CULTURE DEFINED ■ A complex whole which encompasses beliefs, practices,

values, attitudes, laws, norms, artifacts, symbols, knowledge and everything that a
person learns and shares as a member of a society (Tylor, 2010) ■ By-product of
the attempt of humans to survive their environment and to compensate for their
biological characteristics and limitations. ■ The sum of symbols, ideas, forms of
expressions and material products associated with a social system – Allan G.
Johnson
CULTURE DEFINED ■ Derived from the Latin word “cultus” which means
“care” – a care and attention provided to a human person as he grows into a mature
person. ■ An organized body of conventional understandings manifest in art and
artifacts, which persisting through tradition – Robert Redfield ■ A powerful force
that affects the lives of the members of a society. ■ It shapes and guide people’s
perception of reality, determines the food they eat, clothing they wear, music they
listen to, or the games they play.
Kinds of Culture 1. Material Culture – the concrete and tangible things that man
creates and uses. This includes dwelling units, tools, weapons, clothing, books,
machines, artefact relics, fossils etc – things that man creates by altering the natural
environment. This is the area of anthropological study.
Kinds of Culture 2. Non-material Culture – the intangible objects which the person
uses, follows, professes or strives to conform. It includes knowledge, laws,
lifestyles, techniques, ideas, customs behaviors, among others. The area of
sociological study.
In order to understand CULTURE, we need to know the following: A.
BIOLOGICAL CAPACITY FOR CULTURE – understanding the biological
makeup of mankind. 1. Our Thinking Capacity – the developed brain is necessary
in facilitating pertinent skills such as speaking, touching, feeling, seeing and
smelling. Brain – the primary biological component of humans that allowed
culture.
The Human Brain 1. Frontal Lobe and the Motor Cortex – function for cognition
and motor abilities. 2. Parietal lobe – allows for touch and taste abilities. 3.
Temporal Lobe – allows for hearing skills. 4. Occipital Lobe – allows for visual
skills.
Compared with other primates, humans have a larger brain weighing 1.4 Kg,
Chimpanzees have a brain weighing 420 g only, and those of gorillas weigh 500 g.
Due to the size of their brain and the complexity of its parts, humans were able to
create survival skills that helped them adapt to their environment and outlive their
less adaptive biological relatives.
2. Our Speaking Capacity – while the brain is the primary source of human
capacity to comprehend sound and provide meaning to it, the VOCALTRACT acts
as the mechanism by which sounds are produced and reproduced to transmit ideas
and values. A longer vocal tract means that there is a longer vibration surface,
allowing humans to produce a wider array of sounds. Hyoid Bone – crucial for
speaking as it supports the root of the tongue (Hogenboom, 2013).
DAN DEDIU from the Max Planck Institute for Psycholinguistics in Netherlands
argued that the origin of language may be rooted as far as 500 000 years ago based
on the discovered bone fragment from an ancestor known as Homo
heidelbergensis. A group of Homo heidelbergensis depicted butchering a rhino
(Stephanorhinus hunsheimensis). Hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) scavenge what they
can. Inspired by the Archaeology and fauna from the Middle Pleistocene site of
Boxgrove.
3. Our Gripping Capacity – the capacity to directly oppose a thumb with the other
fingers. It is an exclusive trait of humans. It allowed us to have a finer grip.Thus,
we have the capability to create materials with precision.
The hand of a human has digits (fingers) that are straight, as compared with the
curved ones of the other primates. ■ The thumb of a human is proportionately
longer than those of the other primates. These characteristics of human hand
allowed for 2 types of grip: Power Grip – enabled human to wrap the thumb and
fingers on an object. Precision Grip – enabled humans to hold and pick objects
steadily using their fingers.
4. Our Walking or Standing Capacity – an important trait that gave humans more
productivity with their hands. Through this, humans gained more efficient form of
locomotion suitable for hunting and foraging. Primates have two forms of
locomotion: a. Bipedalism – the capacity to walk and stand on two feet. b.
