Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and ”The Personal
History” of a Composer ........................................................................................ 9
Bostan, M. C.: The Concertizing Spirit in the European Music in the First Half of the
20th Century……………………………………………………………………….. 17
Demenescu, V. L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20th Century
from the Perspective of the Main Representatives of the Musical Culture from
Banat, the Romanian and European Musical Culture ......................................... 21
Filip, I.: On the Ornamentation of Baroque Music......................................................... 27
Măniut, P. M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music...................................... 31
Niresteanu, L.: Creativity in the Musical Game – Major Element in the Education
Pupils. ................................................................................................................ 37
Pepelea, R.: Paul Constantinescu – Representative of the Romanian Modern
Composition School ........................................................................................... 41
Petrescu, A. R.: Robert Wilson or Time and Immovability.. .......................................... .45
Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem. ............................................. .49
Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue (part II), a Parallel between Vocal Therapy
Exercises and Vocalization-Proposal. ................................................................. 55
Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contemporaneity in the Dragaica ................................... 61
łuŃu, C.: The Functional Pyramid in Bachian Music..................................................... 67
Vârlan, P. M.: The Hexa- and Heptacord Modal System in T. Ciortea’s Piano
Compositions. .................................................................................................... 73
Feşteu, D.; Balint, L.: Improving Pupils' Initiative Taking Capabilities through
Physical Education Lessons ............................................................................. .107
Ionescu-Bondoc, D.: From the Biomechanical Analysis to the Development of the
Explosive Muscular Force Specific to the Sprinter ............................................ 115
Martoma, A.: Non – Nutritional Natural Antioxidants ............................................... 119
Moldovan, E.; Cioroiu, S.G.: Physical Deficiencies and Hydrokinesitherapy in their
Correction ....................................................................................................... 127
Nechita, F.: Biomechanics in Sport.............................................................................. 135
Scurt, C.; Zanfirescu, G.: Contributions on the Optimization of Strength Conversion
Training in Junior Sprint Events ....................................................................... 139
Scurt, C.; Zanfirescu, M.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity Indicators
in 12-14 Year Old Children over One Athletics Competition Year ..................... 145
Simion, G.: Considerations on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game ......................... 151
Tohănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects Children at the Age
of 10-14 years .................................................................................................. 157
Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and
Sports ............................................................................................................... 163
LaurenŃiu BELDEAN 1
Aurel Stroe shared with me, during some “I listened in my childhood many times
discussions at the Busteni villa, some of to the peasants singing. In Urlati. There
his thoughts, which resonate beyond art. In were some girls, a group of 5-6 girls,
his opinion, “the human being lays his coming to the mountains for vintage, and
personal history, under multiple shapes, in oh they sang, sir: some of them had more
his creation”. vibrato, some others had less vibrato…
According to this affirmation and having some of them simply attacked and held
a proper knowledge of the semantic fields, the sound. This influenced me a great
Stroe operates with the ,multiple shapes’, deal. You can find all these influences in
which could be the forms of sounds, their my Oresteias, in Choephoroi...”
,history’. Stroe later transformed the experiences
The forms of sounds cannot be imagined of sound perception from the times of his
by Stroe as predestined monads, which are childhood into skills and the craft of
condemned to temperance. For him, they creation. He understood and reevaluated
are ,tunings’, and the composition the fact that through the oscillations of
technique through which the tuning of a intensity and frequency, shown in ,the
sonorous structure changes, in many of his history of sound’, its pitch will distort
works, is interesting. The distinctive the sound: “if one heightens or lowers
patterns of these ,tunings’ are described by [the pitch], the fact that something is not
the musical microtonal intervals of tuned will be heard”. If, for example, a
different sizes, among which the most structure carries on, at the beginning, in a
preeminent are the commas. normal tuning, through these oscillations,
To reinforce the argument about the at a certain moment, in the same
,tuning’ technique, we need to mention that structure, another tuning can be
the composer calls on the sources of encountered, and this one could fit a well
inspiration coming from his childhood, a known tuning such as: the Pythagorean,
period in which he found himself, through the Tibetan, or the Zarlinian tuning.
predestination, accompanied by music:
1
Composer.
10 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
An important influence for the creation of Stroe was the music of George Enescu.
In his scores, especially in his latest works musicale” a table of the subtle intonation
for piano and violin such as the suite deformations, which, according to
“Childhood Impressions” (in this context, Danielou, are perceived by our psyche as
look for fragments from “The Well’s privileged points (easily perceivable), and
Spring” or “Cradle Song”), or the Violin which are situated on the axe of the
Sonata No. 3 “In Folk Romanian sonorous continuum. He discovered and
Character”, Stroe explores the meanings determined the existence of a multitude of
of ,history’. In some fragments of these swaras, classifying and placing in the table
works, the ,histories’, transformed into all the existing intervals in the European
color, have the permanent capacity of and extra-European musical practice.
narrating something new. Sustaining the existence of perception at
The Violin Sonata No. 3 seems to be the level of our psyche, the author gave
among the first works in the history of them a formal model, showing that these
music which expects the interpreter to could, in fact, be constructed by the
create a ,personal history’; the musical Pythagorean relations (which are easiest to
work has the interpreter look for a certain be remembered by our psyche: the
sound through his fingering technique. In multiples of 2, 3 and 5). He affirms that the
this way, the interpreter has the possibility sounds of the temperate European system
to touch the pitch and the color a priori are lifeless, and illusory.
imagined. This assertion seems somewhat hilarious,
In his pages, Enescu changes with great since we know that people have operated
ingenuity the techniques of attacking the for centuries with such “illusory” sounds,
sound, maintaining it within the same these standing at the foundation of the
parameters, and accessing a microtonal master sonatas of Beethoven, Brahms and
interval zone, in its interior. For example, other composers of temperate, tonal works.
he succeeds to modify the effect of a The traditional vocabulary and grammar
passage evoking the blowing of the wind references (tonal, serial and neo-modal
through attacking the sound each time in a references) do not allow the composers to
different way, diversifying thus, different trouble themselves to use more than 12
parameters in ,the history’ of a particular sonorous elements; nor do these references
sound. allow to attain the ethos of these elements
The impregnation of sound with completely. Following the deadlock ,which
liveliness, with ,history’, cannot appear but resulted as a consequence of the uniformity
within this compositional option. In the of the vocabulary, composers try to make
tonal, or serial (dodecaphonic) music, up for the deficit of the ,temperate’ ethos,
where its form is almost callous, through through the emphasis of secondary
the conviction to temperance, the ,history’ parameters in the sound’s instrumentation
is absent. like, for example, its emission with a
In musical practice, the conception and certain intensity and a certain attack
the performance of music uses only modality (sweet or less sweet sound). This
unchangeable, standard tones, c, d, e, f, g, produces in the sonorous conscience of the
a, b; thus, it is possible to play only on 7 listener the specific difference, afferent to
steady pitches (or swaras, as musical notes a certain affective zone (zone present in
are named in Indian music). This is already the interaction among these vocabulary
known since the researcher Alain Danielou elements).
presented in his work “Le semantique
Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and … 11
Classical and dodecaphonic composers into sound; a note can become a sonorous
present, through their scores, a image). The notes cannot be ,music’ but in
unidirectional mode of conceiving and the moment of instrumentally displaying
perceiving sonority. It is, thus, clear that a the structure the notes describe, the
temperate d sound will sound different sonorous restoration occurs only through
from an attacked d. But through this notes transformed into sounds.
distinction we can discover only half the The sounds themselves take a completely
truth because, in fact, none of the different meaning, which is the effect of
composers using this vocabulary has the translation of notes into sonorities. The
started the rigorous work of studying all sound appears in the act through ,history’,
sounds under the aspect of their ,history’, succeeding in this way to control through
and no scientific research has been led to analyzing the temporal envelope (which
permit the exact observation of quality. can be pictured as an oscillograph giving
A supplementary explanation to Stroe’s the frequencies' coordinate system to the
assertion that “the human being lays his intensities of the partial components of that
personal history, under multiple shapes, in sound).
his creation” permits us to imagine what In all the scores of the past centuries, but
meant for George Enescu the experience of also in many contemporary scores, a sound
those times, of the contact with the can only be fixed through a note. From
fiddlers’ song, either when he listened to here results the distinction appearing in the
them on his native lands, or when he was German theoretic interpretation, which
around them during his stay in Paris. The associates a musical tone (der Ton) to a
fact that violins produce, above all, non- written note (in whichever sonorous
temperate sounds is well known; for a system), while a sound (der Klang) is
violin, music is represented by the notes B, viewed as a sum of associated notes, a
C, D, E, F, G, A, H, which are the same configuration made up of multiple
notes used by any European musician. sonorous elements. Thus, the “Klang”
Each time they play what they have to notion can be attributed to a chord or
play, however, through deviation, they put cluster, but it cannot be mistaken for a
together, on an ad hoc basis, a multitude of “Ton”, which follows a singular sound, its
swaras which results from the specific given image through a written note. The
notes. In the interstice between the formal reality, according to which, in classical
object (represented by notes) and the real composition, the sound we hear is equal to
sonorous image, the special ethos can be the written note on the paper, has not been
found, which the violinists drag to the conceived only for the practice of
surface in a matchless way. composers, but also for the manufacturers
Starting from the reality given by the of musical instruments. The manufacturers
non-temperate entities, in the two works of wanted to temperate the intervals, which
Enescu appear some features of the had been, until that time, non-temperate (it
musical form: the differentiation between suffices to mention only the ones
note as a musical notation element and belonging to the Zarlinian intonation
sound. system). Through tempering all intervals
It is necessary to understand that notes appeared the possibility of writing on
are poorer in meaning than sounds because paper the chromatic scale, which
they always appear schematically (as any represents all notes which can be used by a
written sign). We can say that a note is the European composer. We point out the fact
formal expression of a sound (translated that ,the personal history’ of the composers
12 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
that subscribe to using the temperate- One can observe in instrumental sonatas,
chromatic scale is, in general, a history of rather than in symphonies, how frequent
the fixation of a sonorous construction. the manner of perturbation of the initial
We have mentioned already the model appears. In the moment in which the
connection between the written note and exposition continues (when the music
the sound in the music of any given begins again, after the repetition sign), it
composer (Bach, Haydn, Mozart and continues the harmonic-melodic pattern of
Beethoven). It is the prototype of the the first exposition, but with small
composer that draws up the sounds of transformations of the relations between
tonalities through notes (and other signs). notes, and thus, by changing sounds. Here
The composers of those times could not, appears, in continuous emancipation, the
however, fix into scores the ethos procedure of ornamental variation.
associated to the notes, which is, in fact, The skill of the classic creators, to handle
part of the sounds. Grammar gave them the pattern of discourse (the 0 moment and
only the possibility to write some of these the final ,coming back’, at the same
notes (the most important ones). moment), belongs to the attributions of the
The ethos of sonorities can, however, be musician interpreter (either conductor or
imagined and deduced from notes in instrumentalist); we recognize the source
different ways: the formal structures, of this practice from the experiences
which are generally dynamic, are suited to described by the history of music: an array
be analogized to some play characters; of harpsichord and violin players, like
these characters do not have an existential those from the 17th century (Giuseppe
status only because they are built on Tartini, Pietro Locatelli and others),
temperate-chromatic pitches criteria. They created in time (until the moment when
are ontologisms, ,histories’, because they Nicolo Paganini appeared as an excellent
exhibit the formation of a great idea (of virtuoso) schools specialized in
existential, philosophic, religious nature). instrumental improvisation.
Thus, in the art of sounds, a familiar way Concerning the act of vocal performance,
through which the human being displays, related to the ,sound as searching
concerning the great classics, his personal typology’ (which is to be discovered by
history’, under multiple forms can be, for Enescu and some of his contemporaries),
example, the multiple ways to present the we want to give another example which
musical material: the expositive sonata differs from the norm: the graphics of the
forms in which, in the real execution, pitches from the scores. In the time of the
deviations from the composer’s tablature classic opera composers Vincenzo Bellini,
use to take place. Gaetano Donizzeti and Giaccomo Puccini,
One can easily observe that ,the personal singers knew how to attack a sound, even
history’ of the classical creator recurs to if they had to look on a score with notes
the myth of ,the eternal coming back’. The written in the temperate system.
procedure of the imitative polyphony is an One can, therefore, assume that
example for this, with the models held by interpretation has always belonged to the
the fugue form. Some other examples are nature of artist. By modifying indications
offered especially by the sonata and appeared the tiny differences among the
symphony genres, in which the extreme above mentioned ,swaras’, differences
movements (Allegro) have a sonata form, between the pitches of notes. Since then,
and where the expositive section is there have been respected, through
repetitive. tradition, some rules for sounds which do
Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and … 13
not exist for notes; the simple notes (B, C, fixation, univocal and ,temperate’, through
D, E, F, G, A, H) are those which reiterate which the ,personal history’ becomes
in whichever intonation system (be it non- objective. Through the interpretative act,
temperate or temperate). The ethos of a the sound modifies constantly, detaching
melody modifies unconditionally from one itself from the notes (from the starting
,tuning’ (intonation system) to another, schemes), even if the reality of the score is
which makes perceivable the fact that the presented in the relation note-sound.
sound has always been a variable which Without an authentic interpretation, they
can take multiple possible values, while could seem ,poor’, but confronted with an
the note has remained the invariable abstract projection, with a virtual, more
element to which multiple sonorous suggestive image, which is richer in
correspondences can be attributed. This is semantics, another image is invented by
only perceivable during interpretation, the intelligence of the modern musician in
when the artist on stage defines the dogma the 20th century. Pictured in this way,
given by the grammar and vocabulary of presented by a more complex grammar
the temperate system, a grammar and a than the classic one (which would have
vocabulary of notes, especially. Under this enabled another kind of enrichment field
aspect, the classical grammar can be for these ,histories’), the ,personal
considered imperfect or incomplete. histories’ of a composer could manifest in
We must bind the constructive a different way at the level of what is noted
consistence of the musical form, and given than at the level of musical
encountered at the classics, with the semantics.
interpretation of the musician that steps An envy-sparking fact is to be remarked,
into the concert hall with his own ,history’. which is almost unbearable for the need of
Through his level of understanding, the the modern-day creator: without the ethos
musician gives life to the notes, to the of the ,musical words’, the 18th, 19th and,
,personal histories’ displayed by them: the partially, 20th century composer subdued to
,Bachian’, ,Mozartian’ or the the univocal construction relation existing
,Beethovenian’ history. The transfer from between note and sound, which enclosed
notes to sounds can manifest in different him; he laid his ,personal history’ in
ways. This can only be possible through manuscripts of a remarkable conceptual
the fact that the interpreter mentions an consistence, turned immortal through their
authentic dictionary of ,sounds-ideas’, strength of expression.
which are only his, transforming the In the 20th century, however, a change
existence of the written form in the occured, concerning the interpretation of
existence of the sensible form, musically the noted work and ,the personal history’
accurate and dynamic. Through the of an artist. Following the appearance of
interpretation that he offers, there can be the interest for ethnomusicology and
made qualitative analogies and folklore, the composers of the national
differentiation among the types of schools and the folklorists discovered in
,personal histories’ of the composers their research field a multitude of melodies
displayed in the scores. which could no longer be noted according
The integration of the interpretative act to the exact correspondence note-sound,
in the codified creation by a score of notes present at the classical composers.
leads us to discovering another face of An example of this new perspective is
Aurel Stroe’s statement, for whom there is encountered at Béla Bartók, who wrote the
a singular form of thinking: that of pitches of the sounds with special
14 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
alterations, looking for additional A moment from the third part can be
notations. Already at Bartók, the relation taken as an example, in which a sound
between note and sound does not resemble noted with a quarter of tone is discovered
anymore to the one employed by the and played on the d chord a little higher.
grammar of the classical composers. This Through its position and the fingering
is due to the wave of oral tradition in technique, chosen deliberately by Enescu,
written creation (look for the functional this sound fluctuates, and produces a
notation of the micro intervals in his sonority that, in our psyche, is intercepted
Carrols). We can argue that Bartok bridges as a turbid feeling, as something reaching
the natural gap between the interpreter’s for clearing.
intuition and the composer’s strict way of Here appear micro-intervals, a category
noting. Alike George Enescu, Bartók of sonorous pitches, whose ,inhabitants’
explains the preexistent notation system. take on morphism, applied between the
Being very close to the artist’s conscience, steps of the intervals, which had been
he no longer writes notes in his scores, but codified from the 17th and 18th century in
intentional notes (semantics of the micro the temperate European music, and which
intervallic type). have been used by all classic composers
Bartok’s ,personal history’ infiltrated in a (being then considered an ultimate
creation situated at the balance of synthesis clarification of the ultimate acoustic
of certain traditional languages accustomed construction process of the vocabulary that
with the renewal generated by archetype- a musician could use).
folkloric Weltanschaung. It appears as Aurel Stroe links this morphism to the
different, as very individualized, in revolutionary cultural-historic phenomena
comparison to the ,predestined’ histories of which take place in music, and which have
Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Wagner; in established a perception and assimilation
this context, we only have to think of the paradigm, different from the classical one:
last three Bartokian string quartets. “The discovery of some extra-European
Coming back to the Sonata No. 3 for musical traditions: Asian, African music,
Piano and Violin by George Enescu, we the music of the two Americas, led to
can observe that the relation note-sound interesting observations concerning the
appears in a special way, the massive share formation of musical scales, which all
being given by the interpretation of the seem to be different from the so-called
text, which leads to the necessity of a ,temperate’ scale used by the European
careful analysis of the construction aspects musician. Surely, European music has
of the work. Its structure resides in a gained a lot through temperateness,
multitude of shapes acquired by sounds. especially from the construction point of
Here, we can distinguish sounds that are view: we couldn’t have imagined neither
imprecisely attacked, and which filter their the symphonies of Mozart, nor
pitch on the way, as well as sounds which Beethoven’s string quartets, nor Richard
are clearly attacked, which then lose Wagner’s dramas, without a preliminarily
themselves in a flow, through sinking in temperateness, without a precise
the continuum from which it came from: codification of sounds with which the
we observe sounds which are clear from composer works. In the extra-European
the beginning to the end and, of course, music there is a greater variety of sounds
there are also the imprecise sounds. Apart and, in addition, there is something very
from these, some other sound categories important: the power to create semantemes
can be observed. - minimal unities significant at the level of
Beldean, L.: Possible Links between “The History of Sound” and … 15
relation between two sounds - and this is intervals not as some temperate intervals
obtained precisely through these micro- but as producers of new effects, as
intervals. Said in a simple manner: on a producers of meaning at a very tiny level.
piano, between the C-D notes only C sharp A quarter of sharp - for example - by
exists, respectively D flat. In the extra- Enescu, doesn’t necessarily mean that the
European music, however, we encounter specific note climbs up with the quarter of
other notes in the C-D interval, other temperate tone, but that the instrumentalist
beside C sharp and D flat. This fact has is invited to look in that moment (in that
long been preserved in the European music very moment when he plays the violin) a
as well when certain instruments used to certain point in which a musical interval is
be played like the violin, the cello, the happening - meaning that the pitch relation
flute, but this was lost with time. But it between two sounds in which a new
appears frequently in the extra-European expressive effect appears, like - let’s say -
music being not just an empty virtuosity, an ,unusual word’, never before used until
but linked - as I was saying - to powers to then, and this ,word’, maybe evidently turn
signify at very small levels”. upside down at the highest levels the
Looking at the quarter of tone categories whole grammar of the respective section.”
from the Sonata in folk Romanian The study of this aspect should also be
character, which presents an intonation integrated into a sonorous structure
grammar through which the ,histories of analysis: it is the material with which the
sound’ are being pushed towards composer works and which represents the
successive formation stages until their last ,history’ enciphered by him.
definition, Stroe makes certain “If for the classical music the sound is a
observations to Enescu’s mentality in given thing, a constant lasting as long as
relation to those of other quarter of tone the sound, in Enescu’s music the sound
theoreticians (who eluded the possibility of becomes a variable, it becomes more
the creation of semantemes through a flexible. A sound can be attacked higher,
static, roughly productive division of tone): then lowered, the again risen - and not
„The Third Sonata seems the necessarily in glissandi forms,
reappearance of the micro-intervals after schematically enough - (as modern music
several centuries of absence. I don’t know sometimes teaches us), but in some fine
exactly if Enescu is the first one to use undulations, very rich - in the length of a
them again, my impression is that the sound. From electronic music we know the
Czech Alois Haba intented this some time fact that a sound can be changed from
before and I think that the Frenchman multiple points of view: it can be changed
Wyschnegradsky also. But these two as attack, it can be changed as form, thus it
scholars started from an initial mistake: can fluctuate from diverse points of view
they made a temperance based on quarters in a given time; it can be changed from the
of tones, this establishing certain errors point of view of its relation with the
which make the perception of the sonorous surroundings - in which it manifests itself ,
material difficult and destroy the semantic and thus the outer envelope (,history’) of
effect concerning micro levels. These the sound can be changed, factors like its
errors appeared- let’s say- doubled, thus intensity can be changed, timbre variations
multiplied in comparison with those of the can be obtained on the same sound, and
classic temperance. Enescu - maybe in an evidently, from all these variations
intuitive manner - but with a vision out of different combinations can rise, which
the ordinary - manages to use these micro- practically leads to endless possibilities to
16 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
modify, to vary, to give life to a sound. ,the history of sound’ and ,the personal
This leads to some sort of continuum in history’ of the composer (both contained in
this variation, continuum which links to different quantities in the musical work)
the idea of psychological continuum have to be rethought and completed again
created by its musical form. He creates ontologically, at multiple levels, together
sonorous forms, lied-forms, he makes with the content of the score, to
variation-forms, - all kinds of forms reestablish, through the dynamism of
(having a predilection though for the conscience, the musical composition
sonata-form). But his forms never appears identity.
obvious when listened to, the cuts
(discontinuities) are blurred by the References
continuous flux.”
