PERCEPTIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND LIVELIHOODS OF

FARMERS IN WESTERN UGANDA.

A CASE OF MAHYORO SUB – COUNTY, KAMWENGE DISTRICT

BY

AHIMBISIBWE BENYA

THIS PAPER WAS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF ESAMI DEGREE.

MASTER IN BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION (MBA)

AWARDED BY

ESAMI
EASTERN AND SOUTHERN AFRICAN

MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE

P.O BOX 3030,

ARUSHA TANZANIA

NOVEMBER 2018

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DECLARATION
I, Ahimbisibwe Benya, declare that I am the individual author of this thesis and so it has not been
registered for any other academic award or qualification nor has any material been submitted
wholly or partly for any award. This thesis is a result of my own research work, and where other
people’s research was used, they have been duly acknowledged.

Date ……………………………… Signature………………………..

CANDIDATE

Date …………………………… Name: PROF. JOSEPH MUMBA (PhD)

SUPERVISOR

Signature…………………………..

SUPERVISOR

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DEDICATION
This research is dedicated to my father Mr. TIWANGYE AMOS NYABUTOMI and my mother
Miss ALLEN NYINOBWENGYE for the tremendous work they did for mobilizing resources to
enable me finish the exercise. I also do not forget my three brothers and three sisters at large for
the encouragement, the moral and financial support they rendered towards my completion of the
entire course.

iii
ACKNOWLEGMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my father, mother, brothers and sisters for the
tireless contribution both spiritually, morally and financially they made for me to undertake the
Eastern and Southern African Management Institute (ESAMI) Masters in Business
Administration. I will also remain grateful to the friends, colleagues and relatives who also
collectively and individually supported me as they made what looked to be hectic at the beginning
to become attainable. Special mention of thanks also goes to the following individuals.

Professor Joseph Mumba (PhD), my supervisor and lecturer for the relentless efforts, patience and
tolerance he demonstrated throughout the process of delivering this research study. Sincere thanks
to all lecturers under ESAMI intake 35 Evening for adding value to my knowledge, and Country
Coordinators, Kampala campus Mrs. MARGARET TABARUKA and Mrs. EUNICE AYEBARE
NDYAGENDA for always keeping the class posted about the progress of the class.

My ultimate felt gratitude to great friend Mr. Nahabwe Linnard for encouraging me to do an MBA
at ESAMI that I was all along ignorant about. I am indebted to the farmers of Mahyoro Sub –
County and all respondents from Uganda National Meteorological Authority (UNMA) and
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) for all the responses rendered.
Special thanks to my research assistants who included; Musinguzi Alex, Amutuhaire Mackline,
Aturinde Cosmas, Obe John and Idiatu Freda Irene.

Sincere appreciation to the President MBA 35E Mr. SSEKADDE RICHARD who expressed
servant leadership and wholesomely, to all fellow participants at ESAMI intake 35 Evening for
the commitment during joint discussions and advices during consultations. And particularly
“Group 2” discussion group, your love, time management and commitment was paramount to this
success

As it says in Psalms 136, I give the Glory and Honor to the Almighty God for His purpose, mercy,
kindness, love, spiritual guidance, uncommon favor and destiny shown through the journey of my
life and education.

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Table of Contents
DECLARATION........................................................................................................................... ii

DEDICATION.............................................................................................................................. iii

ACKNOWLEGMENT ................................................................................................................ iv

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... ix

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................... x

LIST OF ACRONYMS / ABBREVIATIONS........................................................................... xi

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY / ABSTRACT................................................................................ xii

CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Preamble. ............................................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Background of the study ....................................................................................................... 2

1.2.1 Overview of climate change ............................................................................................... 3

1.2.2 Overview of Livelihoods .................................................................................................... 3

1.3 Problem statement. ................................................................................................................ 4

1.4 General objective................................................................................................................... 5

1.4.1 Specific Objectives ......................................................................................................................................5

1.5 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 5

1.6 Scope of the study. ................................................................................................................ 5

1.7 Significance of the study. ...................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 7

LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................ 7

2.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................................... 7

2.2 Perception of Climate Change Review ................................................................................. 7

2.2.1 Temperature changes ...................................................................................................................................7

2.2.2 Rainfall variability .......................................................................................................................................8

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 2.3 Livelihoods Review............................................................................................................. 10

2.3 Adaptation strategies review ............................................................................................... 11

2.4 Theoretical Review ............................................................................................................. 12

CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 14

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................... 14

3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 14

3.2 Conceptual Framework Model ............................................................................................ 14

3.3 Research design ................................................................................................................... 16

3.4 Study population. ................................................................................................................ 16

3.5 Sample size and selection. ................................................................................................... 16

3.6 Sampling technique and procedure ..................................................................................... 17

3.7 Data collection methods ...................................................................................................... 18

3.8 Data collection instruments ................................................................................................. 18

3.8.2 Interview Guide. ............................................................................................................... 19

3.9 Quality control of instruments............................................................................................. 19

3.9.1 Validity and Reliability .................................................................................................... 19

3.10 Procedure of Data collection ............................................................................................. 19

3.11 Data analysis ..................................................................................................................... 20

3.12 Ethical Considerations....................................................................................................... 20

3.13 Limitations and Constraints .............................................................................................. 20

CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 22

DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS ........................................................................................ 22

4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 22

4.2 Gender of Respondents ....................................................................................................... 22

4.3 Farm entity .......................................................................................................................... 23

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 4.4 Cash crops grown ................................................................................................................ 24

4.5 Food crops grown ................................................................................................................ 25

4.8 Research question 1. What is the perceptions of climate change among farmers in
Mahyoro sub – county? .............................................................................................................. 27

4.8.1 Perceptions of climate variability and change over years ................................................ 28

4.8.2 Perceived causes of climate change ................................................................................. 29

4.8.3 Opinion of key informants on causes of climate change ................................................. 30

4.8.4 Weather forecasts and agricultural production................................................................. 30

4.9 Research question 2. How has climate change impacted livelihoods of farmers in
Mahyoro sub – county? .............................................................................................................. 32

4.9.1 Livelihoods of farmers ..................................................................................................... 32

4.9.2 Rainfall variations and Livelihoods of farmers ................................................................ 35

4.9.3 Temperature variations and livelihoods of farmers.......................................................... 37

4.9.4 Drought and livelihoods farmers ...................................................................................... 39

4.10 Research question 3. What is the effectiveness of adaptation strategies devised by

farmers in Mahyoro sub - county? ............................................................................................ 41

4.10.1 Adaptation strategies and livelihoods of farmers ........................................................... 41

4.10.2 Opinions of key informants about adaptation strategies ................................................ 42

4.10.3 Constraints to the adaptation strategies .......................................................................... 42

CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 44

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................................................... 44

5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 44

5.2 Summary of key findings .................................................................................................... 44

5.2.1 Perceptions of climate change among farmers ...........................................................................................44

5.2.2 Impact of climate change on livelihoods of farmers ..................................................................................44

5.2.3 Adaptation strategies developed by farmers ..............................................................................................45

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 5.3 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 45

5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 46

5.4.1 Integrated soil fertility management ..........................................................................................................46

5.4.2 Tree planting ..............................................................................................................................................46

5.4.3 Investing in early warning systems ............................................................................................................47

5.4.4 Political will ...............................................................................................................................................47

5.4.5 Investing in Agricultural Research .............................................................................................................48

5.4.6 Sensitization and awareness .......................................................................................................................48

5.4.7 Access to credit facilities ...........................................................................................................................48

5.4.8 Promote and support drought resistant crop varieties. ...............................................................................49

5.4.9 Support farmers to access appropriate technologies for irrigation .............................................................49

5.4.10 Support and promote soil and water conservation techniques and practices on farm ..............................49

5.4.12 Support and promote household water harvesting during rainy season including water tanks, construction
of water points for livestock................................................................................................................................50

5.4.13 Participatory planning ..............................................................................................................................50

References .................................................................................................................................... 52

Appendices ................................................................................................................................... 56

Appendix 1 Questionnaire surveys for farmers ................................................................... 56

Appendix 2 Interview guide for MAAIF ............................................................................... 65

Appendix 3. Interview guide for UNMA ............................................................................... 69

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 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.4: Sample size selection ................................................................................................... 17
Table 4.2. Table showing adaptation strategies by farmers .......................................................... 41
Table 4.3. Table showing relationship between climate change and livelihoods of farmers Error!
Bookmark not defined.

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.2. Graph showing gender of respondents ....................................................................... 22

Figure 4.3. Graph showing age groups of respondents ................................................................. 23
Figure 4.4. Chart representing type of farm entity practiced by farmers ...................................... 23
Figure 4.5. Graph showing type of cash crops grown in Mahyoro sub - county .......................... 24
Figure 4.6. Graph showing food crops grown .............................................................................. 25
Figure 4.7. Chart showing percentage of respondents growing different cash crops ................... 25
Figure 4.8. Graph representing animals reared in the study area of Mahyoro sub - county ......... 26
Figure 4.9. Chart showing opinions of farmers about climate change ......................................... 28
Figure 4.10. Graph showing perceptions of climate variability and change over years ............... 29
Figure 4.11. Graph showing causes of climate change ................................................................. 30
Figure 4.12. Graph representing predictability of weather by farmers ......................................... 31
Figure 4.13. Graph showing opinions of farmers about their livelihoods .................................... 33
Figure 4.14. Graph showing farming activities during the dry season ......................................... 33
Figure 4.15. Graph showing relationship between climate change and incomes ......................... 34
Figure 4.16. Graph showing opinions of farmers about type of crises experienced ..................... 34
Figure 4.17. Graph showing rainfall variations in Kamwenge District ........................................ 37
Figure 4.18. Graph showing monthly temperature variations for Kamwenge District ................ 39
Figure 4.19. Graph showing impact of drought on livelihoods .................................................... 40
Figure 4.20. Graph showing constraints to adaptation strategies ................................................. 43

x
LIST OF ACRONYMS / ABBREVIATIONS
AGW - Anthropogenic Global Warming

CO2 - Carbon dioxide

CSA - Climate Smart Agriculture

DSIP - Agricultural Sector Development Strategy and Investment Plan

DWRM - Directorate of Water Resource Management

FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization

GDP - Gross Domestic Product

GHGs - Green House Gases

IFPRI - International Food Policy Research Institute

IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

MAAIF - Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries

MoFPED - Ministry of Finance Planning and Economic Development

MLHUD - Ministry of Lands Housing and Urban Development.

NAADS - National Agricultural Advisory Services

NAPA - National Adaptation Programmes of Action

OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

SAACOs - Savings and Credit Corporative Organizations

UBOS - Uganda Bureau of Statistics

UNEP - United Nations Environment Programme

UNFCCC - United Nations Framework Convention on Climatic Change

UNMA - Uganda National Meteorological Authority

USAID - United States Agency for International Development

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY / ABSTRACT
The purpose of this study was to examine the “Perceptions of Climate Change and Livelihoods of
Farmers in Western Region. A case of Mahyoro Sub - County with much emphasis on; Rain season
variations, Global warming (drought), Ozone Layer Depletion, floods and how they have caused
changes in the Livelihoods of farmers. The problem of the study was that though many studies
have been carried out on climate change, a deeper analysis had not been conducted on the resulting
impact of climate change on the livelihoods of farmers in western Uganda as cases of food
insecurity are on the rise. Therefore, the researcher was motivated to undertake this study with the
aim to investigate the impact of climate change on livelihoods of farmers and what measures have
been / can be put in place to deter the vulnerabilities of climate change. The overall objective of
the study was to examine the perceptions of climate change and livelihoods of farmers in western
Uganda – a case of Mahyoro sub – county and the specific objectives were; “to examine the
perceptions of climate change and livelihoods of farmers, to investigate the impact of climate
change on the livelihoods of farmers and to examine the adaptation strategies devised by farmers
in western Uganda. The overall research question is “what is the impact of climate change on
livelihoods of farmers in Mahyoro sub – county.

The study sample consisted of Subsistence, Commercial and Association farmers who were
selected using simple random and purposive sampling techniques. Questionnaires and Interview
guides were used to collect data from farmers and climate change experts which data was later
analyzed using Excel and later exported to the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) to
determine the relationship between variables. There was a significant relationship between climate
change and livelihoods of farmers in Mahyoro sub – county as it has reduced farmers’ incomes
since crop productivity and animal husbandry is greatly affected.

From the analysis, it was found out that respondents perceived climate change differently where a
section of them perceive it as increase in temperatures and others refer it to unreliable rainfall that
has taken shape over the last decade. It was concluded that it is true there has been a change in the
world’s climate for the past decade that is attributed to human activities and calls for strategies like
tree planting, investment in agricultural research, promotion of manageable irrigation
technologies, early maturing and drought resistant crops, integrated soil fertility, political will,
sensitization and awareness, soil and water conservation techniques, participatory planning, access
to credit facilities, fertilizer management and application and water harvesting like use of tanks.

xii
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION.

