
a potential cracking condition. (Magnigication
greater stresses and cracking as illustrated in
100X; Etchant: 2% Nital)
Figure 26. Examples of alloys particularly
susceptible to alloy depletion are AISI 4100,
4300 and 8600 series.
M. Improper Steel Chemistry

Steel hardenability is determined by its

chemistry. The quench conditions required to
obtain the desired properties are a funtion of the
hardenability. Therefore, if the steel chemistry is
incorrect, the selected quench process conditions
may, if too severe, lead to cracking.
Unfortunately, this problem is not uncommon.
 An example illustrating this problem is recommended that metallurgical analyses be
was afforded by a quench cracking problem conducted to determine the root cause of steel
obtained with AISI 1070 steel bearing raceways. cracking during heat treat processing.
Metalographic analysis confirmed that quench
cracking had occurred. However, the steel
chemistry, see Table 2, was incorrect for a plain
AISI 1070 steel. The higher carbon, higher
hardenability stee with a high manganese
content, would be more susceptible to quench
cracking using the same quenchant that the 1070 REFERENCES
heat treating process demands.
1. “Practical Data for Metallurgists”, Book
available from The Timken Company,
Canton, OH.
Table 2
2. R.M. Brick and A. Phillips, Structure and
Comparison of Steel Obtained and Properties of Alloys, 2nd Ed., 1949,
Specification Range of Steel Chemistry of McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, NY,. p. 52.
AISI 1070 Steel Used for Bearing Raceways

Element Specification Obtained

Range for AISI (%)
1070 (%)
Carbon 0.65-0.75 0.74
Manganese 0.60-0.90 0.97
Phosphorous 0.11 0.04
Sulfur 0.026 0.05
Silicon 0.10-0.20 0.23
Nickel - 0.07
Chromium - 0.11
Molybdenum - 0.22
Copper - 0.10

CONCLUSIONS

Although quench cracking of steel may

arise from insufficiently low quench severity,
there are numerous other potential contributors
to this problem. They include: non-uniform
quenching due to poor system design, racking
procedures which inhibit uniform quenchant
flow around the part during the quench or
contaminated quenchants.

However, other potential sources of

cracking are due to mechanical or material flaws
which include: non-metallic inclusions, laps or
seams, stress risers from prior machining, alloy
non-uniformity and porosity. These problems
are not readily detectable without
microstructural characterization. Therefore, it