Alike Aurel Stroe’s saying, from which I 1. Vieru, Anatol. Cartea Modurilor.
started, the way to grasp the semantics of Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1980.
the art work and the complexity between
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
After the supremacy held within the concertizing virtuosity reflects on the
framework of the instrumental-soloist concerto entire orchestra assembly in whose
by piano and violin (besides assigning the structure the soloist instrument is, most of
soloist role to the cello and to other wind and the times, an “integrated” voice. The new
brass instruments, such as: the flute, the oboe, tendencies of the dodecaphonism of the
the clarinet, the bassoon, the horn), in the 20th Second Viennese School become concrete
century the composers extend the soloist's in Schönberg and Berg’s concertos and
instrumental range, orienting to instruments will also influence the creation of the
such as the viola (Batrók, Hindemith), the composers belonging to the national
trumpet, the saxophone (Debussy and Milhaud modern schools (Stravinski, Batrók,
compose a rhapsody and a concerto for Prokofiev). The creation of the composers
saxophone and orchestra, alongside with Astor of the national schools reveal the structure
Piazzolla), the clavichord or the Martenot of the composing language based on neo-
waves (André Jolivet). The timbre range modals, triggered by the melodic content
diversifies both on the soloist plan and within with folklore influence. The tonal-modal
the symphonic assembly by the soloist synthesis in their creation contains
individualization of an instrument or group of “generating archetypal modal cells”
instruments, accomplished by virtuosity or (oligochords, pentatones, hexatones)
increased expressivity, integrated in the characteristic of the popular modes.
thematic discourse. The soloist instrumental concerto preserves
One witnesses in the 20th century the the coordinates of form and the conditions of
spreading of the concertizing genre in the the harmonic amplitude (from abundant
composers’ creation, by the enrichment of chromatics to atonalism).
the elements of technical difficulty. The
1
Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Braşov.
18 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The structure of the soloist instrumental Fantasy (Claude Debussy – Fantasy for
concerto is different from a composer to piano and orchestra, 1891, where the
another, still preserving the classic patterns orchestra score is impregnated with soloist
bi-, tri-, and quadripartite (as I shall try to elements, the piano being treated as a
prove further on). Some baroque structures “voice” integrated in the symphonic
such as Passacaglia, Fugue, Aria can be discourse, and Feruccio Busoni – Indian
resumed. Fantasy for piano and orchestra, 1913). The
In Max Reger’s creation, one can meet accent falls on the motility characteristic of
quotations from the protestant chorals (the the instrument, with a focus on the emphasis
second part of the Concerto for Piano and of the soloist virtuosity with composers such
Orchestra opus. 114, 1910), the Concerto for as Batrók, Stravinski, Prokofiev (as
Violin and Orchestra opus 101 (1908) is presented lower) or with the composers
composed as an ample concertizing sonata. from the “Group of the six” who resume the
Similarly, Hans Pfiztner is responsible for forms of the 18th century (Germaine
the interference between the symphonic Taillefère) in Concerto in D Major for Piano
writing and the form of the theme with and Orchestra (1926), Darius Milhaud who,
variations, in Concerto for Violin and besides the Concerto for Saxophone and
Orchestra opus 34 (1924) and in Concerto Orchestra (1938), with jazz and south-
for Piano and Orchestra in E flat major American elements, composes also a series
(1923) he distributes the working out of the of concertos for piano and orchestra, études,
themes both to the whole orchestra and the spiritually and humorously written, and
soloist instrument. Beginning with the André Gedalge, who composes the Concerto
second decade, the structure of the form and for Piano and Orchestra opus 16 in C Minor.
the compositional technique develop new We meet a symbiosis of elements
aspects within the framework of the soloist characteristic to the soloist and rhapsodic
concerto. Within the bi-, tri-, and concerto (Ravel, Rhapsody – Concerto
quadripartite structures one can identify Tzigane, 1924), between concerto and the
musical structures which are constituted on symphonic poem or fantasy. The score of
the polyphonic forms of baroque, the the orchestra accompaniment is written
treatment of the musical elements (melody, either for a great symphonic assembly, for a
rhythm, harmony, instrumental timbre chamber orchestra (Hindemith, Şostakovici),
modulations, dynamics, agogics), unique to or for wind instruments (Kurt Weil –
the new musical orientation (expressionism, Concerto for Piano and Woodwinds, and
neoclassicism). For example, one can meet Igor Stravinski with his Concerto for Piano
Passacaglia, Toccata and Aria as parts of the and Wind Instruments, 1924). Within the
concerto (Schönberg, Stravinski, framework of impressionism, French
Şostakovici). Hindemith is, as I have already composers such as Debussy and Ravel focus
pointed out, an example for the re- on the concertizing style, Debussy
evaluation of the concertizing genre of the composing the Fantasy for Piano and
baroque (Concerto Grosso). In this context, Orchestra (1935) amply developing the
Hindemith, as well as the modern symphonic discourse, and Maurice Ravel,
composers such as Poulenc, orients towards the Concerto for Piano and Orchestra: № 1
instruments such as the organ, the in G Major and № 2 in D Major for the left
clavichord, the viola d’amore, the viola and hand (1935) which I will present further on.
the cello. The title changes in Kammermusic The return to the old art, especially for the
(Hindemith), Concertino (Stravinski, polyphonic constructions and the modal
Honegger, Şostakovici) for miniatures, language, is reflected by Ottorino Respighi
whose dominant instrumental character is in the Gregorian Concerto for Violin and
part of the concertizing spirit, Capriccio Orchestra (1921) and in the Mixolidian
(Igor Stravinski, Capriccio for piano) and Concerto for Piano and Orchestra (1922). In
Bostan, M.C.: The Concertizing Spirit in the European Music in the First Half of … 19
piano and orchestra (1936-1937), the Concerto the musical substance of tension (by using
for Violin and Orchestra (1940), and the flageolets, trills, tremolos, “col legno”, “sul
Concerto for Cello and Orchestra (1946). tasto” effects) (A. Vieru, W. Berger).
The instrumental virtuosity predominates If up to the 8th decade of the 20th century
both in the construction of the soloist score the interest of the Romanian composers
and in the one of the concertizing instrument, headed mostly towards string instruments
by impregnating the symphonic discourse (violin, cello), currently it is decreasing for
with specific elements (ample passages in an the concertizing genre generally. Some
improvisational style or of an increased composers are heading towards viola and
proportion and technical difficulty) and the double bass (M. Moldovan, M. Marbé) [1].
individualization of the instruments in the Thus, the composers of the 20th century
assembly. The rapport between the orchestra continue to promote the instrumental soloist
and the soloist instrument can change by the concerto in their creation, focusing on the
equal involvement of the two partners in the expressivity of the instrumental timbre, on the
development of the symphonic dramaturgy. amplitude of the traditional forms and the
The soloist instrument tends to be considered combination of the characteristics of the
a “voice” in the symphonic assembly and the concertizing genre with symphonic principles.
characteristics of the soloist instruments, of The role of the soloist instrument has an
individual assertion and virtuosity, are to be impact on the symphonic conception of the
found in the orchestra assembly as well. score as well.
In the Romanian music of the 20th century, The concertizing spirit is reflected in the
the composers, starting from George Enescu’s 20th century as a tendency towards
example and using elements of the traditional playfulness and the explanation and
popular songs, resort to the stylization of the exhaustion of the technical-expressive
folkloric material, capitalizing the melodic- resources of the instruments that are used. To
rhythmic characteristics of authentic song and the emancipation of the concertizing spirit
dance. Even when they use compositional has also contributed the new vision on
modern techniques, Romanian composers instrumentation within the orchestra
introduce modal elements within the rigorous assembly; new research on rhythm, the music
serial organization. exterior to the European space (jazz, the
Starting with 1950, the concertizing music of the Extreme Orient), traditional
creation is based on the synthesis of forms folklore and electronic music. The symbiosis
and includes a variety of musical languages, that the romantic composers achieved by
from tonalism to serialism and modalism transforming the concertizing score into a
(Paul Constantinescu and Sigismund symphony, the individualization of the
ToduŃă). Despite these contributions, one instruments in the symphonic assembly, as
can notice that harmony still constitutes a well as the enrichment of the symphonic
main element. Similarly, the role of the works with concertizing elements has been
soloist instrument in the genre has, in amplified by modern musicians. The
relation to the orchestra, a different concertizing spirit from the creation of the
contribution. Either it manifests as a composers of the 20th century is transferred to
foreground element, as a soloist voice, or it the symphonic or chamber assemblies and
is assimilated in the orchestra assembly. The gains new stylistic coordinates.
seventh decade brings along the tendency to
dissipate the melodic substance to promote References
the timbre punctualism where the technical
effects of the instrumental writing represent 1. Firca, L.C. Modernitate şi avantgardă
an important means the expression. The în muzica ante-interbelică a secolului
atmosphere, the musical idea, the expression XX (1900 - 1940). Editura FundaŃiei
are evasively suggested, without depriving Culturale Române, 2002.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
V. L. DEMENESCU1
Abstract: This study follows the development lines, which attract the
creations toward the rural folk music direction, the transformation of
original melodies (rural or lectern music) according to the affinities for the
neo-romantic, neoclassical, folkloric, impressionistic or expressionistic
orientations, characteristic to some representative creators.
1
Faculty of Music, Vest University of Timişoara.
22 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
which are different from one region to psychological determinants, which have
another. In order to not destroy the given it a certain physiognomy, Byzantine
authenticity and originality of customs of religious music has been not only adopted,
certain regions, we must avoid certain but also adapted to various people,
processes of deliberate and uncontrollable according to their specific musical thinking
obscuration of the specific of certain and feeling. Thus, it has received a new,
folkloric melodies. original expression and dimension, specific
One knows that since ancient times, to the people that have adopted it.
people have built a series of popular, Generally regarded, all these people
rudimentary, or modern instruments, which form, from a clerical music’s point of
had the role to amplify the expressivity of view, the same spiritual community, as the
the used sonorous material, and to last researches on compared South-East
complete it when it exceeded the European folklore show, each of them
possibilities of the human voice. This led contributing by their original and specific
to the crystallization of two distinct styles aspects to the crystallization of their own
in popular melody: the vocal and the national church music.
instrumental style. The causes that have lead to forming
The main characteristic of Romanian these national variants of the same original
popular music is that it is predominantly Byzantine music are decisive; thus the
vocal, the instrumental style being more differences imposed by them are present
suitable for dance tunes, pastoral, and not only in each nation, but also within the
fiddler’s songs. same nation, in small social communities
Another important feature of Romanian like villages. In other words, Byzantine
folklore is the idea and the horizontal church music may show artistic expression
development of tune, the monody, which is differences from one social unity to
present when the tune is performed by a another.
group of interpreters. In fact, the variant of unity is an
In time, we notice a permanent aesthetical law known ever since Aristotle,
development of popular song, which confirmed by various modern
acquires new elements: ornaments, experimented researchers, who have
melismas, a wider range, and dialectal proved that the lack of variation in unity
melodic formulas. These elements need a would lead to monotony and dullness. This
colored harmony if they are included in the aesthetical law of variety in unity governs
professional creation, to keep the the arts of all times, being expressed in
expression of tunes significant. fine arts, in music, language, clothes,
Because of the historical and social- customs, etc. Therefore, no one has ever
cultural circumstances, which have formed thought to homogenize and generalize
the Byzantine religious music, adopted in dialects, popular music, or the clothes
general by the South-East European specific to a region. Such an attempt would
people, because of the various not only create adverse reactions, it would
heterogeneous influences, and because of also be considered absurd.
the autochthonous popular music Thus, referring to church music, not only
influences that have marked it [1], because the national variants of Byzantine music,
the different musical ideas of some of its but also the regional variants within the
reformers, because of its oral circulation same people, or its dialects, correspond
for centuries, because of the deficiency of folkloric regions. Folkloric regions and
notation systems as well as of musical dialects do not only exist in our
24 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
country, Romania, but in all countries; the first centuries of Christianity, the
they are determined by the contribution of church cantata had as model the
the autochthonous element, specific as synagogue canticle, which had been
expression of soul and spiritual community joined, along centuries, by the musical
to a social group [3]. Thus, for example, in influences of people from Minor Asia,
his work, entitled The Serbian Orthodox Syria, Antiochia, Armenia and the
Church Popular Song, which appeared Ancient Greece. Together with the
posthumously in 1969 at Beograd, the apparition and development of Christian
Serbian bishop Stefan Lastavici establishes hymnography and with the passing of
numerous variants of local dialects time, the church canticle suffered a certain
(napev), differing from one another in synthesis, beginning to get a determined
richer or poorer melodic lines. specific. The creation and evolution centre
As regards our church music, one of the of canticle was Byzantium, the capital of
most individualized local dialects is the the East Empire; from here it spread
dialect from Banat, a dialect of great towards other great monarchal centers
artistic beauty, differing from other from Greece, Mount Athos, Palestine,
dialects in its rich and varied melodic, Alexandria and the Romanian countries.
nuanced expressivity, as well as in the Along centuries, in the Romanian
organic interpenetration and unity between countries, the Byzantine music was an
the musical substance and the sacred objective reality, an integrant part of the
content of the text. Our church music, in art and culture of the Romanian people.
general, as well as the music from Banat, This specific art has been kept, developed
has reached the present structure as a result and passed off in a traditional spirit,
of a natural evolution, after it assimilated together with its manuscripts written by
all influences along centuries, which Romanian copyist musicians, well-known
created an entity of autochthonous of the neumatic singing and writing, who
elements by spiritual needs specific to the opened schools close to the great
thinking and musical predisposition of our monasteries in the country.
people. In some regions, like in the old The human voice cannot be defined by
Romanian counties, which have been mode or tone notions, but by the
influenced by the Greek and Turkish complexity of elements: the musical scale,
music, foreign influences have imposed in the genre to which it belongs to, the
a different way due to historical and social- sonorous system, the system of cadencies
cultural circumstances; these and melodic formulas. Speaking of a
circumstances are different from the ones musical scale, we consider a fragment of
of the Romanian people from Ardeal and scale, counting sometimes three, four, or
Banat. five sounds, and other times even going
beyond the octave. The groups of three,
2. Modal Structures in the Byzantine four, or five sounds sometimes form
Cantata from Banat sonorous systems; from their chaining or
joining are created scales with a greater
The music performed in the Church of range.
the Orthodox Orient is known as In psalm music, for example, the
Byzantine music; musicologists and systems of four or five sounds can be met
historians of the modern era, those who in the diatonic genre, as well as in the
have focused their attention towards the chromatic genre. Their use slowly leads to
study of medieval arts, named it that. In the forming of cadence systems
Demenescu, V.L.: The Compositional Context in the First Half of the 20th Century 25
The opera Prince Charming by Herman Lazar; the European repertoire was
Klee, a composer from Banat, and the enriched with: The String Quartet nr.3
choral poem King of Mountains by and Micro-Cosmos by Bela Bartok,
Thimotei Popovici, complete the Kammermusik Nr.5 and Nr.6 by Arnold
compositional picture of the year 1924, Schönberg, and The Second Symphony by
which includes the opera Doctor Faust by Dimitri Sostakovici.
Feruccio Bussoni, String Quartet by What we attempted to underline in the
Gabriel Faure, Kammermusik Nr. 2 for last part of the article sustains the idea that
piano obbligato and 12 Solo Instruments the modal musical thinking represents an
op. 36 by Paul Hindemith, the rhapsody important conquest of the European and
for concerto for violin and piano Tzigane Romanian musical language, including
by Maurice Ravel, Concerto in the musical language from Banat, through
Mixolydian Mode for Piano and the extraordinary above mentioned works.
Orchestra by Ottorino Respighi, Winds
Quintet op.26, Serenade op 24 and Suite References
for Piano op. 25 by Arnold Schoenberg,
Concerto for Piano and Winds by Igor 1. Cinci, E. Sfânta Liturghie – creaŃia
Stravinsky, and Symphony VII op.105 by supremă a gândirii religioase.
Jan Sibelius. Panciova – Serbia. In: Revista pentru
The Prelude, Fugue and Toccata for artă şi cultură Lumina, anul LVIII,
piano, Five lieder on lyrics by Reiner nr. 7-8-9, 2005, pag.51.
Maria Rilke and Romanian Rhapsody nr.1 2. Demenescu, V. L. Modele de gândire
by Zeno Vancea mark the year 1926, modală în creaŃia muzicală europeană
together with The Third Sonata for Piano din prima jumătate a secolului XX.
and Violin “in Romanian folk character” Timişoara: Editura Eurostampa, 2006.
by George Enescu, Two Romanian 3. MăniuŃ, P.M.; MăniuŃ, L.C. Cronica
Dances for Winds, Battery and Piano at ideilor contemporane - studii şi
Four Hands by Theodor Rogallski, publicistică, vol. 1 (compendiu al
Lyrische Suite für Streichquartett by dominantelor de gândire ale culturii şi
Alban Berg, Concerto for Clavicorn, civilizaŃiei secolului al XX-lea).
Flute, Oboe, Clarinet, Violin and Cello by Braşov: Editura UniversităŃii
Manuel de Falla, Simfonietta by Leos „Transilvania” din Braşov, 2005.
Janacek, Concerto for Wind Orchestra 4. Stoianov, C. Coordonate stilistice ale
op.41 by Paul Hindemith, the poem creaŃiei lui Sabin Drăgoi şi Zeno
Tapiola op.112 by Jan Sibelius, and Vancea. Bucureşti: Revista Muzica
Oedipus Rex by Igor Stravinsky. nr. 4, 1990.
In 1927 the opera Năpasta by Sabin 5. Stoianov, C. Repere în neoclasicismul
Drăgoi and the Psalm 127 by Zeno muzical românesc. Bucureşti: Editura
Vancea were finished. In the same year FundaŃiei România de mâine, 2000.
George Breazul founded in Bucharest The 6. Vărădeanu, V. Originea muzicii
Phonogramic Archive for the Gathering noastre bisericeşti - manuscris. Arhiva
and Study of Musical Folklore, and the Episcopiei Aradului.
Romanian repertoire was enriched with
The Chamber Symphony op.5 by Mihail
Andricu, the Fantasy for Symphonic
Orchestra by Mihail Mihalovici,
Concerto grosso nr.1 op. 17 by Filip
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
ON THE ORNAMENTATION OF
BAROQUE MUSIC
Ignac FILIP1
1
Dept. of Musical Interpretation, Transilvania University of Braşov.