1.1 Preamble.
Food is a basic human need and plays a fundamental role in the agro-based economy of Uganda,
where a large percentage of the income of the population is allocated to food. “The human right of
food” the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) entitles
everyone to an adequate standard of living including adequate food. According to the
transformational vision of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, all countries and
stakeholders should together to end hunger and prevent all forms of malnutrition by 2030. This
motive could only become a reality if agriculture and food systems become sustainable, so that
food supplies are stable and all people have access to adequate nutrition and health. Worldwide,
people are beginning to realize that human activities have a negative effect on the environment
(Ministry of Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment, 1994; 13). Common to what has been
understood is that climate change is directly or indirectly resulting from man’s activities like
industrialization, deforestation, over cultivation, mining, swamp reclamation, transport activities
that have caused a great harm to the environment including increased temperatures and rainfall
variations which have consequently impacted on the livelihoods of farmers in the country. With a
fast growing population, acting as a refuge to displaced people, integration of the region, there has
been an increasing demand for available food and cash crops grown in the country.

This study therefore analyzed the perceptions of climate change and livelihoods of farmers in
western Uganda, a Case of Mahyoro Sub – County. Perception of climate change was conceived
as the independent variable and livelihoods considered as dependent variables. Adaptation
strategies were for this regard taken on as moderating variable as it was necessary to find out how
farmers are copying up with the adversities of climate change in the region and the country at
large. This chapter presents the background to the study, the statement of the problem, the purpose
or the general objective, the objectives of the study, the research questions, the hypotheses, the
scope of the study, the justification and operational definitions of the terms and concepts.

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1.2 Background of the study

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), climate change is defined
as a fluctuation between normally experienced climate conditions (rainfall, temperature, wind) and
a different, but recurrent, set of climate conditions over a given region of the world. This has been
attributed to increase in emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere that destabilize
the ozone layer, leading to global warming (IPCC, 2001). Higher temperatures affect yields of
crops, and encourage weed and pest proliferation. Increased floods and droughts increase the
likelihood of short-run crop failures and long-run production declines in both crops and animals
(International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), 2009). Stern 2006 contends that if left
unchecked, climate change is expected to lower global per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
by 20% in 2200, threatening global food security. Recent reports for Uganda have also shown that
while in the past decades, the frequency of droughts in Uganda averaged one per decade, in the
last decade alone, over seven have been experienced (MWLE, 2007). Similarly, the unpredictable
swings in seasons have caused an increase in frequency of food and water shortages in the country,
with the worst hit area being the dry cattle corridor that stretches from the Uganda-Tanzania border
to Karamoja region. In other surveys, death of livestock from lack of water, migration of traditional
pastoralists and herders to neighboring districts or game reserves and escalating land conflicts have
been reported.

Whileas the primary manifestations of climate change are of a physical nature such as changes in
temperature, rainfall, sea levels, and increased frequency of extreme weather events, the
consequences are much more varied, including ecological, social, and economic impacts. To this
effect, developing countries have especially been susceptible to climate change because of their
geographic exposure, low incomes, and great reliance on climate sensitive sectors such as
smallholder agriculture (Hepworth and Goulden, 2008). In Uganda particularly, it is very likely
that climate change will slow progress toward achievement of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) either directly through increased exposure to adverse impacts of climate change or
indirectly through erosion of farmers’ capacity to adapt. Agriculture in Uganda, being
predominantly rain fed, is highly vulnerable to climate variations. However, the importance of this
vulnerability cannot be overemphasized; 80% of Uganda’s population is rural and 73% of the
working population are employed in agriculture and related activities (MAAIF, 2010).

2
1.2.1 Overview of climate change

Climate change as a change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity
that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate
variability observed over comparable time periods (UNFCC, 1992). For instance in recent years
global temperatures have spiked dramatically, reaching a new high in 1998 when an intense El
Nino (ENSO) early that year clearly played a role in the astounding warmth, but things have not
exactly changed since then. Undeniably, climate change due to global warming is one of the most
serious environmental problems facing the international community today with a bigger impact on
Agriculture. Adverse effects of climate change are threatening to undo decades of development
efforts and frustrate poverty eradication programmes in developing countries, particularly in the
least developed countries such as Uganda (NAPA, 2007).

More specific climate change indicators show that mean annual temperature has increased by
1.3°C since 1960, an average rate of 0.28°C per decade. This increase in temperature has been
most rapid in January-February at a rate of 0.37°C per decade. On precipitation observations of
rainfall over Uganda show statistically significant decreasing trends in annual and March-April-
May rainfall. Annual rainfall has decreased at an average rate of 3.4mm per month (3.5%) per
decade, but this trend is strongly influenced by particularly high rainfall totals in 1960-61. MAM
rainfalls have decreased by 6.0mm per month per decade (4.7%). (McSweeny C.; et al 2008).
According to Uganda’s Initial Communication to UNFCCC 2002 report, the major impacts of
climate change for Uganda have included food insecurity arising from occurrences of droughts
and floods, outbreak of diseases such as malaria, dengue fever, water borne diseases like cholera
and dysentery which are associated with floods and respiratory diseases associated with droughts,
heavy rainfalls which tend to accelerate land degradation and damage to communication
infrastructure

1.2.2 Overview of Livelihoods

According to the population census findings of 2014, 69 per cent of Ugandans (25.2 million) do
not have a sustainable income source and are wallowing in poverty despite the huge potential in
Agriculture and vast mineral wealth in this country. A FAO 2015 report on acute and chronic food
insecurity shows that more than four million Ugandans are under threat with more than 45 per cent
of the total population food insecure despite the fact that 65 per cent of Ugandans are farmers.

3
Much as Uganda's climate favors agricultural production ranging from food to cash crops, farmers
are already feeling the impact of climate change. In the study area (Mahyoro sub – county), where
they traditionally used to two seasons, one during the short rainy season between September and
November, and a longer one from February to July, they complained that the rains are becoming
unreliable. February is no longer the planting season as it used to be in the past decade. This has
been exacerbated by increasing environmental barriers that hinder increased productivity. The
soils are becoming less fertile and so reduced output. Relatedly, there are endemic problems with
pests and diseases that afflict both crops and farm animals. Rural farmers practice bush burning to
clear farmland, while the forests that cover about 15 per cent of the sub-county are raided for
firewood and charcoal, an important secondary source of income in some areas.

1.3 Problem statement.

Uganda is still ranked highly as one of the most natural resource endowed country in the continent
and across the world. However, in the same regard, these natural resources have faced very high
destruction rates, with the majority losing their natural cover that is mostly being attributed to man-
made activities. Climate Change is receiving greater attention from environmental experts, policy
makers, environmental protection agencies and governments at large. According to World Health
Organization (WHO), it is estimated that more than 140,000 people per year are already dying as
a direct result of climate change, primarily in Africa and Southeast Asia. Countries all over the
world have had a contribution to climate change through man-made activities and so to developing
countries like Uganda whose contribution to climate change has been microscopic, are feeling the
impacts of climate change first and worst. The western region is experiencing climate changes
mostly with increased temperatures and more intense rainy seasons which are less predictable and
more erratic leading to flooding and food insecurity. Recorded temperature has increased by 1.50
over the last 50 years. Although the precipitation levels have not changed significantly, the patterns
have become more erratic.

The livelihood of many Ugandans is dependent on agriculture which is being predominantly rain
fed, and has been highly vulnerable to climate variations for the past decade. The importance of
this vulnerability cannot be overemphasized; 80% of Uganda’s population is rural and 73% of the
working population are employed in agriculture and related activities (MAAIF, 2010). Uganda’s
agricultural productivity is also featured as one of the lowest in Africa by a Feed the Future (FTF)

4
report, (2010) of the USAID. Over 60% of households in rural areas are net buyers of food meaning
that they purchase more food by value than they produce (MAAIF, 2010). And now with climate
change, if food production levels do not stabilize, food shortages and food insecurity are expected
to become more acute in the near future.

Looked at from the other side of increased mean annual rains, the impact is likely to be felt
especially in form of malaria, soil erosion, and land degradation, floods damaging infrastructure
and settlements and shifts in agriculture and natural resources. The review therefore calls for the
intervention in environmental protection and copying with adaptation measures before food
insecurity worsens in the country as already people are dying because of food shortage.

1.4 General objective

The general objective of the study is “To examine the perceptions of climate change and
livelihoods of farmers in western Uganda – a case of Mahyoro sub – county – Kamwenge District”.
1.4.1 Specific Objectives
1. To examine the perception of climate change by farmers in Mahyoro sub - county.
2. To explain the impact of climate change on the livelihoods of farmers in Mahyoro sub -
county
3. To examine the adaptation strategies devised by farmers in Mahyoro sub - county

1.5 Research Questions

1. What is the perception of climate change among farmers in Mahyoro sub - county?

2. How has climate change impacted livelihoods of farmers in Mahyoro sub - county?

3. What is the effectiveness of adaptation strategies devised by farmers in Mahyoro sub -

county?

1.6 Scope of the study.

The study was carried out in Uganda’s western region specifically Mahyoro sub - county because
it is centre of many farmers both subsistence and commercial and so largely affected by climate
whims. The research essentially centred on constituents of climate change for the last 10 years up
to 2017 because over the past decade, there has been a change in the nature of the climate that has
resulted to various changes in agricultural yields of both food, cash, and animal husbandry
products.

5
1.7 Significance of the study.
The findings of this study are hoped to be of great help to the Government in designing an
environmental management strategy and policy in Uganda especially in relation to regulation of
man-made activities that greatly impact the environment and combating their effect on the
livelihoods of farmers. The undertaken study will be a guide to policy makers in determining the
necessary intervention strategies so as to benefit the big number of citizens in the country due to
control of externalities. This will highlight the critical barriers to environmental sustainability and
hence can help in spurring economic progress of the country in terms of establishment of
framework for environmental protection that at the same time boosts agriculture. The research is
also expected to add onto the body of existing knowledge both theoretically and methodologically.

The study will also enable the researcher fulfill requirements for the award of Masters in Business
Administration, permit the researcher to apply professional techniques and judgment in
development of future policies and strategies for climate change adaptation and mitigation. In
addition, the study will improve greater understanding of the long – term effects of climate change
on agricultural productivity including both crops and animals. The findings and recommendations
of the study will guide strategic decisions in controlling and mitigating climate change and
identifying more feasible strategies for adapting to climate change for sustained food security and
animal productivity. Consequently, knowledge gained from this study will give early warning to
policy, decision makers and farmers of the rain – fed agriculture to always equip themselves with
counter measures to climate change adversities.

6
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction.
This chapter presents literature related to the subject of the study. It was handled objective by
objective, reflecting both the independent variable as perception of climate change and dependent
variables being livelihoods and adaptation strategies devised by farmers as the moderating
variable. It further considered the theoretical review and the guiding theories of the study that were
discussed in view of the contributions made by earlier scholars.

2.2 Perception of Climate Change Review

Uganda was among the 113 that were represented at the first international conference on the
environment that is the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment that was held in
Stockholm in 1972. This was meant to discuss issues of common concern (UNEP, 2002). In 2002,
an assessment was done on the progress made in the past, present and the future perspectives.
Decisions made since Stockholm in 1972 now influence governance, business and economic
activity at different levels. However, some things have not progressed, for example, the
environment is still at the periphery of socio-economic development, and poverty and excessive
consumption continue to put enormous pressure on the environment. As a result, sustainable
development remains largely theoretical for the majority of the people in the world today. The
nature of the global climate continues to deteriorate (UNEP 2002). The environment of Uganda
has undergone rapid changes since 2005. There are many factors affecting the Country’s
environment arising from social-economic activities in the country. When combined with
environmental change, these factors have a significant impact on the health and functioning of the
ecosystems, affecting the quality of life of the people and depriving them of their ability to survive
and a greater impact on the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as the main source of income for the
biggest population has tended to vary.
2.2.1 Temperature changes
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change which is an independent body
responsible for providing periodic assessments of climate science to world governments, all of
Africa is likely to warm by the year 2020, and at a faster rate than the global average.
Notwithstanding all this, Africa is also the continent that is least likely to be able to cope with

7
climate change. Many African nations already have extreme climates, and are highly dependent
on climate sensitive industries like farming and food production. As a continent, Africa lacks the
financial and technological resources to adapt to a changing climate.