Quadropedalism – uses all four limbs (both two hands and two feet).
What have I learned so far? 1. What are the four capacities that enabled humans to
have culture? 2. What is the significance of studying human biology in
understanding cultural capacity?
It is believed that the crudest methods of tool making may have been practiced by
the earlier Australopithecines (A. afarensis and A. africanus). These methods may
have involved the use of wood as digging sticks or even crude spears.
HUMAN ORIGINS ANDTHE CAPACITY FOR CULTURE
The Oldowan Industry ■ Stone tool industry characterized by the use of “hard
water- worn creek cobbles made out of volcanic rock” (O’Neil, 2012). ■ Evidence
found by Mary and Louis Leakey at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania in Africa (around
2.6 million years ago) supports this industry. ■ Industry known to have been used
by Homo habilis. Percussion Flaking – process involving the systematic collision
of a hammer stone with a core stone. The impact of the collision produces a core
tool (used for general purposes) and a flake tool (used as a knife).
The Oldowan Industry ■ Form of technology used in this industry allowed for the
species to butcher large animals and it improved food gathering skills using the
‘hammering, digging, and chopping implements’ (O’Neil, 2012). ■ From Africa,
this industry spread out to Europe and Asia during the migration of Homo erectus,
who acquired it from homo habilis within 1.9-1.8 million years ago. By 1.8-1.6
million years ago, the Oldowan industry has already reached Java, Indonesia and
Northern China.
22
23 The Oldowan tools
24 Scavenging -was a way of finding food during times of shortage. Following
other scavengers made it easy to find carcasses. Using stone tools made it easy to
break open bones for marrow.
The Acheulian Industry ■ A more complex industry developed by the Homo
erectus from what they inherited from Homo habilis. ■ Using the same process of
percussion flaking, Homo erectus created hand axes that were bifacial, shaped in
both sides, and with straighter and sharper edges. ■ Homo erectus made other tools
such as, “choppers, cleavers and hammers as well as flakes used as knives and
scrapers”. HAND AXES – stone implements used in multiple activities such as
light chopping of wood, digging up roots and bulbs, butchering animals, and
cracking nuts and small bones.
The Acheulian Industry ■ This industry was named after Saint Acheul, a patron
saint in southwest France, as these artifacts were discovered in the area ■ Believed
to have originated in East Africa. ■ Scholars argue that its extensive use may have
been out of Africa as Homo erectus invented this industry and brought it to Europe
500 000 – 900 000 years ago and to
27 Acheulean tools Note how they are worked all over with many small chips
removed
28 H. erectus learned how to use and control fire.
Fire was useful for preserving food, making it taste better and killing parasites.
Also useful as a deterrent against predators, enabled activity at night and
reinforced social bonding.
The Mousterian Industry ■ Developed by Homo neanderthalensis
(Neanderthals) in Europe andWest Asia between 300 000 and 30 000 years ago.
■ Named after a site in France called Le Moustier, where evidence was
uncovered in 1860. ■ Tools from this industry were a combination ofAcheulian
techniques with the Levalloisian technique, which involved the use of premade
core tool that has sharpened edges MOUSTERIANTOOL – efficient stone tool
as all the sides of the flake are sharpened and are more handy due to the
reduction in size.
31 The Mousterian Tools made from flint.
The Mousterian Industry ■ Evidence of this industry dating back 100 000 years
was also found in Northern Africa andWest Asia, where modern humans such
as that of Qafze migrated. ■ Most archaeologists hypothesize that this industry
could be an evidence of acculturation of modern humans with their Neanderthal
relatives. ■ By the end of the Paleolithic period, early humans have been
engaged in proto-culture type of industries wherein they did not just create tools
but also started creating art and other symbolic materials.