28 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
opposite, French music, emerged as a the violin, like the famous Arcangelo Corelli,
reaction to the volcanic music; it is whose eyes reddened countless times, whose
intellectual, aristocratic, and it provides face maimed, and whose eyes moved as if in
clear musical forms and precise rules for agony, so that the interpretation of the music
interpretation. These contrastive elements seemed to have transformed him into a
of expression influenced the entire different man’ [4].
European musical life strongly, and led to Quantz (chapter X. 19): ‘Italian music is
a gradual polarisation of baroque music in less balanced; French music is yet much
relation to the two styles. One element too restrained and, probably, because of
that should not be ignored is the traditional that, in French music even what is new
political, cultural and spiritual rivalry seems old. But, the French style should not
which existed between the two nations. be despised; we recommend to beginners
This rivalry marked the two musical styles, to combine the decent and clear conduct of
the conceptions of the music lovers and the the French interpretation with the Italian
contemporary professional musicians. The clear-obscure’ [4].
French considered the Italian music tasteless Quantz (chapter XVIII): ‘The taste of
and vulgar. On the other hand, the Italians these two nations determine the others'
considered the French music inexpressive taste as well.’
and useless, destined for the ears, and not for These two contrastive styles led to two
the heart. To understand the atmosphere of different styles of ornamentation. In the
the period and of its musical rivalries, some Italian style, the figurative ornamentation
of the most controversial opinions are worth was primordial for the use of the proper
to be quoted: ornamentations. The Italians preferred a
Marin Mersenne (Harmonie universelle spontaneous improvisation, an
– Paris, 1636-37, p. 356): ‘Italians strive embellishment of the melodies through
themselves to render passions, spiritual melodic notes, figures and rhythmic-
states ... for us, the French, it is enough to melodious cells. The French used the
please the ears’ [1]. ornamentation of the musical sounds as the
Georg Muffat (Florilegium, I. – basic unity of melody.
Augsburg, 1695): ‘The French are There are some quotations about the
characterized by a natural melodic spirit French and Italian ornamentation:
and suppleness – a soothing character Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 2): ‘Man kann
which is dispersed by excessive and das Adagio, in Unsehung der Art dasselbe
useless variations, by too frequent and zu spielen, und wie es nötig ist, mit
uninspired intervals’ [2]. Mannieren auszuzieren, auf zweherlen Art
Francois Raguenet (Parallele des Italiens betrachten; entweder im französischen,
et des Francais, en ce qui regarde la oder im italianischen Geschmachte…Die
musique et les opera) [3]: [The French] erste Art erfordert einen netten und an
‘play the violin with much more delicacy einander hangenden Vortrag des
and care, in comparison to the Italians who Gesanges, und eine Auszierung desselben
agonise every time: the cellist tortures his mit den wesentlichen Manieren, als
instrument and his body, he loses control Vorschlägen, ganzen und halben Trillern,
and is so agitated, as if this impetuous Mordanten, Doppelschlägen, battemens,
movement were an infirmity. I have not seen flattements, u.d.gl.; sonst aber keine
anyone so seized with passion while playing weitläuftigten Passagien, oder großen
Filip, I.: On the Ornamentation of Baroque Music 29
zusatz willkührlicher Verzierungen….’ One cannot deny the fact that, in the Italian
[The interpretation of the Adagio and its music, the interpreters have the same merit
ornamentation can be dealt with according as the composers; but, in the French music,
to two ways: the French or the Italian way the contribution of the composers to the
… The first way demands an engaging perfect achievement of the melody is
and fluent interpretation, and an greater than that of the interpreters] [4].
ornamentation of the melody with basic After all, the two musical styles got
elements such as appoggiaturas, trills, together through their synthesis, from
mordents, groups, vibratos, but without which the German baroque emerged, and
further arbitrary ornamentations] [4]. through the great artists of the time such as
Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 3): ‘Die Telemann, Händel and Bach.
französische Art das Adagio auszieren,
kann man durch gute Anweisung, ohne die References
Harmonie zu verstehen, erlernen.Zu
italiänischen hingegen wird die 1. Bruce, Haynes. Das Fingervibrato
Wissenschaft der Harmonie unumgänglich (Flattement) auf Holzblasinstrumenten
erfordert.’ [The French ornamentation of im 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, Teil
the Adagio can be learned under good 1, in Tibia 2/97, p. 401-407.
guidance, without having to study 2. Bruce, Haynes. Das Fingervibrato
harmonies. In comparison, the Italian (Flattement) auf Holzblasinstrumenten
ornamentation requires knowledge of im 17., 18. und 19. Jahrhundert, Teil
harmony] [4]. 2, in Tibia 3/97, p. 481-488.
Quantz (chapter XIV, p. 4): ‘Daß die 3. Donnington, Robert. A performer’s
französischen Componisten die guide to baroque music, Faber and
Auszierungen mehrenteils mit hin Faber, Londra, 1973 (în limba
schreiben; und der Ausführer also auf maghiară: A barokk zene
nichts weiter zu denken habe, als die gut elıadásmódja). Budapest: Editura
vorzutragen, ist schon gesaget worden. Im Zenemőkiadó, 1978.
italiänischen Geschmachte wurden, in 4. Ganassi, Sylestro. Opera intitulata
vorigen Zeiten, gar keine Auszierungen Fontegara/La quale insegna a sunare
darzu geseßet; sondern alles der Willkühr di flauto. VeneŃia, 1535 (în limba
des Ausführers überlassen;…Die denn germană după Peter, Hildemarie:
nicht zu läugner ist, daß in der Schule des kunstvollen Flötenspiels
italiänischen Musik fast eben so viel auf und Lehrbuch des Diminuierens).
den Ausführer, als die Componisten; in der Berlin: Robert Linau Verlag, 1956.
französischen aber, auf den Componisten 5. Harnoncourt, Nikolaus. Musik als
weit mehrals auf den Ausführer ankomme, Klangrede, Editura Residenz Verlag,
wenn das Stück seine volkommene Salzburg und Wien, 1982 (traducerea
Wirkung thun soll.’ [The French în limba maghiară: A beszédszerő
composers used to display most of their zene). Budapesta: Editura Editio
ornaments; thus, the interpreter did not Musica, 1988.
have anything else to do than to interpret 6. Mersenne, Marin. Harmonie
them correctly. Italians preferred not to universelle. Paris, 1636-1637, p. 356.
display the ornamentations at all; they 7. Muffat, Georg. Florilegium.
were left to the interpreters' ingenuity … Augsburg, 1695.
30 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
MATHEMATICAL CONCEPTS
IN AUREL STROE’S MUSIC
PetruŃa M. MĂNIUł1
Abstract: Professor Dinu Ciocan is the first person who found similarities
between works of art and fuzzy sets, which are subject to gradual change. In
compositional art, Aurel Stroe translates these notions into his music. This
perspective is adequate, since mathematical notions are very close to the aesthetics
of works of art, which involve a poetic dimension, the ethics of intentional
ambiguity and vagueness, features which promote musical interpretation.
The music of Aurel Stroe is one of the and organically be identified in his
best Romanian works of art of the XXth compositions.
century. The aesthetic approach on fuzzy sets Professor Dinu Ciocan is the first person
is a way to analyze the profound signification who found similarities between works of
of his art. The explanations I will provide art and fuzzy sets, ”which are subject to
further refer to the way mathematical gradual change” [2]. This perspective is
arguments simplify the understanding of a adequate, since mathematical notions are
work of art, especially in the context of the very close to the aesthetics of works of art,
XXth century, when philosophy and art which involve a poetic dimension, ”the
introduced ”the primacy over the real”. ethics of intentional ambiguity and
Mathematics is useless within a world in vagueness”, features which promote
which the possible does not take musical interpretation” [3, p. 62].
precedence: ”if you take the real for There is an obvious compatibility
granted or consider it unique, you miss the between mathematical notions and
unit of deeper mathematics. But if you phenomena, which are deeply related to
double, triple or polymerize the real, if you each other, and the artistic background, as
dive into the ocean of the possible, then it is shown in the specialized literature.
mathematics becomes a means to know, to Goethe promoted the mathematic approach
explore the possible” [1, p. 61]. The work concerning art, by pointing out the spiritual
of art is itself a reality meant to multiply dimension of mathematics, which
reality in a deeply recreative way, which is contributes to the development of the
neither photographic nor mimetic. The creative artistic phenomenon:
musical masterpieces composed by Aurel ”mathematics is an element of the inner
Stroe are the best examples to support the superior sense; practically, it is an art.
statement above, as they reflect a perspective Nevertheless, mathematics is not able to
of the possible, infinite world, as well as the perform any moral act; a mathematician is
marginal visions of reality. The composer’s accomplished only if he is accomplished as
spiritual refinement is transposed to his an individual” [4, p. 53]. The end of the
musical work, which is the fruit of his quotation made by the Romantic German
approach on world and art, and which artist makes the distinction between the
explains why these concepts can naturally artistic valuation of the artistic piece of work
1
Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Braşov.
32 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
and its creator’s moral profile, which proves sense of delineating three specific directions:
to be so important. As one fundamental law the study of structure, space and changes.
of aesthetics states, ”every aesthetic end The study of structure generally focuses
product may not always be moral”; it on the theory of numbers (elementary
proclaims the superiority of the spiritual algebra); abstract algebra is the result of a
quality over the aesthetic aspect. deep investigation and abstracting of these
”The Euclidean geometry is the perfect theories (abstract algebra studies the
introduction to philosophy” [5, p. 35]. The structures which generalize the properties
work of art has a lot in common with the of numbers in the usual sense). The
philosophical conceptions of non-Euclidean ”vector” concept, generalized in the sense
geometry, especially as regards the meaning of vector space, and studied by linear
of Aurel Stroe’s composition work which algebra, is specific both to the study of
displays complex ideational understood structure and space. The study of space
implications. Euclid, the famous Greek naturally starts from (Euclidean) geometry
geometrician, who lived around 300 B.C., and three-dimensional familiar
was a professor in Egypt; among other trigonometry which later becomes non-
works, it is worth mentioning his book, Euclidean geometry and plays an essential
”Elements”, a geometry manual, which role in the theory of relativity. The study of
contains individual theorems for plane and change, as it reflects the dramatic
special geometry, algebra and the theory of background of the musical discourse, is
numbers. He promoted the logical reasoning necessary, especially in case of arts, where
and deduction and influenced Newton in his measurement and predictability of
work ”Principia”. Today it is known that the changing some variables are essential.
Euclidean geometry is not the only The current development process of
independent geometric system due to human society requires ever more
Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity (”the resources, both material and human. We
Euclidean geometry is not respected in can notice a constantly changing scale of
vicinity of the black holes and the neutron values and lifestyles; we are on the
stars, where the gravitational fields are very threshold of supportability, at a critical
intense)” [6]. point in human evolution. It is the energy
Mathematics is usually defined as the and the space-time of the habitat in which
science which is concerned with structure, we are dwelling that keeps us together. All
change and space. A modern approach on these barriers are also related to the level
mathematics states that it is concerned with of civilisation we are living in, to the way
the investigation of abstract structures, people create, achieve and consume artistic
axiomatically defined by formal logics. products, and to the present cultural
The basics of the structures investigated by paradigm. Therefore, we should consider
mathematics are sometimes found in music from a space-limit perspective (a
natural sciences (especially in Physics). philosophical limit of non-Euclidean
Mathematics defines and investigates its geometry): the conquest of a new
own structures and theories, to synthesize dimension, the perception and pragmatic use
and unify multiple mathematic fields as a of the properties of a new dimension could
unique theory, a method which usually be more than an intellectual challenge, a step
simplifies generic methods for calculation. towards self fulfilment and, implicitly, a
Occasionally, mathematicians study fields of proof that man can survive in a world which
mathematics strictly for their abstract seems to be consumed.
interest; therefore this approach is more The issue regarding the fourth dimension
related to art than to science. The specific is not only a mathematical issue, but also
domains of mathematics are used to mark an aesthetical one. Nevertheless, nobody,
generically the limits of the trends excepting for the mathematician Howard
approached by mathematics to date, in the Hinton who had intensively trained his
MăniuŃ, P.M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music 33
imagination, has got a picture of the modern composition art. The tragic feature
volume in a non-artistic act with of the paradox of the non-Euclidean
significant expressive implications. All knowledge” [7, p. 122] is very well adapted
great mathematicians, except for a few of to the aesthetic background approved by
them (Henri Poincare was ahead of them), contemporary art.
agree to the fact that there is incontestably This new geometry shows that space is no
a four-dimensional space. Nowadays, a longer the Euclidean space. It is also obvious
great number of scholars and philosophers that we are able to understand various types
are concerned with the issue of the fourth of spaces with different properties, where
dimension. This issue replaced the interest parallel lines meet, where the angles of a
people used to have for the squaring of the triangle scale down unlimitedly while its
circle or for the perpetuum mobile. To sides become longer, and other similar
conceive the fourth dimension, we should anomalies. The non-Euclidean geometry
leave the strictly scientific, concrete turns into a hyper geometry or a
dimension of the human universe which metageometry, a theoretical background to
can be directly analyzed, and study investigate hyperspace, the fourth dimension.
thoroughly the meanings of art. But what is hyperspace? Once this question is
It is known that Euclidean geometry has asked, difficult issues are brought into
three dimensions: length, width, height or discussion. Is it a space accessible to man, to
thickness. It is only since 1621, due to the his spirituality, or is it a hypothetical space
research done by Sir Henri Saville, that a new similar to Einstein’s space?
type of (non-Euclidean) geometry was born Here we are very close to the concept of
because of certain obscure issues specific to the infinity of the (aesthetic, expressive)
geometry (especially as regards parallel universe which raises the following question:
lines); this discipline was the result of the what is a bound? It may be more than ”the
contributions made by Saccheri, Lambert, extremity of a certain surface”. The issue
Gauss, Lobatschevsky (his research was related to infinity is abnormally complex and
highly appreciated by the scientific world), out of the intricate network of numbers, of
Bolyai, Riemann, Helmholtz, Beltrami and abstract or concrete geometry; it suffices to
many others. Simultaneously with remember the difference between ”the
Lobacevski, the Hungarian mathematician undefined” and ”the infinity”. The infinity
from Transylvania Janos Bolyai (1802-1860) which pushes our imagination to limits is
created non-Euclidean geometry. During his nothing else but the undefined. It is nothing
studies, but especially after he graduated the else but a variable infinity which oversteps
Academy in Vienna, Janos Bolyai made the imposed bounds. Our imagination cannot
important discoveries which contributed to perceive but a finite area, to which is added
his major work "Appendix" (1832); his work another finite area, and this circuit is endless.
was published in Latin as a completion of the It can neither reach big infinity nor small
manual written by his father. The results infinity, only what is left finite. Imagination
achieved are a thorough dialectic study of the cannot reach infinity, neither the bound of big
issues of mathematics. Bolyai’s research set infinity nor zero, the bound of small infinity.
up the foundation of new trends in geometry These two ”extreme states” of infinity are
which, however, were not understood and ideas which only reason can understand.
appreciated by his contemporaries. ”The infinity made of more pieces is nothing
The research of the reference works but the mobile and fugitive shape, the parody
mentioned above proves the profound of infinity”.
correlation between them and the musical Mathematical infinity removes
phenomenon created by Aurel Stroe, which imagination and first appeals to reason. To
has a unique interior geometry, developed conceive and reach infinity, reason does
according to other macro and micro formal not have to cover the domain of infinity
laws than the ones commonly used in and waste the series of undefined bounds.
34 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
It is enough for reason to find that a finite All Kantian and Neokantian efforts made
right line can be prolonged on both sides, by idealist empiricists finish up by
to find also that any given number can be preserving the same obscure information
added to a unit, and to notice that this is on this issue; all philosophers who were
always possible, independent of the preoccupied with space and time (Spencer,
number or the line. The mathematic Helmholtz, Renouvrier, James Sully,
infinity is a kind of ”spontaneous infinity”, Stumf, Wiliam James, Ward, Stuart Mill,
similar to the artistic infinity; it is an Ribot, Foille, Iuyan, Bain, Lechalas,
infinity which is made up outside Balmes, Donnan, Bergson, and many
imagination and reason, which gives birth others) were not able to solve the double
to the force of things, the infinite numbers enigma; their most controversial theories
or the projections of superior geometry. are still obscure. Among the scholars
According to Jouffret, ”a geometrical preoccupied with the exploration of the
being would be created with its own multiple dimensional geometry, it is worth
individuality, which is above the finite and mentioning Poincare and Goursat (France),
the unlimited”, while the unlimited is Cayley, Hinton (United Kingdom and the
connected to our mind. Such a superior United States of America). Certain theories
being could act in an interpersonal space promoted by Hinton or some remarks of
which would overstep our imagination, Boucher’s geometry state that the one who
either in big infinity or small infinity, can use the fourth dimension will be able
without having anything in common with to see the whole interior of the material
this imagination. It is a space which people bodies, without being stopped by their
can conceive beyond their reason, and this surface and even without taking it into
had been impossible but for the mysterious consideration; the tiniest interior and
force of art, whose impact on the concepts exterior particles of objects will appear as
of new mathematics has become obvious; juxtaposed, not as superposed. Whatever
it imposed the ideas of an extra human we may think, what happens beyond our
space, which at first sight seems more being is much more fertile than anything
unreal than our hereditary space, where which happens anywhere else.
things happen similarly to the way they do Schofield (Hinton’s disciple) presented
in our familiar space. the three dimensional life in an ingenious
It is not easy to know or to define a way. He started from the non-dimensional
hyperspace (from a cultural, not from a being, who cannot see anything, not even
geophysical point of view). It is difficult to herself/himself; everything is non-being
define the three dimensional space: the and s/he is convinced that the non-being is
Kantian formula, which states that space is her/his universe. On the next level, there is
subjective, a required supposition of all the linear being, who lives together with
experiences, cannot be ignored. The her/his fellows; s/he cannot see anything
comparison between aprioricists, who state but the extremities of the line, a point.
that the idea of space is innate, and Then he analised the plane being, or the
empiricists, who argue that this idea is the two dimensional being, who cannot see
result of experience, does not ease the anything but two lines; in the end, the
issue under discussion; neither do we find thinker described the volume being, who
out whether to accept the idea that space is cannot see anything but surfaces and the
a structuration order in time and that time hypervolume being (the artistic work), who
is a succession order, as Leibnitz stated. can perceive volumes instantaneously and
We do not go any deeper in understanding completely. All revelations and apparitions
this issue if we state that time can be in the Old and New Testament come from
represented by space or that space is beings who possess the fourth dimension:
necessary for all representations. the spiritual dimension which makes the
MăniuŃ, P.M.: Mathematical Concepts in Aurel Stroe’s Music 35
perception and feeling of the artistic act spirit is able to identify it. Our spirit can
possible. develop a superior conception of the fourth
Hinton proved to be the scholar who dimensional space, adequate to our
passionately dedicated himself to tridimensional space and it can use it
researching the fourth dimension. He was likewise. The only difficulty is to decide or at
not only a mathematician, who used to least to sense that there is a fourth dimension
make fun of the thrilling game of the most (or even more dimensions) in the universe.
daring hypotheses, but also a balanced, Therefore, the three dimensions are the
gifted man with a vast, unique imagination, measurements of matter in space. These
which allowed him to put forward viable measurements take into account only one
theories for most of his abstractions. feature or characteristic of matter: the
Besides the mathematical works, he also extension in space. From this point of view
wrote scientific literary works, but only a it is impossible to find other dimensions,
few of them were successful. This is the except for length, width and thickness. But
case for the novel Stella, which narrates it is likely that other senses (like the
the life of a young girl, who was made cultural sense) could reveal other
invisible by her father (he took the unexpected coordination characteristics of
principle of the refraction of light as a space and time; thus, we might discover an
basis). In ”The Fourth Dimension”, the extension of the fourth dimension. As
reader is led to the darkest of the greatest Ouspensky stated, ”by time we understand
enigmas: the author pretends to have built ”the distance” which separates the events
some solid four-dimensional cells called in their succession, connecting them to
tesseracts which are a close transposition different entities. The distance can be
of a four-dimensional space. found in a direction which does not exist in
What Hinton wants us to develop by this the three dimensional space: the fourth
experience is a special feeling (comparable dimension. By the term ”time” we express
with the fundamental power of the spirit). a reality, a certain space and a movement
This means that we have to train our within the space and, consequently, the
conscience to look at things from a time extension is the extension in an
different, non-conventional point of view: unfamiliar space, which explains why time
an artistic, aesthetic point of view. Hinton is the fourth dimension of space”.