In the East African region, average temperatures have increased by about 0.50 C over the last
century. But in Uganda, there is evidence that average temperatures have increased by as much as
1.40 C since the 1960’s. It is further estimated that average temperatures further to rise by 4.30 C
by the 2080s is possible. A temperature rise of this magnitude would have disastrous consequences
for Uganda. To put these numbers in perspective, there is a general consensus among politicians
that if the most dangerous effects of climate change are to be avoided, average global temperatures
should not rise by more than 2. 00 C. This means that there is an extremely small window of
opportunity to get to grips with climate change. Unless urgent action is taken, climate change will
cause a range of serious problems in Uganda.

McSweeny C.; et al 2008, presented an overview of Uganda’s climatic conditions and an analysis
of the recent trends in precipitation and temperature using Global Climate Model (GCM). Magrath
J.; (2008), examines the impacts of climate changes on three areas namely on agriculture, on
pastoralism and on health and water. The report explains the linkages between climate change and
various sectors and how the people’s livelihoods are affected. The report notes that it is a typical
characteristic that on the one hand there is more unreliable rainfall in the March to June rainy
season, bringing drought and reductions in crop yields and plant varieties; on the other hand the
rainfall, especially in the later rains towards the end of the year, is reported as coming in more
intense and destructive downpours, bringing floods, landslides and soil erosion. In order to
moderate the impacts of climate change, it is suggested that adaptation and need for leadership
basing on collaboration between government, development partners and civil society be enhanced
to minimize the effects.
2.2.2 Rainfall variability
Several studies on the importance of intraseasonal characteristics of daily rainfall to agricultural
sector in the region have been done. In the tropical regions, agriculture is heavily dependent on the
seasonal characteristics of rainfall, that is, onset, length and termination of the wet season, seasonal
rainfall totals and intraseasonal rainfall distribution. Rural populations are exposed to the impacts

8
of climate variability at different time and space scales mainly on agricultural production, which
is the most weather – dependent of all human activities (Mutai, 2000; Hansen, 2002).

Mehari et al., (2004) studied the characteristics of daily and monthly rainfall for the decision
support system. The study used 88-year record of monthly rainfall for the period (1913 – 2000)
and 45 year record of daily rainfall for the period (1943 – 1988) over Asmara City in Eritrea. The
least squares method was used for fitting a straight line for the trend and the Markov chain model
was investigated for predicting the behavior of dry spells for the rainy season (June to September)
and the fitted model was used to estimate the risk of long dry spell lengths. A threshold of 0.8mm
was used as a cut off to distinguish wet and dry days. The results from the study showed that the
probability of a dry spell of 8 days, within the 30 days following planting, has dropped to 0.5 by
15th June (day 167) and to 0.2 by 27th June (day 179). June was identified as the most likely month
for moderately wet spells, and July – August for extremely wet spells. The study concluded that a
comprehensive analysis of rainfall data is a crucial component in water management and in
Agricultural production. Techniques like Markov chain can be very helpful for estimation of the
risk of long dry spells hence, proving information that could be useful to farmers in selecting
drought resistant varieties and selecting best planting dates by avoiding the period of high risk of
long dry spells.

According to analysis of the country’s average annual rainfall for the past 16 years, Uganda has
lost 20 millimetres of rainfall. According to Wikipedia, one millimetre of rainfall is the equivalent
of one litre of water per square meter. It is measured by a rain gauge. Uganda’s total surface area
is 241,038 square kilometres, which translates to 241,038,000 square metres. Going by this, we
have lost annually 4.8 billion litres of water that used to pour from the skies. The UN Food and
Agriculture Organisation estimates that beans need at least 300 – 500mm of water to mature, cotton
700 – 1300, groundnut 500 – 700, and maize 500 – 800, Sorghum/millet 450 – 650mm. The
analysis shows a gradual shift in rainfall from 750 – 2000mm per year to 1,000 – 1639mm per
year. There is a noticeable variation in average annual rainfall across the weather stations located
in different districts of the country. The period of analysis spans 16 years, from 2001 to 2016 for
which the data used to arrive at the conclusions was extracted from the Statistical Abstracts
published annually by the Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS).

9
According to the Uganda National Meteorological Authority (UNMA, 2018), the month of April
marks the peak of the March to May ("Long Rains") seasonal rainfall while March is normally
associated with the onset of rainfall over most parts of the country. The rainfall outlook for April
2018 indicated that most parts of the country were likely to experience enhanced rainfall especially
in western and mountainous areas of Elgon which evidently happened. Overall, wet conditions and
reduced temperatures prevailed during the month of April 2018 over most parts of the country.
Overall, the April forecast indicated that most parts of the country were expected to have enhanced
rainfall. However, the mountain areas of Rwenzori and Elgon plus the highlands of South Western
Uganda were expected to receive above the average rainfall which impacted negatively to the
communities in these areas. These heavy rains saw increased mudslides and floods that caused a
lot of soil erosion, crops like maize and ground nuts were unable to yield and so likely to impact
on the final output from the harvests registered. To most farmers, February is nolonger the planting
season as it used to be decades ago where rains would come as early as this month to enable
cultivation. With the same variances in rainfall amounts, dengue fever malaria, and waterborne
diseases associated with floods were reported in most health facilities in the country, livestock
diseases also increased for example the foot and mouth diseases, Bluetongue among the sheep,
new castle diseases among others.

2.3 Livelihoods Review.

In Uganda, weather related events such as prolonged dry seasons, floods, storms, mudslides,
extreme rainfall, and delayed / early rains have become more frequent and / or intense. This has
left most of the rural poor farmers’ food insecure and their livelihoods threatened. As many people
remain dependent on agriculture, for the last decade there has been a remarkable decline in
agricultural produce of cash and food crops and livestock output. Existing threats to food security
and livelihoods have been exacerbated by climate change due to a combination of factors that
include; the increasing frequency and intensity of climate hazards, diminishing agricultural yields
and reduced production, rising sanitation and health risks, increasing water scarcity, and
intensifying conflicts over scarce resources. These impacts of climate change on food insecurity
have led to new humanitarian crises as well as increasing displacement. The Regions already
vulnerable to food insecurity and societies that depend on natural resources or practice climate
sensitive activities such as rain fed agriculture have been particularly vulnerable to the impacts of
climate change and at an increased risk of food insecurity as a result.

10
The same climate change is likely to cause shifts in the spread of diseases like malaria, soil erosion
and land degradation, floods damaging the infrastructure and settlements as is with the case of
Kasese and shifts in the productivity of agriculture and natural resources. Poverty is also linked to
or can be induced by climate change; lower yields mean less food and income. Studies show that
agricultural impacts indicate that crop net revenues will be likely to fall by as much as 90% by
2020, with small scale farmers being most severely affected. Moreover, even as the farmers adapt
to the changing climate, the costs of production have raised as they struggle to increase
productivity, (with more expense on inputs such as labor for irrigation, use of fertilizers, and
control of pests and disease) a situation that cannot be achieved under low management (Rao
2013).

2.3 Adaptation strategies review

Antle, (2008) defines adaptation to climate change as the adoption of practices that are relatively
less vulnerable under the changed climate. These practices are aimed at reducing the vulnerability
of human or natural systems to their impacts of climate change and climate related risks, by
maintaining or increasing adaptive capacity and systems resilience (OECD – DAC, 2011).
Similarly, they are responses by individuals, groups and governments to actual or expected
changes in climatic conditions or their effects. Current and future impacts of climate variability
and climate change threaten development achievements and stall further progress. Adaptation can
reduce these threats. In turn, development, if appropriately planned, can help to enable climate
change adaptation. Adaptation to climate change is not essentially different from development
activities aiming at reducing vulnerability of people to current stresses. However, adaptation puts
importance on reducing those vulnerabilities that result from current and future climate change
impacts. Adaptation measures need to be integrated into policy and programme design.

The adaptation strategies in agriculture are based on a combination of; specific actions (for
example, switching from one crop variety to another and systemic change through systematic
changes like diversifying livelihoods against risks or an institutional reform to create incentives
for better resource management. Some studies have shown that farmers all over the world have
taken on adaptation options to build resilience to impacts of climate change. Adaptation
approaches reportedly used by farmers include changing planting dates, use of new crop and
livestock species with more adaptive traits, and use of mixed crop and livestock systems, shifting

11
between grazing or cultivated areas and supplementing livestock feed among others (Thornton
2006; Majaliwa et al., 2009; Gbetibouo et al.,2009; Daressa and Hassan, 2009).

Profitability is a key factor affecting farmers’ adaptation decisions besides their perceptions of and
capability to adapt to climate change (Antle 2010). They will choose crop varieties for their
resilience to stresses, or plant according to site specific conditions among others but working
together with the enabling household characteristics in ways that take advantage of the changed
conditions. This assertion is in line with the IPCC assessment report (IPCC 2001) that posits an
inverse relationship of vulnerability to climate change with the resource endowments of the
households. In a study that quantifies such vulnerabilities (Antle et al., 2004 cited by Antle 2010)
using field level and farm level data, places where mitigation and adaptation efforts were present
showed a positive relationship between gains from adaptation and resource endowments.

2.4 Theoretical Review

The conceptualized relationships will be explained by different theories according to different
scholars. The Conspiracy theory of climate change gives a more explanation of historical, ongoing,
or future events or circumstances that cites as a main causal factor a small group of powerful
persons, the conspirators, acting in secret for their own benefit or against the common good
(Aaronovitch, 2010; Coady, 2003; Keeley, 1999). The Anthropogenic Global Warming Theory
(AGW) laments that energy from the sun travels through space and reaches Earth. The earth’s
atmosphere is mostly transparent to the incoming sunlight, allowing it to reach the planet’s surface
where some of it is absorbed and some is reflected back as heat out into the atmosphere. Certain
gases in the atmosphere, called “greenhouse gases,” absorb the outgoing reflected or internal
thermal radiation, resulting in Earth’s atmosphere becoming warmer than it otherwise might be.

Also according to the Human Forcings besides Greenhouse Gases, mankind’s greatest influence
on climate is not its greenhouse gas emissions, but its transformation of Earth’s surface by clearing
forests, irrigating deserts, and building cities. Roger Pielke, Sr., asserts that “Although the natural
causes of climate variations and changes are undoubtedly important, the human influences are
significant and involve a diverse range of first-order climate Forcings, including, but not limited
to, the human input of carbon dioxide (CO2). Analysis will also be made from the theory of Milutin
Milankovitch (1941) who postulates that, most or all of the warming of the latter part of the
twentieth century can be explained by natural gravitational and magnetic oscillations of the solar

12
system induced by the planet’s movement through space. These oscillations modulate solar
variations and/or other extraterrestrial influences of Earth, which then drive climate change.

The study was also grounded on the solar variability which accounts for most or all of the warming
in the late twentieth century and will dominate climate in the twenty-first century regardless of
man-made greenhouse gas emissions. Active mixing of gases on the near‑surface of the Sun,
denoted by changes in the number of sunspots, causes changes in the radiant energy emitted by
the sun in cycles of roughly 11, 87, and 210 years. There is evidence that Earth’s climate warms
and cools in synchrony with these cycles.

13
 CHAPTER THREE

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction
This chapter outlines the scope of work that was undertaken in the research study divided into two
major sub – sections of the conceptual framework and research methodology. The conceptual
framework constitutes the word model linking dependent, independent and moderating variables
to explain the study problem. Methodology comprises the study area, research design, population
of the study, sample size and selection, data collection instruments, data collection methods, data
analysis, data quality control, ethical considerations and measurement of variables.

3.2 Conceptual Framework Model

This section identifies key variables that assisted to explain the research problem. It presents a
word model showing linkages among independent, dependent and moderating variables and their
relationships. The perception of Climate change of the environment today is due to human
activities and non-human activities which have changed the livelihoods of farmers which has
forced farmers to devise strategies to combat the adversaries of these changes. The study mainly
focused on selected persistent constituents / components which are both as a result of natural
variations and man-made activities.

Farmers being rational will make land management decisions to manage climate change based on
how affordable the climate change adaptation practices are, the opportunity cost of adapting, and
the expected outcome on productivity. From this perspective, the climate change response
decisions of farmers are assumed to be different as influenced by various factors and resource
endowments that work together to create the desired production outcome for example farm yields,
and farm income. It is also assumed that over time if the farmers do not benefit as expected from
the climate change adaptation practices they have chosen, they are bound to make changes to
adaptation practice, or give it up completely. It is from this inference that examining the impacts
of the adaptation practices in the long run becomes important so that farmers make sustainable
farming decisions in ways that take into consideration the associated costs, and risks; knowing that
climate is a key factor of production. When the net benefits are positive, farmers will continue
adapting to climate change.