The Aurignacian Industry ■ Present in Europe and Southwest Asia from 45 000
to 35 000 years ago. ■ The term Aurignacian was derived from Aurignac, an
area in France where the evidence of this industry was found. ■ Users of this
industry used raw materials such as flint, animal bones and antlers. ■ The
method employed in creating tools such as fine blades was similar to the one
used in the Mousterian industry. ■ A more advanced tool making industry that
made it a cultural milestone for modern humans in Europe due to the
development of self-awareness. ■ This development was projected through
cave paintings and the fabrication of accessories such as figurines, bracelets and
beads.
The Aurignacian Industry ■ The cave paintings found in the El CastilloCave in
Cantabaria, Spain provide us with a glimpse of the environment that the early
humans lived in. Most of the paintings are that of the animals that existed at that
time. Venus of Schelklingen (Venus of Hohle Fels) – figurine sculpted from a
woolly mammoth tusk. Emphasis was made on several parts of the body such as
the breasts and the hips. Scholars theorize that this emphasis may be due to the
importance of these parts in childbearing or child rearing. Bone flute in Hohle
Fels, Germany –
35 •People lived in caves and shelters, made clothes, painted on cave walls and
made statues from bone and clay.
The Magdalenian Industry ■ Saw the end of the Paleolithic period as it
transformed to the Neolithic period. ■ Named after the La Madeleine site in
Dordogne, France. ■ Also a proto-culture used by the early humans and was
defined by several revolutionary advancements in technology such as the
creation of microliths from flint, bone, antler and ivory. ■ Humans during this
period were engrossed in creating figurines, personal adornments and other
forms of mobiliary art. ■ A defining method used in tool making was through
the application of heat on the material prior to the flaking process.This was
done by casting the raw material on fire, which allowed for a more precise cut
upon flaking.
37 ■ Cro-Magnon man made Upper Palaeolithic tools including fish hooks,
harpoons and
2 left = Middle Palaeolithic 3 right = Upper Palaeolithic
The Magdalenian Industry ■ The creation of specialized weapons such as
barbed harpoons is evidence of the growing sophistication of the hunting skills
and technology of the early humans. ■ Use of temporary man-made shelters
such as tents made of animal skin are evident. ■ Use of rock shelters and caves
were still predominant during this period.The creation of tents allowed early
humans to be more mobile. ■ Humans have more leisure time as evidenced by
their preoccupation with decorative materials. ■ By 10 000 BCE, this industry
has spread to parts of Europe including contemporary territories such as Great
Britain, Germany, Spain and Poland.
Characteristics of Paleolithic and Neolithic Societies Characteristics Paleolithic
Neolithic Tools Small and handy for mobile lifestyle Included a wider array of
small and bigger tools due to sedentary lifestyle Personal Properties Limited to
personal accessories and small tools that could easily be carried around
Included structures (e.g., house), decorative ornaments, large containers
Characteristics of Paleolithic and Neolithic Societies Characteristics Paleolithic
Neolithic Art Small and limited to personal ornaments, bigger artworks were
done but not within a long time frame (e.g. cave paintings) Included the
creation of artworks that required a longer length of time and a greater number
of people (e.g., Stonehenge) Subsistence Foraging Agriculture
Characteristics of Paleolithic and Neolithic Societies Characteristics Paleolithic
Neolithic Leadership Not rigid; based on age and knowledge Semirigid; based
on legitimacy (religious beliefs, social status) Social Divisions None;
communal lifestyle Elite vs. working class Population size Small (30-50 people)
Large (in thousands)
GROUP Work ■ Collaborate with 10 of your classmates and set up a museum-
like exhibit for Paleolithic tools.Your exhibit must contain sample tools and
information about them.Your may recreate Paleolithic tools using papier-
máchể , clay, paper and ink, card board and any other form of raw materials. ■
You need to decorate your exhibit appropriately. ■ Your role in this activity
will be that of a curator who will plan and implement the creation of the exhibit.
■ Your teacher will rate your output based on quality of the materials created,
organization, accuracy of information and appropriateness of exhibit design.