stated that ”when we meet infinity at a Nevertheless, from a certain point of view,
certain moment of our thinking, this is a time and space are interchangeable.
sign that this way of thinking is related to a Mathematicians use time as it were the
reality which proves to be higher than the fourth dimension of space. The idea of
one we are used to”. The space we usually explaining space by time and time by
conceive is limited, not in terms of surface, space is similar to the one by which we try
but in a way which cannot be grasped. But to explain the night by the day and the day
why does space have to be by the night. According to Ouspensky, ”the
tridimensionally limited? The spiritual sense of time is an imperfect sense of
experience is the only capable of space, it is the limit of our space”. Space is
answering this question. We may the visible present; time is a burning space
experience the cultural existence of the which becomes past or future. Space is an
fourth dimension; in a way or another, the intense time, a horizontal time; time-space
human being is not simply a tridimensional is the lasting time, time is the ephemeral
(material) being. There have been put space. We cannot measure our limited
forward certain suppositions, which in an space but as related to time. If we want to
arbitrary and artificial way provided a draft give time a reality, we can only represent it
of the relation of our body with the existence as an immaterial space. It provides a total
of the fourth dimension; it states that our lack of objects; in exchange, it is full of the
36 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
events it develops. For us, time begins mathematical figure; it is the real world of
when we cannot understand each other any physics, the way pursued by physicists to
longer; the picture of space is made up reach reality. Metageometry also looks
around us, when we follow the passing of outside our space for less conventional and
time. Space and time share certain subjective situations which have uncertain
properties; for example, the centrifugal relations with the space we created (or
force (this mysterious energy which is the which was created inside ourselves) to help
eternal enemy of gravitation), as the rotary us understand the phenomena of the
motion of the Earth, has a mathematical universe.
representation by the formula in which ”There is not only the sensuous music;
time and space intervene. By virtue of this there is also a spiritual music. There is not
principle, time is limited only by time and only the music which is being performed at
space is limited only by space; space is present, but also the eternal music, which
almost always limited by time, and time is exists even when it is not performed. All
surrounded by space. They fight for lonely people have their silent music inside
supremacy and vanish in the dark. Space themselves and I am glad that there is such
necessarily exists in time. music. But where do people get the music
Eddington stated that ”the fundamental from? They get it from us, the musicians,
measure is not between points in space, but because it has to be first performed and
between two points in space associated to listened to (…) so that any person can
some moments in time (the case of the think about it and dream of it when s/he
work of art). We consider time a moving returns home” [8, p. 134-135].
of space and space a break of time; in
reality, time is as motionless as space. We References
picture it as a river which flows
unceasingly. In reality, it has never moved, 1. Noica, C. Jurnal de idei. Bucharest:
it is we who are flowing, not time. We are Humanitas Press, 1991.
kept between space and time and end in a 2. Dediu, D. Fenomenologia actului
cosmic deadlock. When mathematicians componistic. Bucharest, 1995.
get us out of space, when they get to a 3. Larson, C. Persuasiunea – receptare şi
critical point in which space gives no feed responsabilitate. Iaşi: Polirom Press,
back to their calculations, they make a 2003.
fourth variable break into the background, 4. Goethe, J. W. Maxime şi reflecŃii.
time, which restores the balance of their Bucharest: Univers Press, 1972.
calculations and allows them to go further. 5. Goethe, J. W. Maxime şi reflecŃii
The work of art is related to this (Meditations and reflections).
temporal reality which contributes to the Bucharest: Univers Press, 1972.
embodiment of the work of art and the 6. Hart, M. O sută de personalităŃi care
cultural (even more, the spiritual) au influenŃat evoluŃia omenirii.
dimension, which is in fact the fourth Bucharest: Lider Press, 2003, art.
dimension (left aside by mathematicians). Euclid.
In conclusion, Hilton assures us that we 7. Noica, C. Jurnal de idei. Bucharest:
will never be able to see a four Humanitas Press, 1991.
dimensional figure physically, but only 8. Hesse, H. Lupul de stepă. Bucharest:
with the mind’s eye. The real, three Rao Press, 1995.
dimensional and strictly material world is
obsolete; it has to be replaced by non-
Euclidean properties and by four
dimensional space and time. The four
dimensional world is not just a mere
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
Lucian NIREŞTEANU 1
1
Dept. of Musical Pedagogy, Transilvania University of Braşov.
38 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series VIII
game representing the main means of his playing games, they prepare for life’; the
full expression of freedom”. games represent, thus, the practical
According to the poet’s statement, the exercises necessary to becoming mature.
game reflects a person's creativity. Throughout this presentation, there have
The Dutch historian and theoretician of been made references to a signifying
culture, Johan Huizinga (1872-1945), definition of the game, as a formative and
presents in his famous book, “Homo creative action, bearing a great importance
ludens” (1938), a conception about game for the children's and adolescents’ life to
that is close to that of Schiller. Huizinga their gradually becoming mature. To an
considers the game “an essential, equal degree, the game fulfills a functional
stimulating element of all forms of human role of great significance in the life of
culture”. adults as well.
According to the psychologist Edouarde For an adult, the work on a daily basis
Claparede (1873-1940), the game stands should not represent a mere obligation,
for the most important preoccupation relative to the function that he has, for
towards which the child manifests its full which he is paid; work should be viewed,
interest, since it supports its biological and instead, as a permanent creating activity
psychological needs. In Claparede’s which might be interpreted as a superior
conception, the meaning of game consists manner for the manifestation of game.
in the very ‘action of playing’, which An occupation which lacks the emotional
‘prepares the future, by quenching the background created by the permanent
needs of the present’. addition of novelties, progressively added
The Russian psychologist Serghei to the process of the daily activity from a
Leonidovici Rubinstein (1889-1960), particular field, (the addition of novelties
defines the game as being ‘the child of means creative work), will degrade in time.
work’. He demonstrates that the game is a If one limits himself to the operations
product specific to human activity, and that based on a daily routine, he will end
the essence of the game consists of the performing an activity which lacks
children's preoccupation with the ‘reflected satisfaction, a necessary feature in the
transformation of reality’. For example, process of work.
one social function of a mother is that of On the other hand, active adults, as well
preparing food for her family; in games, as retired people, have during their free
the child takes over the function of the time vital energies. These need to be
mother, pretending to cook for other consumed to avoid boredom, which is a
children, an activity which causes it much psychically extremely dangerous
satisfaction and joy. Paul Popescu phenomenon. The free time of an adult
Neveanu states in the “Dictionary of should be filled with different challenging
Psychology” (Dictionarul de psihologie - preoccupations of a creative type; adults
Bucharest, 1978) that a child's game is ‘a could also get involved into society or
kind of … determining activity for his sports games with a festive character
psychological development’. which have the purpose of bringing joy
In the children's and youth’s life, the and satisfaction.
game fulfills a formative function: ‘by
Nireşteanu, L.: Creativity in the Musical Game – Major Element in the Education … 39
A special category of games is Thus, the child prepares for activities far
represented by gambles. These ones, by more complex, getting prepared to attend
their nature, have a double effect: either school.
the euphoria of the gain, or the failure During school, the creative games
which can trigger personal dramas in change gradually into practical activities,
association to drugs, or even to dramatic, creating thus a consciously created
sometimes, fatal actions. product. This represents the stage where
From here the necessity of finding an we can already talk about an equivalence
occupation for one's spare time, and of of games and creative work.
consuming supplementary energy, by The different types of games played at
choosing creative actions, such as society different school ages actively participate in
games, which have the benefit of inducing the development of the creative initiatives
a state favorable to creative work, of the pupils.
rightfully considered as happiness. The importance of the educative value of
For adults, the game has also an the musical game consists of the fact that,
important function, for their daily because of the emotional states that it
professional activities, in emphasizing induces, it can become an efficient method
other features: fun and entertainment, in the harmonious development of the
relaxation after work, the escape from the human psyche at all ages. This is why we
influence of preoccupations that may stress the necessity of using modern
negatively affect a person's sensitivity. teaching procedures, inspired from the vast
These games can be categorized as: society field of instructive games, in the
games, artistic-musical or sportive games, instructive-educational process. It is worth
destined to the satisfaction of one’s desire mentioning the vital energy comprised in
to win in fair competitions, according to the musical games; this energy stimulates
some precise rules among groups of valuable creative performances.
partners participating in the game. Unlike other games, the musical game, as
One can argue that the totality of the a dynamic form of instructive games, will
spiritual and material productions, as influence a child more strongly in his
consequences of the human mind and educational development, due to the
effort, have been born within processes of strengthening of the transfer qualities of
creative work, which, at times, may be music.
taken for the game itself, the latter thus Musical games carry different aesthetic
becoming the most moral human activity, values which become materialized in:
the most serious ‘child of work’. songs, different rhythms, polyphonies,
The creative game is the type of game by catchy lyrics, adequate to the actions
which the child builds, draws, models, linked to the children’s age, songs,
sings, dances, plays different musical associated to physical movements,
instruments, etc. By getting familiar with choreography, the use of school musical
different working materials, from different instruments, etc. These values promote the
activity fields, in the process of playing a development of the pupils’ creativity on
game, the child will perform the practical several levels.
exercises which correspond to their use.
40 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 ▪ Series VIII
PAUL CONSTANTINESCU –
A REPRESENTATIVE OF
THE ROMANIAN MODERN
COMPOSITION SCHOOL
Roxana PEPELEA1
1
Dept. of Musical Pedagogy, Transilvania University of Braşov.
42 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Liturgy. Thus, the peak of this direction, separate expressions: the humorous, the
the Oratorios in Byzantine style, represents grotesque, the transcendental comic (with
the most faithful expression of the a view to philosophy). The humorous
composer’s modal diatonicism. The expression (caricature) refers to a
utilization of a common potential of miniature type programme music (Four
intonations, with cantus firmus Fables for the Piano), or it is in Arghezi’s
individuality, taken over, probably, from manner (Cântece pentru voce şi pian,
Macarie, is remarkable for proving the lyrics by Arghezi, or Ciurezu). The
unitary character of the Byzantine style. grotesque receives tragic-comical, absurd
The neoclassic direction originates, on (Din cătănie, Gornistul, Şapte cântece din
the one hand, in the recovering of some uliŃa noastră), or frivolous, parodic,
classical valences (symmetry, equilibrium) realistic-critical nuances, or nuances in the
of the Eastern European folklore, and manner of Caragiale (O noapte
harmonizes, on the other hand, with a furtunoasă). The transcendent humour
worldwide tendency of the epoch – directs the Balkan spirit to the border of
recovering and applying the classic sublimated play; it is of ludicrous subtlety,
composition forms and techniques to the and combines elements of the Turkish
Romanian ethos. The Neoclassicism in Orient (Isarlîk) with the philosophic
Constantinescu’s creation belongs to the essence of Ion Barbu’s poetry (Riga
area of syntheses: between the neoclassic Crypto şi Lapona Enigel). Under the
(neo-baroque) style and the folk one influence of Anton Pann’s style, the source
(Three Pieces for the Piano, Symphonietta, of inspiration is confounded here with a
Prelude for the Piano Solo) – a synthesis certain level of folklore (the urban type)
achieved by most Romanian creators in robustly coloured with the Greek-oriental
this epoch; between the neoclassic and the influences of the time (augmented second,
Byzantine style (Liturgy, Oratorios) – an diminished third, rhythmic melismas), used
unusual synthesis in the Romanian musical as fashionable quotation, often
creation, but typical of the world music – superimposed in the palimpsest technique.
as, for example, the fusion between the The tendencies of bringing out the value of
neoclassic (neo-baroque) and the the artistic attributes of the folk song
Gregorian intonation (Respighi, require currently clearer and realistic
Hindemith, Stravinsky etc.); between the (even naturalistic) ways of perception,
traditional form and the innovative modal encountered at the level of melodic
language involved by the folk-Byzantine procedures and of harmonic-polyphonic, or
direction (Symphony, concertos). orchestral techniques (leitmotivs, violent
The expressionist direction, for Paul harmonies, polymodality, ostinati,
Constantinescu, is another modality of mixtures, aggressive brass band sonorities
expression of a basic folk mode, as or folk instruments). The presence of the
opposed to other composers who, within programme argument oriented to
this esthetics, also conceived works that expressive spheres is observed in the songs
generally lack the Romanian element (M. on lyrics by Eminescu, Şt. O. Iosif, and
Jora, Joujoux pour Ma Dame). The works C. Theodorescu, in which the composer
belonging to this direction are either employs the following modal techniques:
melodies with a text, or they are based on a the use of minimal scales, the
literary theme or a programme argument. superimposition of the melody elements,
One feature of this direction is the comic fourth chords, the modal
nuance, which for Constantinescu takes on complementarity etc.
Pepelea, R.: Paul Constantinescu – Representative of the Romanian Composition School 43
Overall, the composer’s style from now on. The third period is that of
demonstrates a unitary aspect with a high “compromises” that the composer makes
extent of musical language consistency. on the ground of accessibility, to educate
The evolution of Paul Constantinescu’s the “taste” of the masses, on the aesthetic
composition language had not undergone patterns of the newly-installed regime in
spectacular changes of optics; it consists of power (the dances for the orchestra, the
the steps he took on the modal domain, instrumental and choral pieces). In the
from diatonicism towards chromaticism. following concerto literature, we notice an
An attempt of dividing Constantinescu’s evolution of the modal language towards
creation into periods suggested in this chromaticism (The Piano Concerto, 1952).
thesis will refer to the temporal The fourth period, containing the
subdivisions, according to Vasile composer’s last opus – The Triple
Herman’s attempt of dividing the Concerto for the Violin, Cello, Piano and
Romanian music in Formă şi stil în noua Orchestra - overtakes the prerogatives of
creaŃie românească (Editura muzicală, the culminating moment of his whole
Bucureşti, 1977). Therefore, the following creation, the synthesis of all composition
stages in the composer’s creation are procedures, excepting the comic aspect.
suggested: I. 1929-1938 – marks the The unity of Paul Constantinescu’s
opening of directions and establishing the creation is determined, first, by the
parameters of genuine creation. II. 1939- tendency towards a common specific
1948 – rounds up the final affirmation of potential of intonation, which marks the
his creation. III. 1949-1956 – settles the constants of the inspiration sources of the
maturity of his style and language. IV. theme. Based on these constants, works
1957-1963 – marks the delimitation of a belonging to different expressive spheres,
new vision on the modal treatment. The or to different style directions, achieve the
first period represents, besides his debut, unifying element, reaching, through
the moment of certain openings – within generalities, the possibility of establishing
the modal spheres of the folk and certain parameters, between which
Byzantine style, even with touching some Constantinescu’s modal thinking retains
stability points (the Psaltic Liturgy, 1936), certain melodic types. This common
or anticipations (Nuntă în CarpaŃi,1938), potential of intonation can be detected in:
marks an apogee (O noapte furtunoasă, I. the melodic source of Anton Pann
1934) and a final point (Riga Crypto and (quotation from Spitalul amorului or
Lapona Enigel, 1936) of the comic Cântece de lume) – a unifying element
tendency, musically doubled by between the folk and the Byzantine
expressionist techniques, anticipates Neoclassicism and the comic-parody
neoclassical tendencies (Sonatina, 1933, creation with Greek-oriental nuances; II.
Symphonietta, 1937, Prelude for the Piano Macarie’s Irmologhion – a unifying
Solo, 1934 and Burlesque for the Piano, element inside the Byzantine creation (the
1938). The second period represents the Byzantine Studies, the Oratorios and the
fulfilment of a creation cycle of Byzantine Liturgy); III. the occasional folk species,
inspiration (the composer will only once for example Doina recrutului; in the comic
come back this direction, in 1963, with The creation (Din cătănie, O noapte
Triple Concerto for the Violin, Cello, furtunoasă), and also in the neoclassical
Piano and Orchestra, but in a new mode), creation (The Piano Concerto); IV. the
and the masterly opening of the performing melo-rhythmic style, common for themes
section of his creation, the most important proceeding from an archaic folk level,
44 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Alexandru-Radu PETRESCU1
Abstract: Being convinced that “we should set the traditional school of
theatre on fire”, Wilson troubled the strong tradition of Western theatre,
founded on the idolatry of the word. His options unveil his affinity to mystery,
symbol, ritual and the sonorous beaches on which he uses to superpose his
unique imagistic scenic vision, the slowed down motions and elaborated
lights.
Nowadays, one rarely finds time to think supports the idea that one can choreograph
about TIME. This is, though, what Robert any music and also dance to it (see his
Wilson succeeds in his shows, compositions directed as motion shows,
transforming the scenic space in temporal during the period 1940-1960, most of them
images. in Cunningham’s choreography).
Robert Wilson (b.1941) first studied Robert Wilson’s creation for the stage
business management at the University of has been immense, since his first motion
Texas (1959-1962), afterwards he studied shows were held at the end of the 60-ies,
the art of painting in Paris and then and the last ones in 2005. His shows were
architecture, interior design and painting named by certain critics tableaux vivants.
(again) in New-York. He has not attended Just to name a few: the Life and Times of
a school of theatre. As major influences Joseph Stalin (1973), Einstein on the
which have affected his creation, he Beach by Philip Glass, Leonce and Lena
mentions, beside the activity developed by Georg Büchner and Peer Gynt by
with disabled children, the avant-garde Henrik Ibsen (2005). As regards opera
group formed by Martha Graham, Merce stage management, he produced Médée by
Cunningham and John Cage. This group Charpentier, presented together with the
has experienced different stylistic music version by Bryars (1984); Salomée
orientations, it has moved away from by Richard Strauss at Scala of Milan
serialism and electronic music to graphism (1987); Pelléas et Mélisande (1997); Le
and qualified sonorous constructions, and Martyre de Saint Sébastien by Debussy;
was labeled by Sorin Lerescu as free from Die Zauberflöte by Mozart (1991, 1995,
any constraint. The musical creations of 1999); Parsifal by Wagner la Hamburg
the group use to shock through the (1991); Madame Butterfly by Puccini
originality of the language, the exploitation (1993, 1994, 1997); The Castle of Blue-
of new manners of attack and the Beard by Bártok; Erwartung by Schönberg
employed instrumental techniques. Cage in Salzburg (1995); Oedipus rex by
1.
Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Music, Musical Interpretation Department.
46 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
1.
48 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
“To write vocal music means, after all, to unutterably deeper, more precious, more
create relations between a multitude of fragile” [4].
words and a multitude of musical sounds” The lieder we submit for analysis belong to
[5, p. 51]; the manner in which these Theodor Grigoriu (b.1926) and Dan Dediu
relations are built pertains to every (b. 1968), two reference names of the
composer’s style. The lied, the supreme Romanian school of composition. The text
sign for the musical refinement of a was written by the poet Şerban Codrin (b.
culture, is a complex genre, with certain 1945), who, through his lyrical creation of
features of structure and attitude, in which Japanese type, inscribes in the “austere sign,
the sounds express themselves, beside the Zen, of the high altitude poetry”[1, p. 71].
words, even more than poetry can do by It is about the third stanza in Agnus Dei
itself, as the sonorous completeness is from Missa Requiem in which the poet,
being built in connection to the meanings adapting the Oriental fixed forms to the
of the text with whom it inseparably spirit and letters of the Romanian
merges for ever. language, manages an interpenetration of
In an exposé dedicated to the Romanian maximum originality, beyond the
lied, the composer Carmen Petra doctrines, between Zen and Christianity,
Basacopol stated that “the basic element of leaving free way to interpretation, in a
lied is poetry” [4], also quoting the opinion waltz of spirit through symbols. „Missa
of the essayist Nicolae Steinhardt: “poetry requiem unifies gunsaku and sequences on
is not a simple genre. It is a state of mind, the tissue of ideas in the Christian hymn of
of the psycho-somatic complex, of the the Middle Ages. The suggestions of the
temperamental disposition. It is in the most verses in Latin melt in a few dozens of
obvious manner a state of grace (…) it is a tanka and haiku, where Buddha seems
manner of knowledge analogous to forgotten, there being accepted God’s
intuition or revelation, therefore kingdom instead of the path towards
nirvana, or inversely, which is the very
1
Transilvania University of Braşov, Faculty of Music.