14
Independent Variable Dependent Variable

Perceptions of Climate change Livelihoods of farmers

- Food insecurity
- Drought
- Water availability
- Floods
- Diseases
- Variations in rain seasons
- Level of incomes
- Hail storms
- Shifts in productivity of
- Rise in temperatures
agricultural resources
- Mudslides

Moderating Variable
Adaptation strategies

- Income diversification

- Drought tolerant varieties

- Tree planting

- Storing food

- Changing planting and harvesting dates

- Crop diversification

FIGURE 3.1 DIAGRAMMATIC PRESENTATION OF THE CONCEPTUALIZED

FRAMEWORK . SOURCE : RESEARCHER ’ S WORK

Through the adaptation strategies embraced, farmers will be able to adapt to the changes in climate
and hence be in position to achieve sustainable agriculture. The perception of climate change will
not only be felt in the agricultural sector but also will pose significant threats to environmental,

15
political and consequently human risks. Therefore, different stakeholders should be concerned
with the way the climate is changing as a result of mainly man-made factors like deforestation,
mining and industrialization and so food security that has become an issue in the whole world
might worsen as the climate continues to change.

3.3 Research design

This study was cross sectional in nature and it employed a blend of qualitative research designs.
The methods included various fact finding enquiries describing the state of affairs as they exist at
present. The researcher sought people’s views, on the perception of climate change and livelihoods
of farmers and critical analysis into the adaptation strategies devised by the farmers in Mahyoro
sub – county, Kamwenge District. The researcher used a triangulation of approaches in order to
ensure that the study produces best outcomes. Questionnaires and interview guide were issued to
farmers in different categories and experts in climate change studies respectively. The unit of
analysis for this study was subsistence farmers in the western region since they comprised the
biggest percentage. The quantitative techniques involved logical presentation and interpretation of
the statistical data obtained from particularly using excel spread sheet computer package.

3.4 Study population.

The research was conducted in Mahyoro Sub – county in Kamwenge District in Western Uganda
with main focus on subsistence, association / group and commercial farmers. In this study the
population consisted of three groupings namely Subsistence farmers, Commercial farmers and
Association farmers.

3.5 Sample size and selection.

The sample was broken down under the following groupings; Subsistence, Commercial and
Association farmers. The researcher used the Krejcie and Morgan table of 1970 as cited in Amin
(2005) to determine the sample size that was used in the study. This study targeted to reach out
105 respondents of which 50 would be Subsistence farmers, 25 Commercial farmers and 15 as
Association farmers. A simple random sampling was used for the case of Subsistence farmers in
the all the three parishes to access 40 respondents out of which 35 respondents were given the
questionnaires. However, purposive sampling was used for Commercial an Association farmers
and an accessible population of 20 respondents for Commercial farmers was guaranteed and later
16 respondents were given questionnaires. To Association farmers, 10 groups were targeted and 8

16
groups ended up being assigned the questionnaires. For this case, one respondent represented a
particular group of farmers.

T ABLE 1.4: S AMPLE SIZE SELECTION

Category Study Accessible Sample size Sampling
population population technique
Subsistence farmers 50 40 35 Simple random
sampling
Commercial farmers 25 20 16 Purposive
sampling
Association farmers 15 10 08 Purposive
sampling
Total 105 80 59
Source: (Kamwenge District Production and Marketing Departments, 2014)

From the study population of 105 respondents, an accessible population of 80 respondents was
established. Of these a total of 59 respondents were drawn from the above listed categories
supported by purposive and simple random sampling techniques. This was further enriched by
information from interviews with 3 experts in the field of climate change because of their
knowledge on the subject matter in the survey instrument. Two experts being from the Uganda
National Meteorological Authority (UNMA) and other one respondent from the Ministry of
Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF).

3.6 Sampling technique and procedure

The researcher used both random and non-random sampling techniques in selecting the
respondents. The use of the different sampling techniques was greatly dependent on the nature of
respondents and the kind of information that was required. Kothari (2004) asserts that in purposive
sampling, there is convenience in getting specific data from particular respondents while simple
random sampling technique is flexible and gives equal chances of respondent to be sampled.
Purposive sampling was used for groupings of; Commercial and Association farmers and also on
the side of key informants while simple random sampling was used for Subsistence farmers.

The sample comprised of identified sub-groups from the population in the proportion they existed
in the population as presented in table (1) above. The selection of individuals for interview was

17
also by purposive sampling as cited in Krejcie and Morgan (1970), Martin, Bateson. (1986).
Additional views and opinions were sought as well in the field of climate change from experts at
Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) and Uganda National
Meteorological Authority (UNMA).

3.7 Data collection methods

In conducting the study, efforts were made to triangulate data collection methods so as to increase
objectivity of purpose. Data was collected using presentations, observation and interviews. Key
informants of different categories were interviewed to establish a better understanding of research
variables. For the researcher to obtain the depth data which may not be possible using self-
administered questionnaires, interviews were conducted with the Uganda National Meteorological
Authority (UNMA) officials and an official from the crop production department at the Ministry
of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF). Questionnaires were used to collect data
from farmers, employees, managers and other respondent’s questionnaires which were inspired by
the simplicity and clarity.

3.8 Data collection instruments

In order to satisfy the objectives of the research, the researcher used interviews and questionnaires
to collect primary data from respondents as well as secondary data from libraries of relevant
ministries and other agencies, resource centers and the internet. These were used for different
subsistence farmers which are the major unit of analysis. The questionnaires were structured with
closed questions with predetermined alternative answers for the respondents to choose from the
process of responding to the questions. The questionnaires were constructed in the simplest
language possible to enable participants respond to them with ease. It was designed in such a way
that each section asked questions that were relevant to answer each of the specific objective of the
study. Efforts were made to use questions of appropriate level of understanding of respondents and
data of collection was agreed up on.

A Likert scale or more accurately, a Likert – Type scale is a psychometric scale commonly used
in questionnaires and is most widely used scale in survey research, such that the term is often used
interchangeably with rating scale even though the two are not synonymous. When responding to a
Likert questionnaire item, respondents were asked to specify their level of agreement or
disagreement on symmetric agree–disagree scale for a series of statements. Thus the scale captured

18
the intensity of their feelings. The format for atypical five-level Likert item is 1. Strongly disagree,
2 Disagree, 3 Neither agree nor disagree 4 Agree, 5 strongly agree.

Therefore, a five points rating scale for questions from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5)
was adopted to measure variables of climate change effects on agricultural output. This is the
single global rating approach (Davidsson, 1979) as it is believed to be an easier approach to collect
data (Haque and Taler, 2008, Yu and Egri, 2005).

3.8.2 Interview Guide.

One key informant in the field of Agriculture in Uganda from Ministry of Agriculture, Animal
Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) was interviewed and three other informants from Uganda
National Meteorological Authority (UNMA) were interviewed. The researcher was guided by
interview guide to establish a better understanding of research variables when handling the key
informants.

3.9 Quality control of instruments

Validity and Reliability of research instruments was carried out to establish the appropriateness of
the research instruments and consistency in measuring the intended variables.

3.9.1 Validity and Reliability

The two important concepts factored into the design are validity, the extent to which the selected
instrument measures what it maintains to measure and reliability, the extent to which
questionnaires, tests, observations or measurements procedures are consistent and replicable in
terms of getting the same results on repeated trials. Quality control to ensure reliability, validity
and robustness of the data were administered at all stages of data collection. This entailed pre –
testing of the questionnaire before full surveys, training of research assistants in conducting the
exercise and overall supervision undertaken by the researcher. During the study period, attention
was paid to the robustness of the methods and data collected. In the case of questionnaire surveys,
only responses covering 90% or more of the questionnaire items were considered for data entry.

3.10 Procedure of Data collection

The process begun with pre-testing of the data collection tools for validity and reliability before
they were used for actual data collection from the field. The researcher sought for permission from
various respondents using an introductory letter issued by the institution (ESAMI), the researcher
made appointments with respondents to spare time to meet the research team and fill the

19
questionnaires or be interviewed respectively. To ensure quality of data collected, upon return of
questionnaires, they were all coded to summarize it into meaningful information. Then
clarifications were sought from the research team and corrections were made as necessary.

3.11 Data analysis

Data analysis was based on a triangulation of qualitative and quantitative approaches. Excel
Spreadsheet was used to analyze and make the data more meaningful. The statistics that were used
included frequency tables, and pie charts. For the data that was collected from interviews emerging
ideas, opinions and beliefs were critically analyzed and synthesized with what other writers had
said in the literature review in order to make them more comprehensive.

Qualitative data was analyzed and summarized. Out puts from analysis were presented inform of
tables to be coded and later presented in form of frequency tables. From these patterns and
categories highlighted and discussed, appropriate conclusions were drawn as shown in the next
chapters. Descriptive analysis for demographic explanation included frequency tables while
percentages were used to explain contribution. Empirical findings in form of correlation coefficient
was used to determine the extent to which the independent variable affects the dependent variable
and also which variable has the highest causal effect on the dependent variable while also testing
the research hypothesis. To this effect, a significant relationship existed between climate change
and livelihoods of farmers.

3.12 Ethical Considerations

The process of administering questionnaires required coming into contact with people of different
background and indeed busy people preparing for the season. This required getting consent of the
person to take time aside and fill the questionnaire, assurance of confidentiality, right to fill all,
partially or not at all, communicating with respect for individual and fair treatment for all with no
persuasion to participate. This was observed at all times as a requirement in the process of data
collection

3.13 Limitations and Constraints

The study only covered part of Kamwenge district that is among the major agricultural districts in
Western Uganda. There were constraints on time, human resources and funds, inability to access
some commercial farmers and transport since the study area happened to be in a remote location.
These were addressed through efficient time management and employment of the competent

20
research assistants. Personal funds were used sparingly plus external borrowing. The scope of the
study had to narrow to fit the available resources and time.

Administering questionnaires and keeping appointment for consultations with the climate change
experts was laborious and expensive. Use of questionnaires is a slow process and sometimes the
researcher was not in control of the respondents. The researcher used phone calls to clarify issues
of respondents decide whether to proceed to assess the questionnaires.

Illiteracy and language barrier limited those willing participants who could not read or write
English, others could only speak Runyankole – Rukiga dialect only. This was addressed by having
all of the research assistants being able to speak Runyankole – Rukiga who helped to read and
translate the questionnaire.

Rigidity of respondents. Most respondents were rigid to give full information and some were
totally unwilling to participate in the exercise which required replacements that were also
unreliable.

21
 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents and discusses the results that were obtained from the various methods that
were used to address the objectives of the present study. Details of the methods were presented in
chapter three of this report. The results from each of the analysis techniques are presented and
discussed in the various sections. The frequency distribution of the various findings of the variables
are also discussed below.

4.2 Gender of Respondents

From the study, about 57.6% were males and 42.4% were females. In the same study, 30.5% of
the respondents constituted the age group of 20 – 29, 33.9% for the age group of 30 – 39, 22.1%
for the age group 40 – 49 and 13.5% for those over 50 years. The age category or 20 – 29
constituted the highest percentage because of the fact that many subsistence and association
farmers were selected from the youth groups as they are actively engaged in agriculture. However
this did not differ from the purpose of the study as different respondents perceive climate change
differently and recognize the impact of this climate change on the livelihoods of farmers and the
adaptation strategies sought to cope up with the situation as discussed in this chapter.

FIGURE 4.1. GRAPH SHOWING GENDER OF RESPONDENTS

GENDER OF RESPONDENTS
%
PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS

57.6
42.4

MALES FEMALES
CATEGORY

22
FIGURE 4.2. GRAPH SHOWING AGE GROUPS OF RESPONDENTS

AGE GROUPS OF RESPONDENTS

Percentage

33.90%
30.50%
PERCENTAGE OF AGE GROUPS

22.00%

13.50%
20 - 29 30 - 39 40 - 49 OVER 50 YEARS
AGE GROUPS

4.3 Farm entity

As the study was directed to farmers of different categories, it was found out that 59% of these
practiced subsistence farming while as 41% practiced commercial farming. By subsistence
farming, these people grow crops on small pieces of land which they use for home consumption
and little for sale. Commercial farmers constituted 41% of the study population and these mainly
deal in cash crops like Coffee, tea, tobacco, cotton among others.

FIGURE 4.3. CHART REPRESENTING TYPE OF FARM ENTITY PRACTICED BY FARMERS

23
4.4 Cash crops grown
From the study, 64.4% of the respondents practice the production of both food and cash crops,
30.5% practice the growing of food crops and 5.1% practice the growing of cash crops. Farmers
lamented that the productivity of certain crops has reduced as a result of climate change. This is
supported by EMU, 2007 report that stated that the productivity of maize, cotton, coffee, and
bananas has declined in recent years for different seasons including changes in climate patterns
(especially drought), crop pests and diseases, poor soils management among others.