50 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
same thing” [2, p. 235]. The poems haiku appear terms of expression, beside the
and tanka by Şerban Codrin have also numerous rallentandos (measures 4-5;
“lured” other Romanian composers measures 8-9; measures 12-13; measures
(Eduard Térenyi, Vasile Spătărelu, 16-17) followed by the return to the initial
Cornelia Tăutu), but those who opted for tempo, while in the second case there are
the lyrics “Thorns and wild roses / grow doloroso, sostenuto, dolce, but there are no
red around / a wood triptych - / bleeding rallentandos or ritenutos, the composer
once more / the crucified body” are seemingly leaving at the interpreters’ will
(according to the information we hold for the eventual – and minimal – fluctuations
the time being) only Theodor Grigoriu and of the unfolding speed that he proposes
Dan Dediu. (the crotchet ~ 80). Dediu’s lied, globally
The lied composed by Theodor Grigoriu seen, is seemingly more alert than the one
is part of the cycle of 9 haikus for voice of Theodor Grigoriu, especially due to the
and piano Dincolo de tăcere, Iisus [Beyond values of the notes which are being used
Silence, Jesus]. Its lyrics are chosen after (subject on which we will return) and to
an anthological criterion and follow a the “fugitive vision” on Jesus on the cross,
central idea. Dan Dediu’s lied belongs to made iridescent by the transparent
the cycle Wolfiana op.59, unified sonorities used in small and very small
especially through the metastylistic manner nuances by the younger composer whose
of musical treatment. Although it is an creative approach is marked by the speed
important element, we will not discuss as typical of the century.
follows every cycle of lieder integrally and As formal structure, the square shaped
the elements of musical dramaturgy it construction created by Theodor Grigoriu
contains, but we will try – through brings a little form with reprise, based on
revealing formal aspects as well as aspects the varied resumption of the segment
of musical language – to decode the (phrase) b and a small evolution (the
“interpretation” that each composer gave segment/phrase c). The segmentation of
to the same poem, and the different manner the musical articulation is generally
in which each master translated through modelled by the poetical text, the
music the signification of the words. composer enhancing the text and creating a
Both lieder, created on a poem of only certain expression through intuition and
three lines are likewise of small imagination, through delving into
dimensions – 17 measures at Theodor substance, and not through technical
Grigoriu and 10 measures at Dan Dediu – means.
having as possible model Weber’s Dan Dediu’s lied proposes the formal
aphoristic creations; the composers did not structure a av. In phrase a (measures 1-4),
feel the need to bring an instrumental it is like an homage in metastylistic
“supplement”, of music without text, manner brought to the “Cantor from
except an intervention for the piano Leipzig”, the symbol BACH is well
(measures 4-6) in Dan Dediu’s musical incrusted in the piano accompaniment. The
piece. Both creations unfold in a unique series of seven descending perfect fifths
measure of 4/4 and in a unique tempo (measure 4), articulated in groups of two,
which suggests for the interpreters rather which lead to a movement of crotchets in
an atmosphere, a state, then a developing the grave register of the piano, with a
speed (Quasi lento at Grigoriu’s lied, and melodic motion from phrase a are to be
Malincolico at Dediu’s lied). There is to be noted. With small modifications, phrase a
mentioned that in the first case there do not v (measures 7-10) is the shift upwards of
Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem 51
the first two measures of phrase a; the afterwards, the left hand closes the lied
accompaniment undergoes an inferior with two ascending fifths in the acute
chromatic translation which produces on register of the piano. (END).
the expressive plan a more accentuated Unlike Dan Dediu, who successively
darkening of the atmosphere generated by brings (at the piano) the sounds of the
the view of the Crucified body. In the last interval of fifths, both during the musical
two measures, the piano brings the symbol piece (ex.1) and in its end (ex.2).
BACH once more to the right hand;
Ex. 1
Ex. 2
Theodor Grigoriu exploits the sonorous sounds, both in some moments during the
effect created by simultaneously bringing lied (ex.3), and in its end (ex.4), bathed by
out the acoustic potential of the interval the sonority of the same interval.
52 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Ex. 3
Ex. 4
Both lieder undergoing the analysis are which “advances” the sonority: through a
deprived of dimensioned piano single sound at Grigoriu (ex.5), through
introductions, the instrument is the one accord structures at Dediu (ex.6).
Ex. 5 Ex. 6
As regards the type of writing, Theodor with a single hand the three voices of the
Grigoriu resorts to a unique solution, accompaniment.
which is the harmonized (choral) carol. Likewise, the pedalling – extremely
The main melody, entrusted to the voice, diversified and adapted both to the
has a Byzantine „scent”, seemingly instrument one disposes of during the
invoking Jesus’ sacrifice for every mortal. execution and to the expected (desired)
The vocal melodic line, unfolded in a sonority – is an element which will give
relatively restrained range (re1 - re2), the measure of the instrument’s qualities.
„sounds” in a si minor with mobile steps Dan Dediu creates a page of music with
(II, VI, VII), but it is practically orchestral valences through a generous
neutralized by stereotyped accords of the musical range (Do1 – lab4), resorting to
piano, which „glide” on parallel elements of suggestion and symbol,
sextaccords in a likewise restrained range, without doing this however directly,
between re - la2, all notes being preferring to submit a modal atmosphere
distributed, according to the writing, to be strongly diluted by bringing the chromatic
executed with a single hand. This is one completeness ever since the very
moment in which the pianist is required beginning. The profile of his melodic lines,
maximum expressivity and a completely different from the linearity of
differentiation of the manners of attack, those of Theodor Grigoriu, sends our
control and safety on the fingers, to render thought to the dodecaphonic manner of
treatment: almost in zigzag, in which
Petrescu, C. F.: Sonorous Hypostases for a Tanka Poem 53
prevail the increased and diminished a certain expression through intuition and
intervals, beside the frequent exchange of imagination, through delving into
instrumental registers. The voice unfolds in substance. The piano especially has
a comfortable range re1 – mi2, but the minims, complete notes and crotchets,
interpreter is required greater self- which creates conditions for the sonorities
assurance and ability because of the to „live”, to develop themselves. The
intonation difficulty of the intervals and of distribution at a single hand of the piano
the frequent exchange of the sonorous accompaniment does not constitute an
registers in the general sonority brought by impediment for enhancing the pluriphonic
the piano. syntax but, on the contrary, stands for an
As regards the set of intervals resorted interpretative challenge in aphoristic
to, it seems interesting to mention that manner launched by the composer. The
Theodor Grigoriu pre-eminently uses (in two plans, the voice and piano
the melody of the voice) the intervals of accompaniment, do not seem to merge,
seconds (13 Big seconds 9 small seconds, giving the impression of a permanent
especially in a descending sense, although „discordance”, although, separately, each
from the expressive standpoint there is an may justify itself through the prism of the
„equilibrium” masterly created through consonance concept.
compensating the descending intervals Dan Dediu resorts to a higher diversity
with an almost equal number of ascending of intervals, both in the vocal and
intervals or of perfect primes, situations in instrumental part using, for instance, in the
which there is resorted to the „effect” melody of the vocal part 2m,3m, 4-, 2M,
given by intervals used a single time along 3M, 1p, 6M, and also increased and
the musical piece (3m, 3M, 4p, 6M). decreased intervals, in a pre-eminently
Rhythm, the fundamental parameter of the descending evolution starting in the high
musical discourse is approached in a points of the vocal range.
different manner by the two composers. To exemplify this view, the two
The vocal line created by Grigoriu is pre- important elements in the poetic text, the
eminently constructed with values of „wood triptych” (ex. 7 and ex. 8) and the
crotchets, minims or minims with point, in „crucified body” (ex. 9 and ex. 10) are
close correlation with the text; the dealt with in a different manner by the two
segmentation of the musical articulation is composers, concerning the melody of the
generally modelled by the poetical text, the vocal part (intervals, sense of
composer enhancing the word and creating development, rhythm).
Th. Grigoriu
Dediu
54 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol.2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Th.Grigoriu
Dan Dediu
And about the piano part, in both cases indications with respect to expression,
there exists a complementariness of the which model the sonorous discourse, (...)
senses. with a finely dosed charge of the sentiment
For both musical pages, the relation expressed through music” [3, p. 247].
music-poetical text may seem surprising at
a first research. The composer Dan Dediu References
puts aside sonorities obtained through a
metastylistic language to a poem of the 1. Basa, V. Merii în floare. Eseu despre
oriental type, tributary as aesthetics to structura poeziei lui Şerban Codrin.
elements taken over from Zen thinking. ConstanŃa: Ex Ponto Publishing
The composer Theodor Grigoriu House, 2002.
considers that Japanese poetry is capable 2. Codrin, Ş. Marea tăcere. Slobozia:
of being associated to the reduction of the Star Tipp Publishing House, 2001.
range of expression means up to a 3. Cosma, V. Muzicieni din România,
minimum level, which offers however an vol.3. Bucureşti: Muzicală Publishing
infinity of interpretative solutions. The House, 2000.
master provokes the interpreters to search 4. Simpozion dedicat liedului românesc
perpetually for something „else” in the art în context universal Festivalul şi
of interpreting the lied and to recompose concursul liedului românesc. Braşov:
not only the musical signs of the score, but October 2006.
also their spirit, their inferred meaning, the 5. Vieru, A. Cuvinte despre sunete.
„unsaid”, decoding the signification Bucharest: Cartea Românească
contained in the „richness of nuances and Publishing House, 1994.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
Claudia POP 1
Abstract: As a vocal pedagogue, I am trying to create a school to promote a safe
pedagogy, to prevent the damage of the voice. Moreover, if the voice is damaged, I try
to cure it through non-medical methods, together with the vocal therapist and the
phoniatrician.
1
Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Braşov.
56 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
• The glottal attack will be aspirate, • The glottal attack should be clear,
firm, light, with the “imaginary h” firm, light, with the “imaginary [h]”, and
(meaning a rate of air flowing through the forward placement of the sound
the nose, before the sound is heard); resonance into the anterior facial bones
• The student sings the sound “[h]m”, and the feeling of the abdominal
shortly, repeating it 5-10 times, on “appoggio”.
different notes, from semitone to This is somehow similar to the “yawn-
semitone, focusing on the forward sigh” technique used in vocal therapy.
placement of the nasal sound and the The various ways to use the “yawn-sigh”
abdominal “appoggio”. Then s/he will in a regular vocalization for resonance
sing a sustained tone; may be summarized in the following
notations:
Not to forget:
3. Exercises which Combine the Consonant the soft palate, since arching the velum is
m with the Vowels a, e, i, o, u: necessary for the implosion phase.
[h] M – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM – MA – MM;
[h] M – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM – ME – MM;
[h] M – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM – MI – MM;
[h] M – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM – MO – MM;
[h] M – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM – MU – MM;
[h] M – MM – MA – MM – ME – MM – MI – MM – MO – MM – MU – MU – MM.
The jaw will be moderately low, being a semitone to semitone, depending on the
guarantee for a low larynx, trying the “yawn- range of the individual subject.
sigh” sensation, by picturing the “interior
Not to forget:
smile”. This avoids the muscular tension
which can appear in the tongue, pharynx and • The vocal sound should have both
larynx; “pointed and round” qualities;
The subject must be sure to get a deep • The glottal attack should be firm and
breath before the attack of the tone, to light in the same time, using the
sustain the phonation; “imaginary [h]”;
The articulation of each vowel will be soft • The abdominal support and the
and clear, avoiding the hard glottal attack, resonance placement of the vowels as well
having in mind a good breath control, a as for the consonant [m] should be as near
forward and high placement of the vowels, as possible.
as nearly as possible in the same place as
the consonant m, the so-called “mask”
resonance;
This exercise can be repeated 5-6 times,
each time in a much higher key, and can be
transposed upward and downward, from
Fig. 6. Range for all exercises
58 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Fig. 8. An enumeration exercise, using legato and the intonation of only one sound,
counting from one to ten
This exercise continues from semitone to This exercise will also continue from
semitone within the recommended range. semitone to semitone within the
recommended range.
All these exercises present the physical
part of the “work itself”. I believe that
beyond the exercises, the individual work
with a subject means to focus also one's
particular attention on the education of the
student’s mind, the student’s soul and the
student’s body. Paraphrasing Novalis (who
was the pseudonym of Georg Philipp
Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (May 2,
1772 - March 25, 1801, an author and
philosopher of early German
Romanticism), [35], the fusion of all the
Fig. 9. An enumeration exercise of the days above mentioned aspects creates the
of the weeks, from Monday to Sunday, “magic of the pedagogical art”, which
using legato and the intonation of only one consists in “using arbitrarily the world of
sound the sensibilities”.
Pop, C.: The Singing Pedagogue 59
Thus, if we, the singing teachers, the vocal training of the speaking voice are the
coaches, the vocal therapists or, the vocal foundation of an objective singing
retrievals, named by me singing pedagogues, pedagogy and mastery of the vocal technic,
use a proper vocal technique, based on or both of the singing and speaking voice, it
related to the phoniatric exercises, we will not is the sovereignty of a singing pedagogue.
only succeed on the vocal field, keeping the
voice healthy, but also train the singers' References
minds, preventing the illness of the voice, and
offering an alternative for a healthy and long- 1. Berg, Van den J.; Tan, T. S. Results of
living voice. Experiments with Human Larynxes.
In the first and second part of this study, In: Practica Oto–Rhino Laryngdegica,
I firmly recommend not to respect the 1959.
dictum: “just relax and sing naturally”, 2. Berg, Van den J.; Tan, T. S. Données
because that can induce the laziness of the nouvelles sur la function laryngee. In:
whole mechanism which produces the J. Franç. O.R.L., 1959.
singing voice. 3. Cohen, A. L'Art de bien chanter, 1666,
My opinion is that this is a matter of of Jean Millet. France, 1969.
muscular independence which is necessary 4. Bogdan, C-tin. Foniatrie clinică. In:
for any delicate skill. The extrinsic ViaŃa Medicală Românească.
laryngeal musculature, the neck muscles Bucharest: Publishing House, 2001.
have to be consciously controlled and the 5. Bica, N. The phoniatria in a
intrinsic musculature, which is largely conductor’s vision. The Doctorate
unconscious, must be activated. Only then, Thesis, Cluj, 2000.
we can have the sensation of the 6. Brodnitz, Fr. Keep your voice healthy.
“resonance” or the sensation of the New York: Harper & Brothers
forward placement of the sound. This Publishing House, 1953.
means the perfect coordination between 7. Brown, R. The Singing Voice. New
diaphragmatic action and the vocal cord York: Macmillan Publishing House,
activity during the process of emission of 1966.
the singing voice. 8. Cernei, E. Enigme ale vocii umane.
We, the singing pedagogues, will always Bucharest: Litera Publishing House,
be concerned with freedom and natural 1982.
voice production, acquired through years of 9. Cleall, Ch. Voice Production in Vocal
assiduous and conscious professor-student Technique. Paris: Alphonse Leduc
work. The real development of vocal technic Publishing House, 1937.
comes not only with a stronger and louder 10. Curry, R. The Mechanism of the
voice, but with the addition of freedom, Human Voice. New York: Ed.
agility, brilliance and beauty to the voice. Longmans Green, 1960.
We will also succeed to acquire a healthier, 11. Deyoung, R. The Singer’s Art.
professional voice, both in speaking and in Chicago: DePaul University, 1958,
singing. litography.
Singing is one of the most competitive 12. Dupon-Tersen, Y. Physiologie et
professions. In my point of view, the psychophysiologie de la phonation.
knowledge of the mechanism which In : La Voix, cours International de
produces the voice, the correct body Phonologie et de Phoniatrie. Paris:
posture, the breathing technique, the Librairie Maloine Publishing House,
phonation, the vocalization, and the 1953.
60 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Mădălina RUCSANDA1
1
Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Braşov.
62 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
is also known under this name in Oltenia, agrarian divinity, a counterpart of Diana and
the Banat, Transylvania, Maramuresh, Iuno in The Roman Pantheon and of Hera
Bucovina; it is also known under the and Artemis in the Greek Pantheon; in the
following names: Dârdaică, Împărăteasă popular belief it is considered that Drăgaica
(Empress), Stăpâna Surorilor (Mistress of would walk on ears or float in the air during
the Sisters), Regina Holdelor (Queen of the the summer solstice and would enjoy
Grain Crops), Mireasă (Bride), Sora cea singing and dancing over fields and forests,
Mare (Elder Sister). In the groups of accompanied by her bridal train of virgin
people in which Drăgaica is accompanied deities and beautiful girls.
by a girl dressed like a boy, the custom is It is also considered that Drăgaica is
called Drăgan, Drăgănoi, Mire (Groom), born on the 9th of March, the spring
BăieŃoi (Big Boy). equinox in The Julian Calendar, the day
Nowadays the custom has disappeared, when Mother Dochia died; she
but sporadically it is still performed in the miraculously grows up and becomes
areas of Buzău and Teleorman. mature until 24th June, the day of the
For the first time, this custom was summer solstice in The Gregorian
mentioned by Dimitrie Cantemir in the Calendar, when Sânziana (Our Lady’s
work Descrierea Moldovei (Description of Bedstraw) or Drăgaica, the plant which
Moldavia), where he identified the bears her name, is in bloom. She is also
character Drăgaica with Ceres, the Roman invoked by virgins at marriage age and by
agrarian goddess: ”Drăgaica seems to wives holding their children in arms during
represent the goddess Ceres. Indeed, when the wedding dance.
the grains begin to ripen, all the girls in In Teleorman, the custom is performed
the neighbourhood villages select the most as a show presented at the housekeepers’
beautiful and good-looking one, whom they houses on 24th June by a group of 5-7 girls
call Drăgaica. They crown her with an ear aged between 14 and 19, dressed in white,
wreath, ornamented with many finely with a veil on their faces, on which flowers
embroidered head kerchiefs, with the keys of Our Lady’s Bedstraw are pinned. The
of the granaries suspended on her hands girls hold a scythe in their hands and their
and accompany her with great ceremony meaning is to announce the forthcoming
on the fields. In such ornaments, with the harvest and the symbolic death of the spirit
arms unfolded and the head kerchiefs of wheat. One of them is selected to be
against the wind, as if she were flying, Drăgaica, who is wreathed with wheat
Drăgaica gets back home, singing and ears. In the groups of people in the south of
dancing, while she passes through all the Muntenia, the girl who performs the role of
villages she passed before with the great the divinity is dressed like a bride, in a
train of people and surrounded by all the white dress, wearing an Our Lady’s
other girls who often call her their sister Bedstraw wreath on her head.
and mistress in very nice songs. Moldavian A few weeks before the event, the bride
girls, who live in the countryside, are (Drăgaica) and the groom (Drăgan,
willing to be honoured like this, although Drăgăicoi, BăieŃoi) are selected. In
an eternal tradition states that the girl who Dobrogea, girls use to wear men masks.
performs the role of Drăgaica does not The scythe is an important object, which
marry for the next three years". girls with men masks and other female
The customs, beliefs and the Romanian participants hold in their hands; in
folklore of Drăgaica trace back to a Teleorman there is a banner ornamented
Neolithic goddess, a lunar, equinoctial and with garlic, coloured ribbons and flowers
Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contempotaneity in Dragaica 63
(similar to those used by the căluş fights among the groups of Drăgaice armed
dancers). Once set up, Drăgaica’s train of with sticks, sickles or scythes have not
virgins goes to the village or over the been attested, they are mentioned in the
fields; at stopping places or crossroads, the folk expression with reference to fight,
girls get into a circle singing and scuffle, wrestle, tussle: ”Iată Drăgaica"
performing a lively dance whose (Here is Drăgaica ),”A căpătat Drăgaica"
movements draw up a cross. (They received Drăgaica), ”S-a făcut
An important element of the dance of Drăgaică" (He/She became Drăgaică) -
Drăgaice is the imitation of a scythe fight, (Dolj, Prahova, Râmnicu Sărat, Putna,
which uses to happen especially when two Suceava).
groups of people meet; in old times, this In Transylvania, on 24th June, the girls
custom used to cause much pain, as it was pick up Our Lady’s Bedstraw; they make
a kind of bravery, similar to a duel2. After up bunches and plash circular and cross-
the dance, the girls receive gifts from the shaped wreaths on the musical background
owner of the grain crops for whom the performed by the country lads and their
girls dance and sing and, in some places in extempore songs. These wreaths and
Dobrogea, they are also offered honey. All bunches are brought to the village, where
the people whose grain crops have been they are hung on gates, doors, windows,
passed through by Drăgaice believe that sheds, beehives and even on vegetable
their harvest will be rich and protected beds or thrown over houses and leant
from drought and hail. The group of girls against eaves; people believe that they will
wanders in the village accompanied by a protect their house and household against
child who is holding a banner (on which evil forces, and they will also bring good
ears, garlic, absinth, Our Lady’s Bedstraw luck, health and wealth to people, animals
flowers are pinned), a whistler (who and crops.
accompanies the girls’ song and dance by From a musical point of view, the lyrics
playing the flute, the bagpipe or the of the song are made on an octosyllabic
clarinet) and sometimes by a drums player. catalectic or acatalectic pattern, by the
The ritual song of Drăgaica is followed appearance of the completion vowels (like
by Hora drăgăicii (Drăgaica’s Hora), u, in example no.1 or î, in example no. 2);
which is usually a dance tune, and by other the melody is generally syllabic,
two, three dances, specific to the custom: unornamented, the profile is sinuously
Brâu and Geamparale or Cârligu and descending.
Floricica (in Brânceni village) or BăluŃa The loss of the initial ritual character
and Floricica in Beiu village (always allowed the amplification of the lyrics
present in the ritual dance of the Căluşari) with new, satirical, moralising elements.
or Buceacul (in Poroschia). The aksak rhythm is characteristic to the
Among other ritual acts, Drăgaicele use vocal melody of Drăgaica, which is based
to tear strips of their handkerchiefs or head on the identical repetition of the same
kerchiefs and give them away to the hosts specific formula (see examples no. 1, 3):
while the women who attend the
performance use to give them in return
items of their children’s clothes to be
pinned on the banner. Children are often
hold by Drăgaice in their arms to be
dandled. Although in Moldavia and in The sonorous patterns are varied, from
some counties of Muntenia and Oltenia the hemitonic tetrachord system in which
64 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
the fourth step is situated at an increased of female aerial spirits dressed in white
fourth interval as compared with the and appearing at night to bewitch men
fundamental chord (like in the example (Iele), who according to the folkloric
no. 1). superstition, take revenge on people
scalding them with boiled water. People in
Tetra chord system villages state that Drăgaica (Midsummer’s
Day) is an ”evil” feast; in case they do not
celebrate it, they could have many
misfortunes: for example, the ones who
ignore the feast, continuing to perform
their daily chores, could die by drowning
Anhemitonic pentatonic system type 1 or be struck by lightening.
Old people also believe that the girls
who want to get married soon have to turn
somersaults naked in grass and wash
themselves with dew early in the morning.
Married women can also perform this
ritual to be loved by their husbands all year
The anhemitonic pentatonic chord- long and have healthy and beautiful
system of type 1, with a crenellated profile, children. The dew in the Midsummer’s
is in favour of the perfect fourth intervals Eve has mysterious qualities; in many parts
and the great third (e.g. no. 2) and the of the world it is believed that if you
modes like the Doric-Mixolydian sprinkle with it all over your body it will
heptatonic chord system with increased become attractive and fit, and if you wash
second between the steps III-IV; here, the your face with it, you will become good-
characteristic is the presence of the great looking and haughty.
third, which is ascendant on the On Drăgaica it is believed that medicinal
fundamental and the perfectly ascending plants can be successfully picked up in the
jump of the fourth to step I at the end of forests. Many of the flowers and plants
the melodic stanza (example no. 3). picked on this day to be used as remedies
are brought to church to be consecrated
Chromatic mode 1 and thus purified of the negative influences
of Rusalii/ Iele (Whitsuntide/Female Aerial
Spirits), the evil fairies of the forests. The
laurel leaves and the plants picked before
the first rays of the sun, still covered with
The architectonic pattern is fixed, and dew (then dried and kept in a white silk
binary; the song has two melodic lines, sachet) get magical properties.
which are similar in terms of content; the Sânzienele are also considered by the
second line or both lines are repeated: in young girls a way to find their predestined
example no. 2, the pattern is ABBv, in husband and the time they are supposed to
song no. 3, the pattern is AAvBBv. marry. The men’s cross-shaped wreaths
The custom is also known by the Slav and the girls’ circle-shaped wreaths are
peoples: Polish people, Ukrainian people thrown over their houses. If they get stuck
and Bulgarian people. on the roof, this is a sign of wedding,
In the Romanian mythology, Drăgaica is otherwise the predestined man or woman
a special name given to a certain category still have to be expected. In some villages,
Rucsanda, M.: Tradition and Contempotaneity in Dragaica 65
there is another custom: on their way back After Drăgaica, there are first signs that
home, the girls watch through the wreath, summer turns to winter: days become
and the age and the physical appearance of shorter, and nights become longer, the
the person they can see are signs of the wheat’s root gets dried and grains get
moral qualities of their future husband. ripen, the hen constellation (the Pleiades)
If on Drăgaica’s Eve, the girls put is visible, flowers lose their perfume and
untwined Our Lady’s Bedstraw under their their healing power decreases, cuckoos
pillow, at night they will dream their stop singing, fireflies start roaming in
predestined husband; if the flower is forests, the leaves in the elm tree, poplar
pinned in their hair by virgins or young tree and lime tree turn upside down. The
wives, they will become attractive and cultured country or mountainous feasts to
lovable. celebrate the agrarian goddess have
become opportunities for young people to
meet each other in view of marriage.
1. DRĂGAICA
Muntenia, Teleorman
66 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
3. DRĂGAICA
Poroschia, Teleorman
References
1
Our Lady’s Bedstraw is a yellow-golden
flowered plant, nicely perfumed, which grows
in the lawn, in grasslands, in forest edges and
glades.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
Abstract: Being at the border between the polyphonic and the harmonic
period, J.S. Bach’s creation represents a synthesis of the values of past and
the referential founding of the classic harmony. The exploitation of the field
of his creation reveals the multitude of parametric nuances which the author
combines in each opus, exquisitely offering a valuable simplicity, enriched by
spirit and love. This study proposes a review of the functional presences and
of their continuation in different hypostases, imagined under the form of a
pyramid of harmonies, part of Bach’s spectromorphologic universe.
1
Faculty of Music, Transilvania University of Braşov.
68 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Fig. 7
Fig. 4. WK I, Prelude in G-sharp minor, There are two main different functions
m. 3-4 (A and B) and the coloring function (x)
placed, by substitution, at the beginning of
b. Embroidery-coloring function: A x A the second main accord (B).
Thus, there are involved three functional
units (pylon-ornament-pylon) placed in the
formula of the appoggiatura, AxB, within
two functional cells, a simple or complex
one (A) and a complex one (xB).
Fig. 5
There is one main function (A), and the Fig. 8. WK II, Fugue in B-flat major,
coloring function (x) placed, by thematic answer (fragment, m. 7-8)
substitution, inside the pylon accord (A).
Thus, there are involved two functional d. Anticipation-coloring function: Ab B
units (pylon-ornament-pylon), which, by
the repetition of the former, justifies the
embroidery function (type A x A) within a
single complex functional cell (A x A).
Fig. 9
Fig. 6. WK I, Fugue in A-flat major, There are two main different functions
(the theme, m. 1-2) (A and B), and the coloring function (b)
placed, by substitution, at the end of the
first accord (A), which has an anticipatory
function for the second accord (B).
Thus, there are involved three functional
units (pylon-ornament-pylon) placed in the
70 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
a. The real additional function of sounds the main accord pylon which they can
exterior to the main functional unit (see ignore or to which they can adhere under
example 6). the form of a known melodious formula
b. The ambiguous additional function (ornamental or expressive) as functions of
which is composed of hybrid elements: at the ornamental addition.
least one exterior sound and, respectively, By cumulating these two categories, an
one component of the main functional unit entire vision on the ornamental addition
(see example 4). results, which is mixed on the grouping of
c. The ornamental additional function (the the five types of functional coloring:
ornamental function) which is composed • Passage addition functions –
of sounds exterior to the main accord, ornamental
which have, each, melodious-ornamental • Embroidery addition functions -
and expressive formulas. ornamental
• Appoggiatura addition functions –
ornamental
• Anticipation addition functions –
ornamental
• Delaying addition functions –
ornamental
b. The compound functional cell is made Known as “melodic note”, the melodic
of two functional entities, a main, dissonance does not belong to the
referential one, and an additional one. The composition of the accords [2]. The
typology of the compound functional cells traditional harmony accords them a special
derives from the nomenclature of the treatment. At the opposite side of this
additional cells which enter their vertical harmonic concept is the linear
constituency: concept promoted by Ernst Kurth [1], who
• Ornamental compound functional assigns an absolute priority to the melodic
cells: of passage, of embroidery, vector, considering the harmonic
of anticipation, of appoggiatura, parameter a “secondary phenomenon”.
of delay; The bachian style is positioned at the
• Additional functional cells: of crossing of both orientations (the
passage, of embroidery, of horizontal and the vertical one), as a
anticipation, of appoggiatura, of symbiosis of the harmonic concept and the
delay. melodic/polyphonic one.
c. The complex functional cell is made of a
minimum of three functional units (a main References
one and additional ones) whose linear and
between-level combinations generate a 1. Kurth, E. Grundlagen des linearen
typological pyramid which is much more Kontrapunkts, Bachs melodische
elastic and complex than the previous one. Polyphonie. Bern, 1917.
2. ToduŃă, S. Formele muzicale ale
barocului în operele lui J.S. Bach, vol. I.
Bucureşti: Editura Muzicală, 1969.
3. łuŃuianu, T. Spectromorfii în partituri
palestriniene şi bachiene. Bucureşti:
Editura Vergiliu, 2005.
Petre-Marcel VÂRLAN1
Abstract: In his piano music, the composer Tudor Ciortea used different types
of modes, extracted from the Romanian folk music or from the music of other
cultures. Some of these modes have up to seven intonation elements, a feature
which, according to T. Ciortea, represents the Romanian national musical spirit.
The piano works represent an important The composer Tudor Ciortea resorts to
part of Tudor Ciortea’s compositions; they the modes specific to the Romanian
consist of 42 piano works, grouped into folklore in a great part of his piano work,
suites like Suita pentru pian pe teme as they are a resource to capitalize the folk
populare târnăvene, Suită pentru pian (on inspiration for piano, moreover, in other
folk themes from the Banat collected by S. plays, the composer uses the particular
Drăgoi), Patru cântece maramureşene expression of the modes due to the
pentru pian or into cycles like six piano sonorous charm they give to the musical
sketches De-ale copiilor, Trei piese discourse.
(Elegie, Capriciu, Poveste) or self The hexachords used in the plays are
independent plays like Cântec de joc and both major and minor. In case of this
Cântec (based on input collected by Bela modal formation one can notice the
Bartok in Bihor), Colind (collected by cadences on various sounds as well as the
S. Drăgoi in Banat), Toconelile (children’s mobile steps which appear against a
song in Gorj), Preludiu, Rondoletto, harmonic background. In case of the
Toccatina, RomanŃă or the symphonic play example mentioned in Cântec (collected
VariaŃiuni pentru pian şi orchestră pe o by B. Bartók in Bihor), measure 1-7, the
temă populară. Three sonatas for piano cadence requires two sonorous centers
and a sonatina are added to the plays (G and C) due to the formation of two
mentioned above. chord layers:
1
Dept. of Musical Pedagogy, Transilvania University of Braşov.
74 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
E.g. 1
The composer develops heptachord Aeolian type (with the seventh step
formations [1] of the Dorian type with mobile) from hexachords by the
fixed and mobile steps (E.g. 2 – a: Cântec appearance of a new sound in the harmonic
from Suita pe teme bănăŃene) and of the background (E.g. 2 – b):
E.g. 2
The hexatonic scale is used in the piano tonal layers – the hexatonic modal system
play Elegie (measures 6-14 from Trei piese with the double third (F, F #) / the hexatonic
pentru pian) in a structure of three harmonic- mode in transposition 1/minor chord on E b:
E.g. 3
The hexatonic mode is also used in other teme târnăvene or Rondoletto:
works like Joc (Voiniceşte) in Suita pe
Vârlan, P.M.: The Hexachord- and Heptachord Modal System in T.Ciortea’s Piano…. 75
E.g. 4
In Bocet (Suita pe teme bănăŃene), this (the sound C appears only in measure 8 as
mode appears with a changing note which a changing note):
does not interfere with its structural profile
E.g. 5
The following examples will present the Dorian mode with Aeolian agreement, the
heptachord modes used under varied types, Phrygian mode, the Lydian mode, the
diatonic, with fixed or mobile steps, like the Mixolydian mode, the Mixolydian mode
Ionian mode (a) the Ionian mode with with Doric agreement, the Aeolian mode,
acoustic 1 agreement (b), the Ionian mode the Aeolian mode with acoustic agreements
with acoustic 2 agreement (c), the Ionian 2, the Aeolian mode with Doric agreement,
mode with acoustic 5 agreement (d) and the Aeolian mode with Istrian agreement,
others like the Dorian mode, the Dorian the Locrian mode, acoustic mode 1,
mode with Istrian agreement or the acoustic mode 2:
chromatic mode [2] 1a agreement, the
76 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
E.g. 6
In case d, mentioned above, (Cântec la clacă de tors), the mode consists of two
tetrachord submodes, which in fact coincide with the tetrachords of the heptachord mode
(in E.g. 6: *it is sharp in the score; we consider it B flat because it shows the mobility of
the modal third; **it appears only at the end as a Mixolydian characteristic).
The composer also uses chromatic heptachord modes, out of which some also have
mobile steps, like in the following example – the chromatic 1a (a), structure b (b) and
structure d (c) or the agreements of the structures a and b (e):
E.g. 7
An octachord mode is also found, which noticed in the example no. 2 – and the
is the result of the combination of the harmonic background:
tetratonics of the melodic conduct – to be
E.g. 8
The acoustic modes (E.g. 9) are well agreement – acoustic 1 with Lydian
displayed by the uses with or without agreement, acoustic 1 with Mixolydian
modified steps – acoustic 1 (a) and agreement – some of them with a cadence
acoustic 2, acoustic 1 with Doric on various steps:
agreement (b) and other modes with
Vârlan, P.M.: The Hexachord- and Heptachord Modal System in T.Ciortea’s Piano…. 77
E.g. 9
The acoustic 2 appears in the following chromatic 2a agreement (b) or with Aeolic
cases without agreements (a), with agreement:
E. g. 10
The acoustics 5 and 6 appear in the plays in Suita pe teme bănăŃene and in Piano
Joc (Pe loc and Călniceana) and Colindă Sonata no. 1:
E.g. 11
Mode 2 is also used, with limited and in first transposition – b) [3]:
transposition (in second transposition – a,
E.g. 12
In Piano Sonata no. 1 the composer used with limited transposition in transposition
the second and third transposition, while in 3, with marked inconsistencies which
Piano Sonatas no. 2 and no. 3 he used the appear sporadically and create harmonic
first and the third transposition. This mode layers):
also has mobile steps (E.g. 13 - *mode 2
E.g. 13
78 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
E.g. 14
The plays called Preludiu and Piano resonance of the Byzantine music, but
Sonata no. 1 (part I, measure 84) are plays especially of folklore. The following
in which the composer resorts to the example shows this case by a gravitational
inverted chromatic formula, which is also stratification C/ F [4]:
an aspect of the mobility of steps, a
E.g. 15
Eugen ALBULESCU1
Abstract: This paper is a modern vision of training both technical and physical way
in musician work art .For the musician I think that this vision is the key to achieving a
good technique and to being able to keep performing for long periods of time without
complications. Between musical performing and sport performing it is a strong
connexion because the psychological war with oneself is very similar. The elevation
of adrenaline levels is common to both musicians and sports players. In order to
understand injury in the music word, one needs to study the commonalities and the
differences between the music world and the sports world.
1
Associate Professor, Lehigh University, Bethlehem PA, USA.
82 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
which muscles act. Although one could talk Technique in fact is individual for every
about sophisticated phrases –specific person. The right way is the way in which
motions that shape a musical idea, there are the performer is in touch with their body.
two basic types of motion in piano Every mechanical aspect hinges on our
technique. There is an upward motion and a understanding of how our own physical
downward motion. Every muscle reacts systems work.
either pulling away from the key or pushing The Sports Analogy Now it is time to
toward the key. Contrary to common offer a new perspective on musicians and
perception, piano technique is more physical injury. Instead of looking at ways
concerned with the upward motion of our in which to make music analogous with
muscles. This is the motion through which other repetitive tasks, we should perhaps
we lift our fingers giving amplitude to our look at endeavors that stress our muscles to
downward motion that usually follows. their limit in a similar way. Perhaps such
The downward motion is marked by a an endeavor is the world of sports. There
few elements. First, any amplitude from are many similarities, as well as
the surface of the key makes the downward differences. For starters, just like sports,
motion easier, and less exhaustive music making is often competitive – most
physically. young performers start their careers
This is due to the creation of through competitions. The music world
momentum, and the inertia that occurs often bestows instant fame for young and
when the finger bumps the key. able performers, and the younger and more
Secondly, we are helped by gravity, as able, the better. Hence there is an implicit
well as the elasticity of our fingers on race towards the ability to deliver technical
this downward movement. wizardry, often at the cost of musical
The result is that with a good upward individualism and stylistic relevance. Still,
preparation, the downward movement is many schools push the notion of technique
relatively easy. The injury occurs when for technique’s sake. The race is for better,
pianists do not understand the basic faster, more bombastic, more accurate, and
physics of piano playing. On one hand, usually more “flashy.” In the race to do this,
they are taught to keep fingers close to the often young musicians reach an unrealistic
keyboard. This unfortunately prevents the potential with the added cost of long-term
necessary amplitude from occurring. The injury. The major differences between music
fingers start moving together with the and sports are obvious. Music does fulfill a
piano key, as opposed to already being in more artistic ideal, and competition is
motion when the finger makes downward incidental. Another not so obvious difference
motion do double duty as both moving is that the music world is not as holistic as
themselves from a resting point to full the sports world is when it comes to injury.
speed, as well as doing the same to the We do not have trainers who coach us on our
entire mechanism of the piano key. movements, we do not have designated
The resulting injuries are common, and doctors that stand by at our concerts and
unfortunately the research has been massage our arms or fingers. Our injuries are
insufficient in dealing with this type of often kept from our audiences and often from
injury. Most common, the injury becomes other musicians.
something of a stigma on the performer. However there are many reasons why the
Their technique is deemed inadequate when two fields – music and sports should be
there are injuries prevalent. This leads many researched collectively when it comes to
musicians to hide their injuries, so as not to physical injury. First, the nature of injuries
prejudice presenters from hiring them, and a pianist experiences would be very similar
even potential students from studying with to the types of injury a tennis player
them. This is unfortunate, because it assumes would. We do a similar level of repetitive
that there is a right way for all technique. tasks in our training and in our
Albulescu, E.: The Suffering Musician a Position Paper on Music –Related … 83
flexing of the joints ranging from the public, an artist needs to take a serious and
smallest at the tip of the fingers, and long-term approach to physical injury. This
moving back to the wrist, the elbow, the approach needs to be exploratory, well
shoulder, as well as every vertebrae on our guided by an expert in sports injuries, and
spinal column. Sounds on the piano can be monitored dynamically. At least some of the
created from flexing any one of these joints. monitoring has to take place in the context
Working in synergy, these joints create an of a live performance, as only then do some
effortless technique. Muscles need to be of the conditions leading to injury occur.
trained at every level for this to happen. Musicians need to be fully conversant in the
Certain toning and conditioning is key for injury advances and diagnoses in the sports
the prolonged tension that these muscles fields. They also need to think of this as an
need to exert in he space of a concert. ongoing holistic approach, rather than a
Without the proper toning, adrenalin stops crisis mode prompted by a condition that
being exhilarating, and rather becomes a makes their continuation of “business as
poison. Even in the sports world, usual” impossible. Medical research and
professional players often have to deal with even rudimentary analysis of musicians by
the fact that in practicing a tennis serve for “trainers” will be unfortunately be hampered
instance, one does not experience the by commercial unfeasibility. Sports injury is
adrenalin present in front of an audience in a true industry because of the economics of
Wimbledon. Once muscles contract professional sports. Music will never attain
differently in that new “live” condition, the critical mass when it will be
often the element of precision changes commercially advantageous to study those
dramatically, and the possibility for other injuries to be on par with sports. However
adverse effects like cramping, trembling, one may hope that researchers into sports
etc., also becomes imminent. Further injury may also learn more about sports
research is needed to form the basis for a injuries by studying what happens to
cohesive understanding of the crosscurrents musicians, given the different types of
and benefits of treating musical injuries as a stressors that are incumbent on musicians, as
sport injury. described above.