FIGURE 4.4. GRAPH SHOWING TYPE OF CASH CROPS GROWN IN MAHYORO SUB - COUNTY

TYPE OF CROPS GROWN

PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS

64.40%

30.50%

5.10%
CASH CROPS FOOD CROPS BOTH
TYPE OF CROP

24
4.5 Food crops grown
From the study, it was found out that maize, beans, cabbages, bananas and sweet potatoes are the
widely grown crops by farmers in Mahyoro sub – county. Other crops grown include; cassava,
millet, groundnuts, tomatoes, Irish potatoes, sorghum and onions respectively.

FIGURE 4.5. GRAPH SHOWING FOOD CROPS GROWN

Number of respondents

36

27
23 22
19 20
18
15
12 13
11 10

Food crops

FIGURE 4.6. CHART SHOWING PERCENTAGE OF RESPONDENTS GROWING DIFFERENT CASH

CROPS

Percentage of respondents growing particular

cash crops

13% 2% Coffee
5% Tea
Cotton
21% 59%
Tobacco
Others

25
FIGURE 4.7. GRAPH REPRESENTING ANIMALS REARED IN THE STUDY AREA OF MAHYORO
SUB - COUNTY

Number of respondents rearing particular

animals

36
Number of respondents

29
27

11

CATTLE GOATS SHEEP POULTRY OTHERS

Animal type

From the above, it was observed that; 36 respondents accepted to be rearing cattle, 29 are into
poultry farming, 27 rear goats and 11 reared sheep. It was generally agreed that cattle rearing is
common in the area because of the favorable vegetation coupled favorable climate for specific
periods for cattle rearing that is supported by the rearing of long horned Ankole cattle that are
resistant to the harsh climatic conditions

26
4.8 Research question 1. What is the perceptions of climate change among farmers in
Mahyoro sub – county?
Most of the surveyed population has heard about the term “climate change”. However, when asked
what they understand by the term, respondents gave varied responses. From the study undertaken,
43.2% of the respondents believe that there has been an increase in temperatures over the years
and 38.3% also believe that there has been reduced rainfall for the last ten years. 11.1% and 7.4%
agree that there has been increased rainfall and increased floods respectively. The changing
weather patterns is making it difficult for farmers in the sub – county to plan using the traditional
knowledge for the two planting seasons which seemed much easier to predict. Previously the
weather pattern indicated two good planting seasons, March to May and September to November
which were timely and would enable farmers to follow the traditional trends of planting. However,
this trend has since changed because sometimes there is continued rainfall during the dry seasons
and pronged dry spell occurrences during rainy seasons making it difficult for farmers to plan well.
The onset of the rainfall pattern in the historic days were timely and it was easier for farmers to
follow the traditional planting trends but the extremes are now frequent with prolonged dry spells
and heavy rains resulting into flooding which leads to poor yields and the disease burden is on the
increase.

As one commercial farmer noted, “we have stopped the old tradition of planting every season,
because it has become useless. Now we just try all the time after the harvests are made. We used
to plant late February targeting the rains of March to allow proper germination of seeds. Now we
plant and plant again especially in times of drought where the seeds are unable to germinate. We
waste a lot of seeds that way, and our time and energy. Later we regret so often as to why we
planted. Then we have to plan to acquire other seeds, and the seeds here are very costly and
inaccessible. The worst moment comes when you have hired labor in ploughing the land who have
to be paid before the harvests and you end up losing all the money”. It was observed that where
farmers decided to carry out planting exercise in times of heavy rains, their crops would be washed
though not common and during times of drought the incidents of pest and disease burden are
usually high for example cassava mosaic and banana bacterial wilt.

27
FIGURE 4.8. CHART SHOWING OPINIONS OF FARMERS ABOUT CLIMATE CHANGE

Opinions about climate change

60

50
Number of respondents

40

30

20

10
Yes
0
No
Do not know

Element

4.8.1 Perceptions of climate variability and change over years

From the study, it was observed that 43.2% of the sample perceived climate change in the form of
increased temperatures, 38.3% accepted that there was reduced rainfall, 11.10% believed that there
was increased rainfall and 7.4% acknowledged an increase in floods for the previous decades.
From 1988 to 2008, Uganda had experienced several droughts with regular incidences of extreme
temperature, seasonal shifts and reduction of rainfall (OXFAM, 2008). However, Uganda is
currently embarking on rapid industrialization at the expense of the environment. Many wetlands
have been degraded for purposes of industrial development. Wetlands play a very vital role in
carbon sequestration and their destruction has an impact on climate. Farmers and pastoralists have

28
described these changes as “shortening” the rainy season, saying there is less rain and more
drought; as one farmer graphically put it: “Less rain means less food”.

FIGURE 4.9. GRAPH SHOWING PERCEPTIONS OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND CHANGE OVER
YEARS

Perception of climate variability and change

over years
43.20%
38.30%
Percentage of respondents

11.10%
7.40%

Increased temperatures Increased rainfall Reduced rainfall Increased floods

Element

4.8.2 Perceived causes of climate change

The study population in general was familiar with the term ‘climate change’ and people appeared
to be largely aware of its causes. 50 / 59 respondents believed that climate change is as a result of
man’s activities, 1 / 59 claimed to be as a result of natural causes, 1 / 59 also claimed to be as a
result of overpopulation and 6 / 59 claimed not to be having an idea about the causes of climate
change. The man’s activities cited here were; deforestation, swamp reclamation, industrialization
and bush burning. As the need for increased incomes has taken the wheel, farmers are creating
avenues for enhancing their agricultural production by cutting down the reserved natural forests to
create expanse land for farming.

One farmer was quoted saying “I remember in early 2000’s we had a sizeable forest in this area
but currently a handful of trees are remaining as bordering farmers have encroached on the forest

29
to increase land for agriculture. Consequently, rain has reduced in this area as it used to be”.
Another commercial farmer who rears animals was quoted saying “We used to have a river that
stretches from Kitonzi Parish to Kyendangara Parish and later to Mahyoro Parish. This has dried
up and river flows only during the rainy seasons. Farmers have planted crops and eucalyptus trees
on the ‘hearts’ of this river that has resulted into absorption of the river water which has made us
to make ponds aside for our animals to get water”.

FIGURE 4.10. GRAPH SHOWING CAUSES OF CLIMATE CHANGE

4.8.3 Opinion of key informants on causes of climate change

From the key informants interviewed, all the four attributed climate change to be as a result of
human activities where they cited examples like; increased deforestation, burning of fossil fuels,
transport activities, industrialization, reclamation of natural resources like swamps and water
bodies and increased urbanization.

4.8.4 Weather forecasts and agricultural production

From the study, it was noticed that 35.7% of the respondents predict the weather for the next season
using the past experience, followed by 33.9% that depend on television to determine the weather
for next season. 16.9% and 13.5% use radios and expert opinions respectively. It was claimed
however that as television and radio weather forecasts are not local enough or reliable enough to

30
guide them, the traditional ways of forecasting rain for example the appearance of certain insects
like white ants or glow worms, the appearance of certain clouds or stars are no longer the reliable
guides they claim they once were. As farmers are also not dependent on expert advice as to when
they could engage in the planting exercise depending on favorable climate conditions, it has
entirely impacted on the crop as well as animal husbandry that have encountered loss leading to
hunger, starvation, limited pasture and low production. This is supported by the findings whereby
36 respondents believed that climate change in form of drought (increased temperatures) reduce
the quality and quantity of farm produce and 20 respondents believed that drought destroyed crops
and led to malnourished animals.

FIGURE 4.11. GRAPH REPRESENTING PREDICTABILITY OF WEATHER BY FARMERS

Prediction of weather next season

Percentage of respondents

35.70%
33.90%

16.90%
13.50%

USE PAST EXPERIENCE EXPERT OPINIONS RADIOS TELEVISION

Components

31
4.9 Research question 2. How has climate change impacted livelihoods of farmers in
Mahyoro sub – county?

4.9.1 Livelihoods of farmers

Agriculture is a vital source of livelihood as over 76 percent of household income is related to
agricultural production. What is significant is that 42 percent of households report agriculture as
vital source of income while 26 percent cite it as the only source of income (MFPED, 2014).
However, according to the intergovernmental panel on climate change, a prediction of a decrease
in world food production of 5 - 11% by 2020 and 11 - 46% by 2050 is expected to occur. The
shortage in the world’s staple foods supply is estimated at 400 to 600 million tons by the 2080’s
and will increase hunger and poverty, particularly in the poor countries. It is worth noting that
three-quarters of people who are at risk of hunger as a result of climate change are in Africa. From
the study carried out, the livelihoods of farmers was measured by availability of food, water
availability, stability of incomes, disease prevalence, diversification into other businesses and
shifting of agricultural productivity. Most of the respondents are involved in livelihoods that are
directly sensitive to climate change. Such livelihoods include agriculture, livestock rearing and
poultry farming. From the responses captured, 56 respondents believed that they have experienced
food shortages, 42 respondents expressed that they have experienced diseases as a result of climate
change, 53 respondents believed that their incomes have changed, 44 respondents accept that they
have diversified into other income generating activities, 32 confirmed that they belonged to some
organizations that helped them sell their output, 31 believed that there is provision of inputs like
seeds and fertilizers from different agencies which were seen to be both governmental and non –
governmental organizations and 28 accepted to have utilized the advisory services provided by
extension workers. Much as the latter accepted to belonging to organizations, being provided with
inputs, accessed extension services, 26 respondents from the sample of 59 confirmed that they did
not belong to any organization that would sell their output, 24 established that they did not receive
any inputs like seeds or fertilizers and 25 have not been availed with extension services.

32
FIGURE 4.12. GRAPH SHOWING OPINIONS OF FARMERS ABOUT THEIR LIVELIHOODS

FIGURE 4.13. GRAPH SHOWING FARMING ACTIVITIES DURING THE DRY SEASON

33
FIGURE 4.14. GRAPH SHOWING RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE AND INCOMES

FIGURE 4.15. GRAPH SHOWING OPINIONS OF FARMERS ABOUT TYPE OF CRISES

EXPERIENCED

34
4.9.2 Rainfall variations and Livelihoods of farmers
Nearly 97 percent of total cropland in Sub-Saharan Africa is dependent on rain-fed subsistence
agriculture. This has adversarial implications for agricultural production whenever there are
episodes of high seasonal rainfall variability (Calzadilla et al., 2013). The same was advanced by
Juana et al., 2013, who postulated that Sub Saharan Africa is among the most vulnerable regions
to climate change impacts due to the fact that the majority of the population is highly dependent
on rain-fed agriculture for their economic activities as well as for sustenance of their livelihood.
Due to poor performance of the agriculture sector and rapid population growth, a combination of
adverse impacts of climate change causes the large segment of the sub-Sahara African population
to live in abject poverty.

Mahyoro sub – county no longer receives, on average, the generous rains that were the norm
between 1960 and 1989. Compared to the 1960’s, February used to be the planting month which
has nowadays shifted to March and April since this is when the first rains of the season are
received. Due to the limited amount and uneven distribution of rainfall in time and geographic
scope at the study site, rainfall represents the most limiting factor for agricultural and livestock
production in the area. The costs are well known to local populations which include; the drying
out of water sources, scarcity of grazing land, shortage of dairy products, and loss of pasture, bad
harvests, and livestock losses, among others. Previous studies like those carried out by the World
Bank estimated that around 10% of the population of Sub-Saharan Africa is primarily dependent
on their animals, whereas another 58% depend on varying degrees of their livestock (Arnell et al.,
2002; Devereux and Edwards, 2004).

Increasing human activities like population increase, deforestation and industrialization that
interact with declining rainfall and reduced pasture has already begun to impact the livestock sector
negatively. Ziervogel, et al, 2006 acknowledges that rangeland condition is directly affected by
the climate and in turn, directly affects the quality and quantity of small and large stock and
associated livelihood activities. As one old farmer noted “we used to have much more rainfall than
we are having now, that is one big change, and to me this area has become hotter than 20 years
ago. Until about 1988 the climate was okay, we had two rainy seasons and they were very reliable.

35
Now the March to June season in particular is not reliable, which does not favor the crops grown.
Sometimes, rain stops in April and because of this shortened rains you have to go for early
maturing varieties and now people are trying to select these. That is why some local varieties of
cabbages and cassava that need a lot of rain, even varieties of beans, have disappeared. We need
things that mature in two months that but maize needs three months of rain to grow so two months
is not enough. Coffee is not doing badly, but it is not doing well either compared to the 1970s when
the harvests were more”.

This study is supported by OXFAM 2008 report about climate change and poverty in Uganda
which explains that the seasons are not actually shortening, but rather, becoming more unreliable.
Meanwhile, there is little or no firm scientific evidence of less rain in total; rather, the rain is less
useful because of its distribution and impact. Sometimes, rains may come early then stop for long
periods and they may also come when it is supposed to be dry. People describe living through long
periods of hot, dry weather when it should be raining steadily, punctuated by violent downpours
that may be accompanied by very strong winds, thunder, lightning and destructive hailstorms.
Overall, the crucial effect has been shortening of the growing season for crops.