2. Conclusions References
This research needs to emanate from the 1. Billings, Andrew C. Olympic Media.
medical profession, and needs to take in Inside the Biggest Show on Television,
consideration the adrenal gland’s effect on Published by Routledge, UK, 2008.
muscle contracting and how this triggers 2. Fuller, Linda. Sports casters/Sports
such conditions as tendonitis. My casting. Principles and Practices.
conclusion from the perspective of a Published by Routledge, UK, 2008.
performing pianist is based on the 3. Sport, Media, Culture Global and
empirical experience from my own Local Dimensions. Edited by Alina
performing career, of and from teaching Bernstein, Neil Blain, UK, 2002.
students up to university level. What is 4. Sport in the City. Cultural
needed from the performers is a serious Connections. Edited by Michael Sam,
attitude towards injuries. Our proneness to John E. Hughson. Published by
injury, minor and serious, should be a Routledge, UK, Publication Date:
given, not the exception reserved for those 30/03/2010.
with “poor technique”. In order to fully 5. Sporting Sounds Relationships
appreciate one’s own physical aptitude, between Sport and Music. Editors:
and to relate it to a betterment of the ability Anthony Bateman; John Bale
to deliver a musical composition to the Publisher, Routledge, UK, 2008.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
S. CIOROIU 1 E. MOLDOVAN2
1
Dept. of Theory and Individual Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
2
Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
86 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
that 600 000 (something less than 1/3) of diet and physical activity" [14]. The
these occur in the European Region, in the platform offers possibilities to:
53 countries that belong to this region • submit plans to improve nutrition and
[7, p. 53-57]. increase the number of those who do
Among the projects initiated by the exercise;
European Union, some are mentioned in • analyze the effectiveness of these plans
the following: and programs, to have a better record of
The European Network on Nutrition and examples of good practice [14].
Physical Activity - NPA is a network
established by the European Commission in 2. Benefits of Exercise
2003, which included experts nominated by
EU Member States and WHO [23]. The – developing the heart muscle;
first meeting of its members took place – improving blood circulation through
on 30.06 - 01.07.2003, [20] and on 15 blood vessels;
September 2003 was issued material on – normalizing the blood pressure - high
the NPA "mandate", which noted that pressure tends to decrease, while the
"the network was initiated to provide a lower one tends to increase;
forum for discussion and exchange of – strengthening the bones in order to
views on the contribution of nutrition and sustain body weight;
physical activity to improve and maintain – improvement of the immune defense
health" [22]. system by increasing the number of
The role of NPA is to advise the circulating red blood cells, lymphocytes
European Commission on nutrition and and neutrophils; by stimulating the
physical activity problems, providing production of beta-endorphin at brain
material for the annual work plans of the level the anti-tumoral activity of NK
CAP FPH (2003 to 2008) (Community cells (natural killer) increases; one
Action Program in the Field of Public picogram (the billionth part of a gram) of
Health) and will be maintained throughout beta-endorphin increases the activity of
the action of this program. At the first NK cells against tumors by 42%;
meeting of the NPA Network, – lung development by stimulating deep
representatives of several EU countries breathing;
presented studies that focused on our – reduction of negative emotional
country and were meant to bring about a experience, improving the self-image by
positive and constructive attitude of those reducing anger and frustration;
responsible [3]. – improved digestion and stimulated
The EU Platform for Action - Diet, intestinal activities, reducing the
Physical Activity and Health was launched production of gas and constipation;
on 15 March 2005 and is also an initiative – -developing muscle, bone and connective
that sought to accelerate and improve the tissue;
effectiveness of CAP FPH actions (2003 to – improving the beauty of the body;
2008).The launching initiative belongs to – increasing the systolic flow;
the European Commission, its purpose – slowing down the aging process;
being "to provide a common forum for all – ensuring a good quality sleep
stakeholders at European level interested [8], [13-14], [16], [25].
in preventing and tackling obesity through
Cioroiu, S. et al.: The Impact of Physical Activity on Health … 87
The concern of authorities, and the human body is endowed with 650 muscles,
various professional organizations’ worries which give it the ability to move. If not
for tendencies manifested in health in used, these muscles begin to lose their
general, and the various indicators of shape and function and, if remaining
health in particular are based on a huge inactive for a long time they can become
amount of information that results in useless [25].
significant figures. Swimming is one of the special sports,
Further studies and epidemiological data since it doesn’t show the typical
collected within them are those which restrictions of most sports. Swimming is
draw attention to a continuing increase in addressed to all age categories, can be
the proportion of sedentariness, an practiced regardless of physical condition
alarming decrease in the percentage of does not require special equipment or
those who manage to accumulate a "team-mates" and can also be practiced by
sufficient amount (for the benefit of pregnant women without any risk [19].
favorable effects) of motion, of physical Some people can practice swimming
activity, per week. Thus, statistics show alternating high intensity exercises with
that 17% of the world’s adult population is low intensity ones, while others can only
totally inactive physically, and a rate of see it as a means of relaxation [27].
41% of it are adults who do a slight form Swimming has been known since
of activity - insufficient for them to benefit prehistoric times, the earliest swimming
from its effects [7, p. 53-57]. Of the records, according to Stone Age
multitude of existing data and statistics paintings, are about 7000 years old.
about what happens to the European Written references date back to 2000 BC.
population and, especially, the population Some of the earliest references include
of children and young people, a study from the Gilgamesh, the Iliad, the Odyssey, the
England is mentioned, done in 1989 on Bible, Beowulf and other epopees. In
over 10 000 children aged between 9 and 1538, Nikolaus Wynmann, of German
15 years: the average number of hours of origin, wrote the first book on swimming,
exercise - regardless of sex - was 4.7 hours a dialogue on the art to swim (Der
/ week, also including physical activity at Schwimmer oder ein Zwiegespräch über
school. As always, boys, compared to girls, die Schwimmkunst) [16].
accumulated a greater number of hours of In the next section of the work we
physical activity [13]. present the strengths of this sport and
Design and implementation in schools of why it should be practiced by many of us.
programs characterized by a genuine
openness to educational content, 3. The Influence of Swimming on the
promoting the practice of various Locomotory System
systematic exercise would contribute to the
success of the school and the family The greatest advantage of swimming is
regarding a harmonious physical that muscles and joints work without
development of young people [9, p.42-43]. having to bear any weight. Thus, over two
There are many types of exercise. The thirds of the entire muscle mass grows
most beneficial to health are those from without joints having to suffer. Ligaments
which the body benefits the most. The
88 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
5. Guyton, A.C. Fiziologie. Bucureşti: 15. Diet, Physical Activity and Health -
Editura Medicală Amalteea, 1999. EU Platform for Action. Available at:
6. Jivan, I.; Cirla, L. NataŃie – culegere http://scholar.google.ro/scholar?
de texte de specializare vol. I. 16. ExerciŃiul fizic - moda sau necesitate?.
Bucureşti: Centrul de multiplicare In: Perspective, nr.5, 2005. Available at:
A.N.E.F.S., 1992. http://www.perspectivechicago.com/ar
7. Martin, B.W.; Kahlmeier, S.; ticle.php?id=64
Racioppi, F. et al. Evidence-based 17. The Health Benefits From Swimming .
physical activity – HEPA Europe, The Available at:
European Network for the Promotion http://www.24hrfitness.co.uk/fitness/th
of Health-Enhancing Physical e-benefits-of-swimming.html
Activity. In: J Public Health 14, 18. Health Education Authority. Health
2006. update 5. Physical Activity. London:
8. Mita, B.; Miclescu, L. Dezvoltarea 1995.
spiritului competiŃiei sau dezvoltarea in 20. History of swimming. Available at:
spiritul competiŃiei (eseu). In: Stiinta http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_o
Sportului, nr.1, 2003. Available at: f_swimming
http://www.sportscience.ro/html/revist 21. International Physical Activity
e_2003_37-7.html Questionnaire (IPAQ) . Available at:
9. Moldovan, E. ActivităŃi de timp liber http://www.ipaq.ki.se/ipaq.htm
în natură şi în alte arii cognitiv- 22. Inotul - calea spre sănătate.
formative. Braşov: Editura Available at:
UniversităŃii Transilvania din Braşov, http://www.medicas.ro/fitness-
2007. welness/inotul/
10. Monciu, I. Fiziologia EducaŃiei fizice 23. Nutrition and Physical Activity (NPA)
şi sportului. Bucureşti: Editura network first meeting. Luxembourg, 30
Didactică şi Pedagogică, 1997. June – 1 July 2003. Available at:
11. Mureşan, E. Înot – Sinteză. Bucureşti: http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_determin
Editura FundaŃiei România de Mâine, ans/life_style/nutrition/ev_20030630_e
2000. n.htm
12. Todea, S. ExerciŃiul fizic în educaŃia 24. Nutrition and Physical Activity (NPA)
fizică şi kinetoterapie. Bucureşti: network. Mandate. Luxembourg 15
Editura FundaŃiei România de Mâine, September 2003. Available at:
2003. http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_determin
13. Benefits of Swimming - Health ants/life_style/nutrition/documents/ev_
Benefits. Available at: 20030630_rd02_en.pdf
http://www.benefitsofswimming.com/ 25. Nutrition and Physical Activity (NPA)
14. Children, obesity and associated Network members. Available at:
avoidable chronic diseases. http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_determin
Available at: ants/life_style/nutrition/documents/ev_
http://ec.europa.eu/health/ph_projects/ 20030630_rd01_en.pdf
2003/action3/action3_2003_04_en.htm
92 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
26. Rolul exerciŃiilor fizice în menŃinerea 27. Swimming - health benefits. Available at:
stării de sănătate. Available at: http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv
http://www.armonianaturii.ro/Rolul- 2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Swimming?Open
exercitiilor-fizice-in-mentinerea-starii- 28. U.S. Department of Health and Human
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http://www.uihealthcare.com/topics/ex Pittsburgh: National Center for
ercisefitness/exer3116.html Chronic Diseases Prevention and
Health Promotion, 1996.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
TECHNICAL TRAINING –
A FUNDAMENTAL COMPONENT
OF SPORTS TRAINING IN THE
BASKETBALL GAME
Mihaela CHICOMBAN1
Abstract: The technique of a sports branch includes all the motor actions
ideally executed from the point of view of their efficiency. The technique
implies the rational and economic execution of a type of movements specific
to sport branches. It includes a specialized system of motor structures
established according to the regulations of the basketball game in order to
obtain the optimum efficiency in competition.
1. Introduction
1
Dep. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
94 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
during the execution of the exercise Learning the moves in sport [3, p. 207] is
(procedure), the final efforts or the special because performance is
emphasis of different moments of the materialized in the quality level of the
action execution. Consequently, the execution itself. If objects are used (for the
fundamental mechanism of a technical sports games), these are intermediate tools
procedure needs to be understood as a to achieve and assess force, speed or
system of strongly connected (spatial, resistance features of such moves. In sport
temporal, dynamic and energetic) factors we learn how to conduct our own body
determining an increase in efficiency. movements in unusual conditions -
The fundamental mechanism of the jumping, unbalance – coordination that
technical procedure is featured by: requires a complex system of abilities.
Spatial – temporal aspects The requirements of the competition
− distance regulations related to the display of the
− amplitude motor and effort capacities, also determine
− position the particularities of learning a technique
− direction in sport (the duration of the attack in
− duration basketball is of 24 sec).
− rhythm Learning a sport technique consists of
Dynamic – energetic aspects three types that determine as many types of
technical abilities.
− of force
1. The perceptive motor (or sensor-
− of speed
motor) learning resides in changing the
− of coordination conduct depending on the actual conditions
− of precision emerging during training or competitions.
− of balance The athlete reacts by a preferred answer
− of internal and external force that may be perfected from the
that result in the efficient performance of coordination, precision or finesse point of
the muscles. view (e.g. launching the ball on the counter
attack). This type of technical ability is
3. Learning the Technical Procedures executed by the spatial-temporal
organization of the directly perceived
The laws and the steps of learning the “external events”. The perceptive images
motor acts and actions substantiate program and adjust the motor actions,
learning the technical procedures, with correcting them (when appropriate) by
certain specific, differential notes, several interventions until obtaining a
determined by the particularities of each synchronization between the anticipated
sport. image and the efficient action [3, p. 135].
“Sports skills” are formed by long-term 2. The motor learning results in the
practice, with and without self-control, and abilities on the grounds of the sensor,
they are influenced by tiredness, by the kinesthetic or proprioceptive components,
variety of the performance conditions etc. in which the end of a move is the sign for
Thus, it results that the skills are not initiating the next move. The abilities
exclusively motor, they are formed by the attain the final level of the fluency,
participation of the second signaling precision, coordination and tempo by
system, turning into complex abilities. stereotype repeats.
96 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
repeats, physical tiredness installs. Too 1. Collaboration between the coach and
much information, considering the already scholars of other fields (biomechanics,
existing tiredness, causes the normal aerodynamics, ballistics, electronics).
reaction of the body shown by lack of 2. High technicality rates of the sports
coordination and precision, faulty materials and equipments. For example, in
fundamental mechanism of the move etc. basketball, the balls, the boards with rings,
Reducing the quantity of information and and last but not least the footwear, play an
optimum time pauses between repeats may important part. The materials they are
prevent tiredness (both mental and manufactured from overthrow many of the
physical). Thus it is important to carefully precepts of past technique and help to
analyze the indications, specifying only attain high performance.
those related to the moments of executing 3. The innovative search of athletes and
the technical procedure. coaches is the effect of the existence of
2. Accentuated physical tiredness, shown more competitions, both internal and
by the decrease of the effort capacities, of international, and aims at finding and
the general coordination reduces the promoting novelty to surprise the
control capacity. Therefore, the athlete opponents and to ensure sport success.
must be permanently monitored and when Higher technical executions appear in
tiredness symptoms appear, repeats must each important competition (European and
be ceased. World championships, Olympic Games) in
3. Incomplete information (verbal and sports games.
intuitive) that does not create a clear Due to the fact that all that is presently
representation of the ability or action to be promoted at an international level – as far as
learned. techniques are concerned, may be relatively
4. A subject’s lack of motivation easy to accomplish (assimilate), the scholars
consequently entails insufficient attention, in the field are concerned with renewing
low will etc. them. Yet, the future belongs to technicians
5. The incongruity between the and athletes able to create new models,
aspiration level and the athlete’s capacities superior to the presently known ones. The
at a certain time requires the development personal mark of the athlete in executing a
of the factors conditioning learning and the technical procedure is highly important in
improvement of the technical abilities establishing new technical procedures and
(force, speed, resistance indicators etc.). needs to be maximally valorized as they
6. Using inappropriate materials and favor the creation of particularly efficient
equipment from the quality point of view, motor structures to gain success.
which may determine incorrect learning of There is no doubt that sports techniques
the procedures. are continuously evolving, constantly
improving from one step to another,
6. The Evolutional Character of Sports changing in a spectacular manner. Because
Technique of this, scholars are permanently concerned
with studying all the technique
The technique of various sports branches (continuous) improvement possibilities,
overdeveloped in the last 15-20 years due thus orienting athletes’ training both to the
to the following causes: inheritance from the past as well as to the
perspective of the future requirements of
sports development.
100 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
1
Department of Collective Sports and Theoretical Subjects, Transilvania University of Braşov.
2
Department of Individual Sports and Theoretical Subjects, Transilvania University of Braşov.
102 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
in the basketball game by means of compiled into a menu with the auto run
multimedia, to see what happens to the program freeware "AutorunMaker. The
variable effect (dependent variable), CD starts automatically when inserted in
represented by the development of the drive. The next step is to display the
coordinative ability, achieved at the end of top page, which is stationary for 15
the research. If changes occur at the seconds. One can continue pressing the
accumulation level of quality, power, first button or click on the image anywhere
"skill", and the psycho-motor level, then or wait 15 seconds. (Figure 1)
the variable can assume that we have
handled it a product changes. We can
therefore say that we have established a
cause-effect relationship between the two
variables. This was the logic by which we
designed the experiment.
Thus, at the beginning of the
experimental period we tested all the 20
players. This was the initial testing and
found in 3 control tests made to see the
skill level and degree of mastery in
dribbling. At the end of the experimental Fig. 1
period we performed the same series of
tests, following which we found an Next is Menu appearance (Figure 2).
improvement in the results of the This menu allows browsing through the
experiment group compared to the witness. CD. On the first page are some general
The details of the computer application data (Area 1) and the navigation menu
were carried out by a former student in the (Zone 2).
final year of the Faculty of Physical
Education and Sport - Bogdan Cojocaru. The
application on the CD "Learn to dribble" is a
form of multimedia presentation of the 100
exercises proposed for learning / improving
dribble. This multimedia CD was used in the
experiment group for this exercise. It is in a
video format and is included in a PC. Photos
and graphics, sounds, video sequences are
made entirely with free software available on
the Internet. Fig. 2
Videos were recorded using a Canon
camera and then were processed in
"Windows Movie Maker" (available on To view the contents of the CD press on
any computer running Windows XP). the left on "Exercises". Clicking this
Images, buttons and all the graphics used button, the image that is joined will appear
were edited using the free "GIMP". The (Figure 3).
sound track of the film was made with the
help of VST Plug-in "DrumAndBase"
imported in the software Magix Music
Maker. All components have been
104 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The difference in seconds between the initial and final testing on two groups, Table 1-2
(TI-TF) TI-TF
Experiment group Witness group
seconds (seconds)
PO 1,9 BA 1,2
RN 1,9 AM 1,4
SO 2 MA 1,2
TO 1,8 CS 1,4
VM 2,2 IM 1,5
SM 2 CM 1,3
HE 2,1 IC 1,2
JK 1,9 UI 1
ZI 1,9 CO 1,4
BV 2,2 AS 1,3
Average 1,99 Average 1,29
Standard deviation 0,14 Standard deviation 0,14
Coefficient of Coefficient of
6,89% 11,23%
variance variance
Enoiu, R. et al.: Dribble Improvements in the Basketball Game through Multimedia Means 105
As can be seen from the table, the From this experiment it results that the
arithmetic mean of the differences group had an overall performance
recorded between the initial and the final approximately 35% better than the control
testing on the experiment group is 1.99, group for the first test of control.
while on the control group it is only 1.29.
9,3
9,0 8,9 8,9 9,1
8,5
8,0 8,1 8,2
7,7
7,5 7,5
7,0 7,1
6,8
6,5 6,4
6,0 6,0 6,0
5,8
5,5
5,2 5,1
5,0
4,6 4,7
4,5
4,3
4,0
3,5 3,6
3,0
2,5
2,0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Player
Chart 1
From the tables above and from Chart 1 The kids involved in the experiment are
it follows that the players in the more aware of the importance of
experiment group had an improvement in improving coordination skills, pay greater
average time by 8.16%, while the control attention to the dribble and have greater
group of players had only 5.18%. willingness to work independently.