T ABLE 4.1. T ABLE SHOWING KAMWENGE DISTRICT MONTHLY RAINFALL FROM 2006 - 2017

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC
2006 34.5 54.3 80.8 77.7 97.6 9.8 88.4 64.2 42.3 53.9 132.7 50.0
2007 45.8 39.7 93.2 82.3 56 96.3 71.2 47.7 141.9 102.5 206.2 63.4
2008 39.7 69.7 168.8 63 76.3 75 14.8 198.5 298.5 143.6 54.3 74.6
2009 39.7 85.6 79.9 77.8 66.2 27.3 0.0 29.0 105.2 182.3 100.4 118.8
2010 79.6 120.4 109.0 178.2 146.7 8.0 0.8 14.3 193.1 144.5 125.1 103.6
2011 30.43 23.4 145.3 132.2 71.5 80.5 56.5 164.2 131.2 110.6 151.0 104.4
2012 1 42.4 44.6 208.3 132.2 21.8 34.3 130.2 139.2 156.5 158.6 111.3
2013 79.76 18.3 133.2 209.2 70.4 0.0 0.9 142.6 97.4 109.8 130.0 41.2
2014 9.3 15.0 113.1 109.4 16.0 19.9 20.5 115.2 74.4 129.4 167.2 110.6
2015 1.4 28.5 124.6 146.7 34.0 114.0 3.5 7.2 89.9 104.0 136.8 58.8
2016 30.2 50.8 122.2 135.1 19.4 13.6 2.7 26.9 125.7 48.6 99.8 69.9
2017 64.1 45.5 95.2 156.4 76.0 0 13.42 30.5 103.5 101.1 92.5 16.5

Source; Uganda National Meteorological Authority (UNMA), 2017. Directorate of Applied

Meteorology, Data and Climate services

36
FIGURE 4.16. GRAPH SHOWING RAINFALL VARIATIONS IN KAMWENGE DISTRICT

Kamwenge Monthly Rainfall

1800

1600

1400
Monthly Rainfall

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
Jan Feb March Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Axis Title

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011

2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

Source: Uganda National Meteorological Authority (UNMA), 2017. Directorate of Applied

Meteorology, Data and Climate Services

4.9.3 Temperature variations and livelihoods of farmers

Temperatures in Uganda are in the range of 15 to 30 °C depending on elevation rather than on
latitude with maximum temperatures in the range of 25 to 31 °C for most areas. Kamwenge District
has temperatures averaging between 200 - 300 C (maximum) in most parts. This climatic condition
is quite favorable for crops, pastures and water availability for livestock in the district. However,
there are upper heat thresholds beyond which crop productivity is reduced or hindered. This
threshold is different with each crop type. For example, as many farmers in the area grow maize,
it is supported by the warm weather conditions where the mean daily temperature is not less
than190 𝐶. However, due to the variability, it was evidenced that maize does not yield for some
seasons because of the unreliable rainfall. Even where it comes, sometimes it comes after a long
spell of drought that does not allow the crops to germinate. July also has been cited as a month
where most banana farmers suffer the consequences as usually their bananas get ripe and so do not
fetch market and the only alternative left is to feed them with the animals. This has not only

37
reduced farmers’ income but also limiting the availability of pasture for the animals during the dry
seasons. Similarly, warming temperatures adversely affect coffee production, which is an
important cash commodity in the area as it was revealed during the study. From the graph below,
comparing two years of 2006 and 2015, it clearly shows how there has been an increase in
temperatures especially in the months of September for 2006 from 22.2 to 23 in 2015. This month
was previously the target month for the second rains however this has changed and greatly shifting
the planting dates by farmers.

Corresponding impacts of variability of temperatures on agriculture are the increased demand for
water due to higher temperatures suitability, rate of growth and potential yield of crops (Rao 2013;
Oxfam 2009). Unlike the C3 plants such as rice, potato, beans, wheat, which are expected to benefit
from higher temperatures, C4 plants such as maize, sorghum, millet will not (Rao 2013;Thornton
et al., 2006). In its place, the shortened growing period as a result of higher temperatures may
cause early maturity which may lead to loss in biomass production. The projected climate changes
will make agriculture more difficult and require raising the levels of management (Rao 2013).

Animals reared (for example; cattle, goats, sheep, poultry among others) were observed to play
key roles in farmers livelihoods in the study community of Mahyoro sub - county. They are sources
of protein according to the respondents and also income safety nets, especially during long dry
spell period where food crops do not thrive well resulting in low household income. This claim
was confirmed by FAO (2009) that livestock is a key asset in rural areas, thus are a source of
income, wealth accumulation and source of resistance to shocks. With variances in rainfall
especially where it is a lot, animals like cattle suffer the consequences like cattle, sheep and goat.
To the cattle it was observed that where the shade is not clean enough, the water leads to production
of chemicals such as ammonia, which affect the eyes of animals, especially if it has no proper
ventilation. Relatedly, ticks, diseases of the udder, worms are all common during the wet season
which consequently reduce animal productivity (New Vision, 2017). To the poultry, coccidiosis
also occurs as a result of water leaking onto dirty shades as many farmers use semi – permanent
structures. The goats’ keepers also argued that too much water caused rotting hoof diseases that
eventually leads to the death of some of these goats whenever no immediate intervention is taken.
With prolonged drought (a considerable period without rain) leads to lack of pasture for animals
that consequently results into the death of animals and movement of pastoralists to look for pasture.

38
FIGURE 4.17. GRAPH SHOWING MONTHLY TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS FOR KAMWENGE
DISTRICT

Monthly Temperature for Kamwenge District

300

250
Mean monthly temperature

200

150

100

50

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Months

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015

Source: Uganda National Meteorological Authority (UNMA), 2017. Directorate of Applied

Meteorology, Data and Climate Services.

4.9.4 Drought and livelihoods farmers

Despite having the necessary conditions for food security, namely fertile soils and favorable
climate for agriculture, a large population of the study area fall victim to drought regularly.
Changes that come in form of heavy rainfall consequently lead to floods, 36 respondents believed
that these floods have reduced the quality and quantity of farm produce, 20 respondents believed
that they lead to destruction of crops and malnourishment of animals and an equal number of one
respondent believed that droughts increase prices of farm products like milk, increase production
of food crops for example bananas and increase expenditure of purchase of food from outside.
DWRM, 2011 with an analysis of the effects of droughts on the agricultural sector in Uganda,
found out that during periods of drought, all crops in the nine farming systems experience a
moisture deficit ranging from 128 𝑚3 to 251𝑚3 for perennial crops and 128 ‒ 242𝑚3 for non-

39
perennial crops. Consequently, changes in rainfall and temperature directly affect crop production.
Rainfall as the primary source of all fresh water resources determines the recharge of both surface
and ground water sources as well as the level of soil moisture, which is central to crop growth.
Calzadilla et al., 2014, acknowledges that rainfall is the primary contributor to crop yield
variability since it exhibits more volatility than potential crop evapotranspiration which is a key
determinant of crop water requirements. Björkman - Nyqvist (2013) showed that rainfall
deviations from their historical mean were linked to deviations in agricultural output in Uganda.

FIGURE 4.18. GRAPH SHOWING IMPACT OF DROUGHT ON LIVELIHOODS

Impact of drought on livelihoods

36
Number of respondents

20

1 1 1

Reduced quality and Destroyed crops and Increased prices of farm Increased production of Increased expenditure
quantity of farm malnourshed animals products like milk food crops for example on purchase of food
produce bananas from outside
Elements

40
4.10 Research question 3. What is the effectiveness of adaptation strategies devised by
farmers in Mahyoro sub - county?

4.10.1 Adaptation strategies and livelihoods of farmers

By definition, adaptations are adjustments or interventions that take place to manage the losses or
take advantage of the opportunities presented by a changing climate. The adaptation strategies
comprise of a broad set of activities ranging from those that focus on reducing drivers of
susceptibility to interventions aimed at confronting not yet experienced climate change impacts.
Within this, there is a broad range of activities with progressions of emphasis on susceptibility and
impacts that aim to build response capacity and better manage climate risks. From the study,
options were given for respondents to choose from whether they believed that certain adaptation
strategy had been implement or adopted or not as illustrated in the table below

T ABLE 4.2. TABLE SHOWING ADAPTATION STRATEGIES BY FARMERS

Adaptation strategies Yes No

Multiple crop types 41 13
Land fragmentation 11 43
Use of alternative tillage practices 21 33
Multiple planting dates 27 27
Irrigation practices 11 44
Crop diversification 35 21
Off – farm employment 26 28
Mulching 28 25
Fertilizer application 18 36
Organic manure application 14 38
Planting trees 44 11
Change in food crop farmland size 26 28

From the above, it can be observed that the farmers in the area have opted for some affordable
strategies and ignoring others that tend to be expensive. In this regard, irrigation practices, land
fragmentation, organic manure application and fertilizer application have not been fully adapted
because of the financial requirements for adapting to it. As one of the farmers was quoted saying

41
“Here fertilizers are not common and when one tries to access them in the major towns they tend
to be expensive. Besides, many farmers do not know how to use these fertilizers because of the
limited extension support from National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADs)”. Also, farmers
in the area have not embraced irrigation farming because of the perception of being done with
irrigation schemes. Many farmers did not practice land fragmentation because of the already small
pieces of land that they use every farming season. This has not only led to low levels of agricultural
output but also making the soil infertile that does not support crop farming for many seasons. The
end result has been farmers leasing some land which is fresh for improved farming though there
is a cost attached. This is claimed to have consequently impacted on farmer’s incomes as the output
got is first used to cover the costs incurred at the preparation, planting, weeding and harvesting
phases.

This study is supported by Rao, 2013 who found out that even as the farmers adapt to the changing
climate, the costs of production have raised as they struggle to increase productivity, with inputs
such as such as labor for irrigation, use of fertilizers, and control of pests and disease being
expensive, a situation that cannot be achieved under low management.

4.10.2 Opinions of key informants about adaptation strategies

From the responses of the four experts, several adaptation strategies were cited as having been
adapted by farmers in the area of study. These included; sensitizing farmers on sustainable land
management and climate smart agriculture practicing (CSA), training farmers on post-harvest
handling value addition techniques, training of trainers, diversification into other employment
activities, agro – forestry, mulching, intercropping and planting of early maturing and drought
resistant crops.

4.10.3 Constraints to the adaptation strategies

Several responses were gathered pertaining the constraints to the adaptation strategies among
farmers. Overall, lack of finances dominated the views with 26 despondences, 10 for lack of
sensitization, 8 for drought, 7 for both lack of farming inputs and lack of skilled personnel, 6 for
both limited land for farming and lack of market, 5 for poor perception, 2 for pests and diseases
and 1 for too much rainfall. The inputs that were cited included; lack of fertilizers and planting
seeds. Due to many respondents agreeing to lack finances, fertilisers are relatively expensive,
rendering most of the smallholder farmers in the area unable to purchase adequate quantities.

42
Where the National Agricultural Advisory Services (NAADs) provides inputs to farmers, they are
usually impacted by drought since rain has remained unpredictable. As one farmer was quoted
saying “The government sent us maize, ground nuts, beans and sorghum seeds to plant in 2015
but that same year is when we experienced prolonged drought from April to June and all what we
had planted did not germinate. I had to use the little money I had to buy food from neighboring
markets that sustained my family to next season harvests”.

Lack of sensitization among farmers was also a major constraint that was stressed by many
respondents. As earlier noted, farmers’ access climate change information from their televisions
and radio stations and have not had the opportunity to get advice from technical people like
agricultural extension officers where farmers lamented that they saw these officials once in three
years. This has constrained farmers from the adoption of modern farming techniques as they
remain ignorant on what to do to cope up with the changing climate

FIGURE 4.19. GRAPH SHOWING CONSTRAINTS TO ADAPTATION STRATEGIES

43
 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction
This chapter entails major summary of the study findings in relation to the initial set objectives. It
presents key submissions arising from the interviews with experts in the field of climate change
and those made by respondents who were in this case farmers. The latter points out on what the
respondents feel should happen in regard to adaptation and awareness about climate change to
reduce on the negative impacts. From the conclusions, recommendations have been drawn which
lays a basis for adaptive and mitigative actions for maintained and improved agricultural
productivity of farmers in Mahyoro sub – county.

5.2 Summary of key findings

The summary of key findings from this study is as follows:

5.2.1 Perceptions of climate change among farmers

Generally, farmers were more or less familiar with the term ‘climate change’. However, the
understanding of ‘climate change’ and its causes varied widely among them. While many
respondents thought that climate change is synonymous with increased temperatures, others took
it as heavy or irregular rainfall. Furthermore, when talking about the reasons for climate change,
respondents of the study as well as key informants blamed human activities as the leading cause
of these changes while others did not have a clear understanding of what it meant with climate
change as their responses were recorded as ‘not being certain

5.2.2 Impact of climate change on livelihoods of farmers

In addition, the study indicated that the impact of climate change is severe as it highly affects
agricultural productivity, which is the primary source of livelihood in the area and the country at
large. With situations of prolonged drought, crops dry off, animals lack water and pasture hence
low yields. With much unreliable rainfall, there exists floods that consequently cause soil erosion
and hence washing away crops and instances of diseases like malaria. However much animals are
in content during this season because of the availability of pasture and water, animal diseases like
foot and mouth diseases escalate thus impacting on animal husbandry.

44
5.2.3 Adaptation strategies developed by farmers
In response to the effects of climate change, farmers in Mahyoro sub – county have pursued climate
change adaptation practices which include, multiple crop types, changing planting dates or early
planting in expectation of the rains, tree planting, increased use of soil conservation practices like
mulching, change in crop farmland size and diversifying activities from farm to non-farm
activities. Most important among these is the growing of drought tolerant crop varieties on the
most commonly grown crops, cassava, sweet potato and groundnuts a major cash crop.

5.3 Conclusions
Arising from the study and key findings outlined, the following are the conclusions.

a) For the last decade, the country’s climate has been changing with signals of prolonged drought,
unreliable rainfall where sometimes it is much and other seasons it is too little to favor
agricultural productivity.
b) The major causes of climate change have been attributed to human activities like deforestation,
swamp and other natural resources reclamation, burning of fossil fuels, industrialization and
increased population that puts pressure on the scarce resources.
c) Due to climate change, livelihoods of farmers have been affected. This has been in form of
reduced crop yields, prevalence of diseases, reduced income levels, cases of food insecurity
and malnourished animals.
d) A small proportion of farmers have adapted to the strategies to reduce on the vulnerabilities as
a result of climate change. These have diversified crops planted, started off – farm income
generating opportunities, planted trees, mulching, growing early maturing crops among others.
However, efforts have to be put to increase awareness among farmers about how the climate
is changing and necessitating the need to take up certain measures to reduce on the
vulnerabilities.
e) There is inadequate dissemination of climate information to the farmers and education to the
public on how climate changing is taking shape and the likely threats it is to have on their
livelihoods.
f) There still exist many constraints to the adaptation strategies. A big percentage of farmers in
the sub – county and the country at large is experiencing increasing levels of poverty that
cannot enable them adapt to the best strategies. Most of these strategies require finances for
example improved seed varieties and fertilizers that many people find expensive to buy.

45
5.4 Recommendations
The above analyses and conclusions indicate that there are considerable changes of the climate
that pause significant effects on the livelihoods of farmers in Mahyoro sub – county, Kamwenge
district and the country at large. Agriculture is important for food security as it produces the food
people eat. According to FAO 2008, agriculture provides the primary source of livelihood for 36
percent of the world‘s total workforce. Preserving and enhancing food security requires
agricultural production systems to change in the direction of higher productivity and also,
essentially, lower output variability in the face of climate risk and risks of an agro‐ecological and
socio‐economic nature.

5.4.1 Integrated soil fertility management

Uganda is considered to be one of the countries in the Sub Saharan Africa with fertile soils but at
the same case farmers in Mahyoro sub – county struggle with low soil fertility. Improving soil
health through approaches such as ISFM (Integrated Soil Fertility Management) technologies
offers opportunities for farmers to adapt to and mitigate climate change while simultaneously
unearthing their potential in terms of increased productivity, resilient agro-ecological systems and
reinforced livelihoods.

5.4.2 Tree planting

As 97% of Uganda’s population depend upon firewood, charcoal and crop residues, tree planting
should be a major part of the Government’s strategy to combat climate change. With no other fuel
sources readily available, the population needs to meet their basic daily needs for cooking and
heating water by using firewood. Timber is also needed for other uses such as house construction
and fuel for industries like brick making. The western region of Uganda which was once a forested
area has particularly been badly deforested, including Kamwenge District that was considered
under the study. For example, initiatives can be made to plant trees along or around farm / garden
boundaries. Relatedly, growing of trees will diversify livelihoods, providing an alternative source
of income and reducing the pressure on natural stands for charcoal and firewood. This will
eventually reduce environmental degradation in the sub - county, thereby cushioning the impact
of climate shocks and strengthening food security.

46
5.4.3 Investing in early warning systems
The effectiveness of climate change among farmers arises from its ability to disarm the traditional
calendars including the predictions made by the publics. Accordingly, investing in early warning
and early warning systems is crucial to facilitating adaptation to climate change and exploiting its
potential benefits. Early warning is the provision of timely and effective information, through
identified institutions in this case Uganda National Meteorological Authority (UNMA) that allows
individuals exposed to a hazard to take action to avoid and/or reduce their risk and prepare for
effective response. The early warning systems include a chain of concerns which among others
include; the understanding and mapping the hazard, monitoring and forecasting impending events,
processing and disseminating understandable warnings to political authorities and the population,
and undertaking appropriate and timely actions in response to the warnings. The farmers in this
category would benefit from predictions, particularly those focused on extreme events such as
drought and heavy rains.

These predictions need not to happen for the sake but these need to focus at the environment of
concern. This would require providing farmers with adapted forecast information that can reliably
inform them about the onset, ending and intra-seasonal variations in order to reach decisions such
as what, when and how to plant / harvest will be a step in the right direction.

5.4.4 Political will

This can be achieved through policy and governance in agricultural policy frameworks and
processes that support climate change adaptation that is central to farmers in the current and future
state. The adaptation policies that emphasize that climate change is just one stress in a complex
environment concoction offer a much better opportunity to farmers and decision makers to
undertake systems thinking and solution search. More so, because adaptation is highly local, its
effectiveness depends on local and extra-local institutions through which incentives for individual
and collective action are structured. Institutional arrangements that define the governance
processes also structure risks and sensitivity to climate hazards, facilitate and /or impede individual
and collective responses, and shape the outcomes of such responses. A comprehensive
understanding of how these function in relation to climate and associated impacts is essential to
developing interventions that can influence the adaptive capacity and adaptation practices of
smallholder farmers.

47
5.4.5 Investing in Agricultural Research
There is need for considerable investment in agricultural research, to develop new varieties of
crops, identify alternative crops that are acceptable to the farmers and their families or develop
new farming techniques for the area that will help farmers to continue to grow their current crops.
As already noted, farmers in the area use seeds from harvests of the previous season which
accordingly are deemed unproductive. This constrains the harvests of the farmers and hence low
incomes from the little produce. Therefore, the research capacity of institutions like National
Agricultural Research Institute (NARIs) to design and engage in quality research. Important also
in this case is the strengthening of the knowledge management systems and not just investment in
research but assurance of the timely, comprehensible and communicable knowledge to and among
farmers is very profound in ensuring that farmers are able to make timely, informed decisions as
well as press for accountability from the various power brokers and policy leaders.

5.4.6 Sensitization and awareness

More targeted awareness and training of local farmers about climate change impacts, possible
adaptation and mitigation techniques / practices and early warning actions is necessary from the
findings of the study. This would involve the government, district and sub – county administration
to publicly organize dialogues to share ideas with farmers at the same time educating and
communicating to them about climate change and its impacts and how it can be mitigated. Through
this participation, it is expected that farmers will be responsive to adhere to the advice of the
technical people in form of strategies on how to mitigate and adapt to the changing climate.

5.4.7 Access to credit facilities

With the need to ensure that the farmers involved in agriculture-related livelihoods can get greater
income stability, access to affordable credit, agricultural insurance schemes and access to market
are fundamental. In this aspect, farmers’ savings and credit co-operative organizations (SAACO’s)
and other schemes can be developed by the government to ensure that farmers in all the parishes
can access funds at low interest rates. It is a challenge to farmers in the sub – county as they can
only access finances from the district SAACO whose interest rates are high and end up using the
agricultural incomes to pay for the loans. Therefore, development of these SAACOs by the farmers
themselves with the support of government through funding can help farmers adapt most of the
technologies to mitigate the climate change shocks.

48
5.4.8 Promote and support drought resistant crop varieties.
Farmers in Mahyoro sub – county and the entire country should be sensitized to grow drought
resistant crops in order to avoid famine and enhance food security. As Kamwenge district lies
within the equator, its farmers usually experience drought, which results to massive crop failure
leading to food shortage as it was experienced in 2015 and 2016. Therefore, farmers who are
involved in banana growing should turn to drought tolerant varieties of rice, maize and cassava
that are developed by the Natural Crops Resources Research Institute (NaCRRI). Available
varieties include cassava NASE 1- 4 and rice naric 1 and Longe 9H for maize. Katongole Moses
a farmer in Kyendangara expressed this when he said “My entire banana plantation was destroyed
by the drought that hit us in 2015 causing food shortage in my home. Moses and other farmers can
be encouraged to start growing cassava since it supported by soils of the area. This can be more
encouraged by the Operation Wealth Creation (OWC) that distributes these varieties and the
district agriculture department to reach the hard to reach areas.

5.4.9 Support farmers to access appropriate technologies for irrigation

The district itself does not have any irrigation scheme established by the government to combat
the shocks of climate change. However, with the new innovations, farmers can adopt the new
cheap methods of irrigation for example use of irrigation pumps that can be used for an agricultural
field of one to two acres, for vegetables, one can use drip irrigation that includes a water reservoir
or tank erected to a raised ground and is connected to pipes that run through lines of crops, watering
cans, pressure treadle pumps, motorized pumps, solar pumps, shallow wells, open wells,
organizing for small – scale and community irrigation system, river and spring diversion and small
earth dams. All these can ensure water availability for crops and animals during periods of dry
weather hence mitigating the climate change shocks.

5.4.10 Support and promote soil and water conservation techniques and practices on farm
From the analysis, 25 (47.2%) respondents had not adapted to practices like mulching, this has to
be enhanced among farmers in the area. Crop rotation, fallowing, contour strip farming, contour
hedges and retention ditches, fuel saving technologies, agro – forestry and integrated soil nutrient
and pest management practices for water retention and maintaining soil structure and soil
biodiversity and improved yields are other practices that farmers can adapt to in order to maintain
the soil quality and boost water retention in farmlands.

49
5.4.11 Support and promote improved fertilizer (both organic and inorganic) management
and application techniques and practices.

As observed, 36 (66.7%) of the responses had not used fertilizers and 38 (73.1%) had not applied
organic manure in their farmlands. As the area is known for cattle rearing, farmers can use cow
dung and goat manure to enhance soil productivity. Goat manure for example helps farmers
produce improved plants and crop yields. Goats not only produce smarter pelletized droppings,
but their manure does not typically attract insects or burn plants as does manure from other
animals. This manure contains adequate amounts of the nutrients that plants need for optimal
growth, especially when the goats have bed in stalls. As urine collects in goat droppings, the
manure retains more nitrogen, thus increasing its fertilizing potency. On a similar note, the
government of Uganda can play the regulatory role of subsidizing the inorganic fertilizers that can
be afforded by farmers. This is all aimed at increasing the soil productivity of the soil regardless
of whether there is climate change or not

5.4.12 Support and promote household water harvesting during rainy season including water
tanks, construction of water points for livestock.
Unreliable rainfall has historically been a major factor inhibiting agricultural production in Uganda
and the trend of increasing rainfall variance and temperatures further threatens water security in
the country. Therefore, there is a need for multi stakeholder investment in water harvesting and
conservation solutions if food availability and animal productivity are to be stabilized in in the
medium to long term periods.

5.4.13 Participatory planning

The views / ideas from local, national, regional and international stakeholders can be helpful in
formulating and implementing climate change policies and actions. This will help in closing the
existing gaps in knowledge and understanding of climate change, and understanding of measures
required to address it and responsibilities and duties of every stakeholder in combating the effects
of climate change shocks. Such policies should include supporting farmers in increasing these
adaptation measures through improving their access to different kinds of livelihood assets to enable
them to enhance their adaptive capacity. There is also the need for the government and other
concerned bodies to invest in climate resilient projects such as improving on existing or building
new water infrastructure and building or improving on climate monitoring and reporting stations.

50
The implementation of any climate change policy requires substantial empirical research evidence
of the potential costs and benefits of such policies. Therefore, advanced or extensive climate
change research is the key to the implementation of regional, national and local climate policy.

51
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55
Appendices

Appendix 1 Questionnaire surveys for farmers

APPENDIX (I)

EAST AND SOUTHERN AFRICA MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE (ESAMI)

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FARMERS IN WESTERN UGANDA

Dear Respondent,

I am AHIMBISIBWE BENYA a student of Eastern and Southern African Management Institute

(ESAMI) undertaking a Master’s Degree in Business Administration. In partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of a master’s degree in Business Administration and I am undertaking

an academic study. The questionnaire provides a set of structured questions seeking responses on

the topic as provided. Please be as objective as possible in filling this questionnaire. All responses

provided will remain confidential; and will be used purely for academic purposes.

SECTION A: Background Information (Tick Where Applicable)

1. Gender of Respondents
Gender Tick
Male 1

Female 2

2. Age Groups of Respondents

Age group Tick

20- 29Years 1

30- 39Years 2

40- 49Years 3

56
 Over 50 Years 4

3. Highest Level of Education

Education Level Tick

Certificate 1

Diploma 2

Degree 3

Post Graduate Qualification 4

Others (Specify) 5

4. Respondents Marital Status

Marital Status Tick Measure

Married 1
Single 2
Divorced 3
Separated 4
Widow 5
Others 6

5. Type of Farm Entity

Type Tick Measure

Subsistence 1
Commercial 2

6. Type of crop grown

Type Tick Measure

Cash crops 1
Food crops 2
Both 3

57
7 (a). Food crops grown (The choice could be more than one)

Type Tick Measure

Maize 1
Millet 2
Cassava 3
Sweet potatoes 4
Bananas 5
Irish Potatoes 6
Sorghum 7
Beans 8
Groundnuts 9
Tomatoes 10
Cabbages 11
Onions 12
Others 13

7 (b) Cash crops grown (Choice could be more than two)

Type Tick Measure

Coffee 1
Tea 2
Cotton 3
Tobacco 4
Others 5

58
8. Animals reared (Choice could be more than two)

Type Tick Measure

Cattle 1
Goats 2
Sheep 3
Poultry 4
Others 5

SECTION B: CLIMATE CHANGE

PART I- Please fill in appropriately, by ticking the most appropriate option to rank the
questions provided under each section

59
 MEASURES

Yes No Do not know No

response

SECTION B1. Perceptions of Climate

Change

1. Are you aware of climate variability and

change?

2. Have there been periods of dry and wet

seasons within a year?

3. Has the timing of dry and wet seasons

changed?

4. Crop yields have changed as a result of

climate change

5. Animal husbandry has been affected as a

result of climate change

6. Sensitization about copying up with

changing climate has been done by relevant
authorities.

7. I am aware of the laws pertaining climate

change

8. What is your perception on climate variability and change over the years?

1 - Increased temperatures 2- 2- Increased rainfall

60
3 – Reduced Rainfall 4 – Increased floods

5 - Others specify

9. Which months did you experience drought?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. And previously when were the dry periods?

.....................................................................................................................................................

11. Which months have u experience wet (rain)?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12. How do you predict the weather next season?

1- Use past season 2 - Expert opinions 3 - Radios among

4 – Television 5 – Others specify

13. How many times do extension workers visit you per year?
................................................................................................................…………………………..

14. How have the floods between years impacted on farm yields?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

15. How has the drought between years impacted on produce?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

61
SECTION C. LIVELIHOODS

For each of the following, tick the most appropriate by choosing either yes or no.

No. Statement (1) Yes (2) No

16 Have you experienced food shortages as a result of these changes
in climate?
17 Have you experienced diseases a result of these changes in
climate?
18 Has your income from agricultural produce changed as a result of
changes in climate
19 Farmers have diversified to other livelihoods over the years as a
result of climate change
20 Do you belong to any organization that helps the farm sell the
outputs?
21 Do you belong to any organization that helps provide inputs
including water, fertilizer, seeds among others
22 Have you utilized any kind of advisory or extension service that
provides technical farm and or livestock input

23. Comment on the causes of climate change over the years

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
24. What are the major farming activities during dry season?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

25. Has your income from agricultural produce changed as a result of changes in climate?

1 – Yes 2 – No

62
If yes, has it increased or reduced?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..

26. What adjustments in your farming have made to these long term shifts such as changing
planting dates, using different crop varieties or adding irrigation?

............................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................

For each of the following, choose the most appropriate by ticking to rank accordingly

27. What type of crisis have you experienced for the past two years?

Crisis Yes - 1 No - 2 Crisis Yes - 1 No - 2

Flood Illness of a household
member
Drought Death of a household
member
Excess rain Loss of a job
Wind damage Theft
Poor production of Powerful person took
crops asset / land
Shortage of food Loss of land
Loss of livestock Others specify

28. If yes from the above crises, explain how u managed to cope up with the situation
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

SECTION D. ADAPTATION STRATEGIES

29. Choose the most appropriate strategy (ies) that have been adapted to reduce the impact
of climate change

63
 Strategy Yes No
Multiple crop types/varieties
Land fragmentation
Use of alternative fallow/tillage practices
Multiple planting dates
Irrigation practice
Crop diversification
Off-farm employment
Mulching
Fertilizer application
Organic manure application
Planting trees
Change in food crop farmland size

30. What are the constraints to adaptation and mitigation and the interventions to overcome
them?..................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

31. Can you suggest some interventions to overcome the constraints?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

64
THANK YOU FOR THE COOPERATION

Appendix 2 Interview guide for MAAIF

EAST AND SOUTHERN AFRICA MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE (ESAMI)

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TOP MANAGERS IN MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE

ANIMAL INDUSTRY AND FISHERIES (MAAIF).

Dear Respondent,

I am AHIMBISIBWE BENYA a student of Eastern and Southern African Management Institute

(ESAMI) undertaking a Master’s Degree in Business Administration. In partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of a master’s degree in Business Administration and I am undertaking
an academic study. The questionnaire provides a set of structured questions seeking responses on
the topic as provided “PERCEPTIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND LIVELIHOODS OF
FARMERS IN WESTERN UGANDA”. You have been selected to participate in this research
exercise because I feel you have sufficient knowledge and experience with the effects of climate
change on the livelihoods of farmers. I therefore kindly request you to share your honest views
about the questions I am going to ask you. Your participation in this research is voluntary and you
are free not to participate if you wish and this will not affect your future relationship with me.
However, I wish to inform you that the information you give me shall be kept strictly confidential
and will only be used for the purposes of this research.

Introduction
Climate change has become one of the most talked about environmental issues both nationally and
internationally. The purpose of this questionnaire is to obtain information about your perception
of climate change and the livelihoods of farmers in Uganda particularly in Western Uganda.

Instructions:
Please fill out the form below, to the best of your knowledge by clicking boxes and providing short
answers in the spaces provided. All answers are relevant to this research even when the answer is
“I don’t know.” If you are unable to answer a question, leave it blank.

65
1. What gender are you? 1- Male 2 – Female

2. Which department do you work for? …………………………………………………………

3. How long have you worked at the ministry or agency?

(a) 0 to 5 years (b) 6 to 10 years

(c) 11 to 15 years (d) 15 years or more

Section A. Livelihoods of Farmers Information

4. What complaints as a ministry have you received as the cause of low agricultural output
among farmers? Tick the most appropriate one(s)

(a) Rise in temperatures (c) Increase in rainfall amounts

(b) Reduction in rainfall amounts (d) Increase in floods

(e) Others specify

5. What do you believe is the MOST cause of climate change in the country? Tick most
appropriate one.

(a) Natural factors (b) Human activities

6. Have you witnessed increasing cases of food insecurity among farmers in the country?

66
(a) Strongly agree (b) Agree

(c) Don’t know (d) Disagree

(e) Strongly disagree

7. Do you believe that there have been shifts in planting and harvesting seasons amongst
farmers?

(a) Strongly agree (b) Agree

(c) Don’t know (d) Disagree

(e) Strongly disagree

8. If you believe there have been shifts mentioned in the previous question, may you state the
previous seasons compared with the current one?

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................

9. Do you believe there has been a reduction in the general agricultural output among
farmers?

(a) Strongly agree (b) Agree

67
(c) Don’t know (d) Disagree

(e) Strongly disagree

10. As a ministry, what adaptation strategies have you sensitized farmers to adopt in order
to reduce on low incomes?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

10. Comment on the view that diseases in animals have increased as a result of climate
change?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

11. Apart from food insecurity, what other consequences have farmers suffered as a result
of the changes in climate?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

12. How have the ministry, other line ministries and the concerned agencies helped farmers
to recover from the effects of climate change?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

13. As a ministry, what policies have been implemented or are in plan to be implemented to
curb the effects of climate change on livelihoods of farmers in Uganda?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

68
 THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION

Appendix 3. Interview guide for UNMA

EAST AND SOUTHERN AFRICA MANAGEMENT INSTITUTE (ESAMI)

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TOP MANAGERS AT UGANDA NATIONAL

METEOROLOGICAL AUTHORITY (UNMA).

Dear Respondent,

I am AHIMBISIBWE BENYA a student of Eastern and Southern African Management Institute

(ESAMI) undertaking a Master’s Degree in Business Administration. In partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of a master’s degree in Business Administration and I am undertaking
an academic study. The questionnaire provides a set of structured questions seeking responses on
the topic as provided “PERCEPTIONS OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND LIVELIHOODS OF
FARMERS IN WESTERN UGANDA”. You have been selected to participate in this research
exercise because I feel you have sufficient knowledge and experience with climate change effects
on the livelihoods of farmers. I therefore kindly request you to share your honest views about the
questions I am going to ask you. Your participation in this research is voluntary and you are free
not to participate if you wish and this will not affect your future relationship with me. However, I
wish to inform you that the information you give me shall be kept strictly confidential and will
only be used for the purposes of this research.

Introduction
Climate change has become one of the most talked about environmental issues both nationally and
internationally. The purpose of this questionnaire is to obtain information about your perception
of climate change and the livelihoods of farmers in Uganda particularly in Western Uganda.

Instructions:
Please fill out the form below, to the best of your knowledge by clicking boxes and providing short
answers in the spaces provided. All answers are relevant to this research even when the answer is
“I don’t know.” If you are unable to answer a question, leave it blank.

69
4. What gender are you? 1- Male 2 – Female

5. Which department do you work for? …………………………………………………………

6. How long have you worked at the ministry or agency? 0 to 5 years

6 to 10 years 11 to 15 years 15 years or more

Section A. Climate Change information

1. Human activity is responsible for climate change:

(a) Strongly Agree (b) Somewhat Agree

(c) Don’t Know (d) Somewhat disagree

(e) Strongly Disagree (f) I don’t believe the global climate is changing

2. Natural variability is responsible for climate change

(a) Strongly Agree (b) Agree

(c) Don’t Know (d) Disagree

(e) Strongly Disagree (f) I don’t believe the global climate is changing

3. To what extent indicate do you think human activity and natural variability are
responsible for causing climate change

(a) Solely human activity responsible (c) Both equally responsible

70
(b) Mainly human activity responsible

(e) Solely natural climate variability responsible

(d) Mainly natural climate variability responsible

4. Which of these do you believe have contributed a lot to climate change?

(a) Deforestation (b) Industrialization

(c) Mining (d) Swamp reclamation

5. What do you think the effects of climate change are? Tick all that apply

(a) Drought (c) Rising temperatures

(b) Flooding (d) Desertification

(e) Increasing intensity and frequency of extreme weather events

(f) Other (explain):

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

6. To the best of your knowledge, have you seen variations in rainfall for the past 5 years?

(a) Yes (b) No

71
If yes, explain these variances?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

7. To the best of your knowledge, have you seen an increase in temperatures for the past 5
years?

(a) Yes No

If yes, explain these variances

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

7. What region of Uganda do you think is more vulnerable to the effects of climate change?

(a) Northern Uganda. Why? …………………………………………………………………..

(b) Western Uganda. Why? ……………………………………………………………………..

(c) Eastern Uganda. Why? …………………………………………………………………….

(d) Both equally vulnerable. Why? …………………………………………………………….

(e) Other (explain) ……………………………………………………………………………..

8. To the best of your knowledge, are climate change awareness campaigns carried out in
rural communities?

(a) Yes (b) No

9. If yes, how is climate change information disseminated in rural areas?

(a) Pamphlets (b) Radios

(c) Television (d) Newspapers/magazines

72
(e) Village heads

(f) Others (Name) ………………………………………………………………………….

(10) What are your THREE main sources of climate change information? Tick most
appropriate one(s)

(a) Internet (b) Conferences and Workshops

(c) Television (d) Newspapers/magazines

(e) Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) (f) International Organizations

(g) Other specify……………………………………………………………………………

(11) As an agency, mention some of the policies that have been implemented or are being
formulated to reduce on the impact of climate change?

............................................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................................

(12) Any other comments on climate change in Uganda and the region at large and its impact
on the livelihoods of farmers

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION

73