Analyzing the first tests we could come Besides driving ability, moral-volitional
with a partial conclusion: the application qualities have also been developed:
experiment has succeeded in improving the courage, perseverance, willingness,
performance of the experimental group by ambition.
approximately 35% compared to the The various situations in which athletes
control group, and thus the effectiveness find themselves during the game, allowing
was demonstrated. the development of creativity and
initiative, because you need an increased
5. Conclusions rate of application and stages that follow
up rapidly, require a fast analysis. At the
Based on the results obtained after using same time, the education of thinking skills
the PC in the control samples and their was improved, as well as a sense of
statistical interpretation, we reached the orientation in space, and mobilization of
following conclusions: physical resources.
Indicators for coordinative ability and The multimedia application on CD has
the skill of driving have shown a real proven effective and can be used
progress, based on the results of final tests. successfully in junior training. Statistical
106 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
D. FEŞTEU1 L. BALINT2
1
Faculty of Enterprise & Innovation, Buckinghamshire Chilterns University College.
2
Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Braşov.
108 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The problem is that people still need to 2. Improving Social Skills through
learn what taking initiative means, as Physical Education
there is a widespread lack of knowledge
and practice. Young people are often Education in general is expected to
incapable of initiating an activity, and encourage social skills, teach moral values,
many ignore the possibility of being form character, shape personality and
involved in an activity that can improve improve knowledge. The educational
things around them. Often, people are not factors in society work in a corroborative
aware of their own physical and manner; family, school, peers, television,
psychological resources and are not youth organizations, church and others,
confident in their strengths. Not few all influence young people’s social
people lack the drive to understand what development. In my opinion, school should
the field forces are in their domain and play a leading role in enhancing young
how forces act upon them. Many young peoples’ social capabilities, as school
people dream of reaching success without represents for young people their local
assuming responsibilities or working society. The mini-society which is school
hard. Many young people do not know constitutes a somehow safe environment in
what taking reasonable risks means. Too which pupils can learn and test a wide
few young people experience success as a range of social behaviors related to power
result of taking initiative. In the new relationships, roles, peer pressure, social
informational society, more and more rules, co-operation, conflict solving,
individuals are expected to manifest decision making, leadership and so on.
initiative and entrepreneurial attitude. Physical education is one of the subject
Initiative, responsibility and reliability are areas within school that could substantially
crucial qualities in the global economy we contribute towards pupils’ personal and
have just entered. In spite of the fact that social development, as activity in the gym
many subjects, modules and courses is inherently social and qualitatively
taught in schools or universities different from what occurs in the
emphasize the need to encourage and classroom. Because movement is the
develop qualities such as team-work, co- focus, many classroom formalities are
operation, leadership, decision making, suspended. Within specified limits,
initiative, responsibility and others, little behavior that is unacceptable elsewhere is
has been done and the results are far from here permitted, or even encouraged. For
being satisfactory. There seems to be no example, touching and other forms of body
subject matter in the school curriculum contact, loud and often chaotic
aiming at systematically teaching the vocalization and spontaneous encounters
concept and working to create the specific with others are all an integral part of many
associated skills. physical education activities.
There are, though, many outdoor A vast literature mirrors the increasing
activities providers throughout the world interest in and concern for using physical
who do use specific activities to enhance education as a setting for enhancing the
initiative, but their impact is limited as the socialization of young people. The trend to
number of participants is still limited [7]. ground educational interventions in
Festeu, D. et al.: Improving Pupils' Initiative-Taking Capabilities through Physical ... 109
pupils to think about the meanings and certain activities. This could be done
discuss initiative. The goal of this stage is during the activity, by highlighting
to bring the concept to their attention and significant behaviors, or post-activity,
specify its meaning. The ability to talk when the teacher could ask pupils recall
about initiative and its meaning denotes a certain behaviors and discover their
good level of concept learning. (a set of significance in relation to initiative-taking.
phrases such as “I’ll do that”, “I will take Some questions will direct their thoughts:
care of it”, “We have to improve this”, Have they been sensible and concerned
“This needs to be done”, etc.). about the team’s problems? Have they
tried to understand the team’s problems?
2. Discrimination learning of initiative- Have they tried to solve the problems? Did
taking is the next step and should mostly they do something to improve activity
focus on improving the perceptual without being asked? Do they know what
functions of consciousness and attention. their strengths are? Do they have
These functions should be developed to confidence in their strengths? Did they
enable the pupil to become more sensitive dare to start an activity? Did anyone
and responsive to initiative-taking. This become involved in the team’s problems
means helping pupils distinguish initiative- more than in his/her assignments?
taking behaviors from inertial behaviors. c) Encourage pupils to take initiatives
The teachers’ activity could include: within the group. Games, but individual
a) Encourage pupils observe group events as well, are good opportunities in
activities and focus perception toward which pupils could be demanded to
actions, gestures and words that have a volunteer to accomplish different tasks,
certain significance for initiative-taking. could be encouraged to take over roles
Observing how some pupils try to such as team leader, advice provider,
understand problems around them, how conflict solver, activity initiator and others.
some propose things to be done, how some At the beginning of a series of lessons the
assume tasks within a group, how some teachers may announce that in addition to
come up with suggestions to improve technical skills and performance, initiative
activity, how some assume certain risks to taking will be evaluated. To encourage
carry on tasks, how some dare to do pupils to take initiatives over normal
something others do not, how some expectations, teachers should reward those
volunteer to do something without being who take initiatives. The reward could
asked, all these could enhance the range from blinking an eye to tapping the
perception of responsible related pupil’s shoulder, praising him/her in front
behaviors. of the group and offering him/her decision
b) Direct pupils’ thoughts reveal the power during a certain activity.
meaning of other pupils' actions and d) Analyze pupils’ activity and express
discuss them in relation to initiative. The feelings regarding the way in which those
significance of behaviors during physical who took initiatives have accomplished
education lessons could remain their tasks. Focusing pupils’ attention and
undiscovered by pupils. In order to assist thoughts on relevant behaviors during a
pupils make sense of their behavior, variety of physical activities enhances their
teachers could reveal the meaning of capability of attention in discriminating
Festeu, D. et al.: Improving Pupils' Initiative-Taking Capabilities through Physical ... 111
stimuli. Other people’s behavior is a and others. The debate should be grounded
complex stimulus difficult to perceive and on examples from the groups’ own activity
hard to attach correct significance to. By and refer to real situations and real people.
analyzing how pupils are aware of their c) Encouraging pupils to clarify their
strengths, how they try to solve problems, views and define their position regarding
how they dare to start an activity, how they initiative-taking. This could be done by
assume risks during games or play, how demanding pupils to recall their own
they suggest new answers to problems, actions and the actions of peers that
how they seek to successfully accomplish illustrate desirable and undesirable
their tasks, by analyzing all this, pupils behaviors connected with specific aspects
could not only better understand what of initiative-taking.
taking initiative means but they could d) Organizing activities such as games,
become more capable of distinguishing contests, relay races, outdoor pursuits, in
relevant behaviors. By increasing their which pupils are assessed against their
sensitivity to initiative-taking behaviors, involvement in the group's problems,
pupils could end by better understanding willingness to take over tasks and
what taking initiative means and by taking assignments, capability of organizing the
initiative more often themselves. group, desire to achieve success, interest in
performing, drive to take the lead in the
3. Principle learning is the integration of activity, and other elements that define
competent knowledge, values and conduct. initiative-taking behaviors. Peer
The aim of principle learning is to help assessment is important to be done under
pupils create harmony and reciprocity the teacher’s supervision, as pupils could
between what they know, what they value learn how to formulate opinions in a
and how they act. Principle learning should constructive manner.
be an exercise in value clarification and c) Asking pupils to formulate a set of
validation in the process of personal principles that they want to follow.
development. The teachers’ activity could Teachers could not talk to each
consist in: individual pupil and pay attention to every
a) Asking pupils to answer questions significant behavior, but frequently
such as: Is it good to acknowledge your bringing the above-mentioned issues to the
strengths? Is it good to use your strengths? pupils’ attention and initiating debate is
Is it good to start an activity? Is it very likely to produce significant effects
important to assume tasks within the on pupils.
group? Is it good to try to understand what
is going on around you? Is it good to create 4. Problem solving could be the next step
something new? Is it good to risk solving a in teaching pupils to take initiatives. It
problem in a new way? In this way pupils does not mean the achievement of correct
could be determined to understand and solutions to conventional problems, but
define their values related to initiative- rather the development of behaviors which
taking. are useful in a world that presents
b) Encouraging debate on topics such as problems demanding creative as well as
endeavor, risk-taking, starting something conventional solutions. In generic terms,
new, assuming difficult tasks, willingness the teacher’s helping role involves
112 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Dragoş IONESCU-BONDOC 1
of developing muscular force, of the so- in the sprinters has constituted one of the
called “muscular support for the assembly most important factors in achieving
pelvis-trunk“, will constitute a constant performance. In settling an optimal program,
element of the specific work in sprint. there have to be taken into consideration
certain factors: the athlete’s chronological
The dynamic equilibrium of the body in age, his/her general physical development,
motion and continuity (enlacement) of the years of practicing athletics, the level of
the action training, the period of training.
During the support phase, the central It was noted that, over the last years, many
axis of the body carries out a rotation trainers have used the same ideas and
movement around the support leg. This theories. After 1977, a new system was used
rotation movement has to be at the same in which exercises with dumb bells were
time extremely quick forwards and stopped made, followed by multiple jumps which
at the end of the support for the ended with short sprints. This system was
maintenance of the general equilibrium of used by the Italian trainer Carlo Viitori, and
the body during the flight (aerial) stage it is deemed to be erroneous. However,
which will follow. practice has proved the contrary, the results
The free segments (in the first place, the not lingering, especially after it was adopted
free, osculating leg and in the second place in the USA.
the arms) ensure a great part of this double The reason for this style of work is
function. In the framework of the simple: so that the sportsman should
development of muscular force there has to manifest an explosion, he/she has to work at
be taken into consideration the muscular maximal frequency during a long period of
strain which ensured the sequence of return time, also avoiding accidents. The
forwards and of impending the free leg. explanation for this system is the following:
The amplitude, the frequency of the when the training with dumb bells is
running step and the “cycle of the step” stand executed, the contractions are concentric,
for the technical indicators most frequently therefore the muscle is rarely extended or
used in order to assess the effectiveness of elongated. For this purpose it was resorted to
this step. The present study aims at an experimental study upon the sprinters’
specifying the modifications of the cinematic behaviour through the method of repeating
parameters of the running step in connection some series of quick grazing step, on
with the optimization of the frequency and/or different distances.
of the amplitude during the running phase “at The research was developed from
full speed“ for the sprinters, and hence January 15th to April 15th 2007 at L.P.S.
deduce the new requirements that should be Brasov.
met by the muscular chains which ensure the All the eight subjects at the beginning of
phase of support of the running. Eventually, the research were tested in the five events,
we will infer from this analysis a series of plus the one we proposed (50 m running
organizational principles for the with quick grazing step):
development of the speed runner’s specific • 30 m running downward start
muscular force. • 30 m running launched start
• 100 m running downward start
2. Explosive Force Training in Sprinters • long jump without running start
• triple jump without running start
During the last 20 years, especially after • 50 m running with quick grazing step
the PG years, the training of explosive force (proposed event)
Ionescu-Bondoc, D.: From Biomechanical Analysis to the Development of … 117
INITIAL TESTING
FINAL TESTING
30 m 30 m 100 m Long jump triple 50 m running steps
NAME SUB. a.S.j a. S. l a.S.j no running No running Nr steps no running
G.S. 4,27 3,08 11,61 2,46 8,39 20 8,5
S.Z. 4,2 3,25 11,92 2,35 8,36 21 8,8
B.A. 4,28 3,21 11,63 2,41 8,39 21 8,7
T.P. 4,1 3,05 11,31 2,61 8,45 19 8,4
H.I. 4,27 3,27 12,05 2,39 8,2 21 8,8
P.A. 4,25 3,18 11,5 2,49 8,39 20 8,4
C.R. 4,2 3,07 11,45 2,5 8,4 20 8,7
GHE.S. 4,1 3,05 11,3 2,64 8,45 20 8,5
As we noted from the final testing, the - working intensity upon effort stages as
program submitted for the rationalization well as the speed for going through the
and standardization of the working values different distances of training; the
achieved the tasks proposed by: distances and the number of repetitions
- the working volume during the 4 months during the training used for the
used for the development of the force, of development of one of the motric
the resistance, of the motric qualities qualities mentioned.
prevailing in the event.
Graphical representation of the results obtained during the initial testing and the final
testing in the event of 50 meters running quick grazing step
22
20
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
NUMBER OF SUBJECTS
118 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
EP
NU
OF
ST
15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
NUMBER OF SUBJECTS
Comparative table of the results obtained following the application of the operative
model and the results presented in the Fischer Table, for a number of eight subjects.
Alina MARTOMA1
Abstract. Within this group are framed the substances which are found in
vegetal and animal organisms, but do not represent components of human
alimentation, not being edible. They are found in great quantities, especially
in the vegetal regnum.
1
Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Braşov.
120 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
E. MOLDOVAN1 S. CIOROIU2
Abstract: This paper is meant to offer more information about the beneficial effects
of kinesthetic therapy and orthopedics in the treatment of scoliosis, a treatment
which should be followed by swimming in a constant and systematic manner. In the
case of those who suffer of scoliosis, swimming should be practiced for several years
in order to have a good effect. In swimming, the patient shall practice various arts of
swimming, namely: backstroke, bras and butterfly. This is an excellent active way of
self-control and rebalancing of the backbone and of the pelvis, and sustains the
harmonious development of the chest.
1
Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
2
Dept. of Theory and Individual Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
128 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The achievement of such objectives was plane, all through the academic year and
possible by implementing special programs during the physical education classes of the
to prevent and remedy the deviations of the children with potential physical
lumbar column in the anterior-posterior deficiencies.
No. Full Length of the Weight Vital Thorax perimeter/ Value indexes of the
name lower limb cm kg capacity Inhalation / scoliosis deviation (cm)
exhalation cm
BIOMECHANICS IN SPORT
Florentina NECHITA1
1
Transilvania University of Braşov.
136 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
using a stopwatch, measuring gadgets, said that running on flat technique may
filming flat and three-dimensional, computer influence the crossing of fences in the race.
simulation – the “moving” device. Besides getting the horizontal speed,
So, after their registration, the individual another important role is played by the
analysis of each cinematic and muscular tension of the muscular chain
biomechanical parameter is done. triple extension in the lower limbs, both
imprinting a flight path as quick as
2. Biomechanical Analysis of the Step possible. The general trajectory of the
over the Fence in the Event of a 110 athlete’s center of gravity when he is over
Meter Fence Race the fence is traced from soil to soil contact.
This way its length and height depend on
Running over fences is a complete and the speed of the mass center and the
independent motric activity, which is impulse angle.
repeated cyclically and which constitutes The speed the athlete gets from the start
the projection of the body through triple moment reduces when jumping over the
muscle extensions, starting with the fence occurs, because there is a small loss
contraction of muscles in the lower limb of speed when touching the ground (the
under impulse, and ending with its contact sole braking foot at ground level), and to
with the ground beyond the fence. these losses there are added some other
The important characteristic in the event losses, the results of CGG oscillations of
of fence crossing is the rapidity and the body. But fence race horizontal speed,
scraping during jumping over fences. The maintained as close to the maximum as
trajectory of the athlete’s body during possible, allows the athlete a more efficient
flight over the fence is a parabola. The crossing of the fence and a more favorable
smooth trajectory of the parabola depends depreciation to resume the acceleration, in
on the lower limb angle of detachment terms of kinetic energy gained.
during the impulsion phase and on the If at the moment of jumping the
horizontal velocity of the body during the trajectory of the body is high, this entails a
flight. It should be noted that the shape and decrease in high speed gained from
size are standard, a fact which allows us to running on flat, or if the athlete is running,
determine more precisely the parameters this time a slight jump over a fence
involved in the act. involves a sudden upsurge of CGG and
The fence race technical scheme includes vertical default, including the loss of
the following: horizontal velocity and the corresponding
- Start and acceleration from the start; adaptation of the renewal of the
- Crossing fences; acceleration after the fence only through
- Running between fences; additional effort.
- The run from the last fence to the finish This should be avoided, and therefore
line. one should focus on the development of
The start in the race is made from down, biomechanical models, which contribute
which gives athletes the opportunity to more efficiently to the technique of
speed up in the first 13.72m. to the first stepping over the fence.
fence and to cross it; at this moment, The most effective passage over the
besides the force that the foot imprints fence requires a waiver of the body’s CGG
upon the soil there is also the horizontal and the trajectory of other components
speed, an inertial speed which is imprinted involved in the action to perform on a
on the body during the flat run. It can be smooth curve.
Nechita, F.: Biomechanics in Sport 137
2.1. The Impulsive Phase before the a balance through the basin that offers
Fence swing movements.
The optimal flexural angle in which the
At this time, the athlete’s body detaches triple extension attains the best
from the ground due to muscle performance is given by the flexible thigh
contractions, the triple extension of the which can be increased to 145 degrees up
lower limbs; to obtain a minimal path from to contact with the thorax, but this angle
CGG over the fence, the explosive force of varies from sport to sport depending on the
these muscles must be used through the segment’s size, weight, muscular mass and
coordination of partial impulses, so that the length etc. This angle is very important
contraction of the muscle groups that because the determination of a fence
perform lower limb extension and jumping technique depends on it.
planetary flexion should occur at the same
time. If the contraction does not 2.2. The Fence Crossing Moment
synchronize the path segments will be held
on the vertical force due to the braking At this time the jumping foot executes a
force, and will spend for recovery the combined movement represented by
kinetic energy obtained from the ground flexing the knee and regulated thigh
impulse. abduction followed by its flexural basin to
This way, the CGG trajectory is achieved avoid reaching the fence and make the foot
due to the force of muscle contraction in cross the fence. Within this movement
the lower limb, followed by the there occurs the triple flexion chain of
acceleration force of the leading leg and abductors and side rotaries of the thigh.
the swing of the upper limbs. This force of Besides the work of the feet, the upper
contraction makes a horizontal projection limbs coordinate movements with the legs,
of the CGG, a projection that has to be having the role to ensure equilibrium in the
grazing over fences and quick because of phase of flight over the fence.
the composition of the horizontal velocity In this action, the intensity of muscular
of flat running forces that occur at the activity is reduced, but has a well defined
impulse moment. role at the moment of landing and in the
During the ground impulse, the inferior preparation for acceleration.
limb executes an attack motion on the
thigh flexing muscles of the basin, with the 2.3. The contact Phase of the Foot with
role of lifting the inferior limb. If this the Ground after Jumping the Fence
waiver must have an optimal angle, the
attack leg can be found in the first phase of This is the phase of landing and return to
flex knee joint which then extends through acceleration, in which the contact of the
a rigorous shank motion forward, a athlete’s body with the running track is
movement which is achieved by femoral made through libratory foot (foot
quadriceps. remedies). This phase is intended to
After separation from the ground, the cushion the contact with the ground, to
thigh motion is done in the coxo-femoral reduce the flight speed and to resume
joint as a result of the positioning of the acceleration.
motor muscles and thigh muscles. The At this time the braking force is the
thigh muscles are designed to maintain the body’s force because it turns the motor in
vertical position of the torso and to provide an elastic spring; this involves the
138 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
elasticity and strength of joints, tissues and training content, achieving and even
the running track. outrunning the objectives of training and
The lower limbs are slightly flexed on performance.
the thigh, when the speed reduction is So, through practical contribution,
achieved by antagonistic muscle groups specialists can access instruments with
(the triple extension), which transforms the objective value of correctness in sports
foot into a spring and then produces the technique and increased opportunities to
impulse that gives the start to those three compare the determined athletes to their
steps between the fences. model of biomechanical fence run.
The specific biomechanism of jumping
over the fence implies the muscular groups References
and muscular chains representing a
dynamic effort. 1. Burcă, I. Identificarea biomecanică a
probelor de alergare şi trecere peste
3. Conclusions Garduri. Braşov: Publishing House of
„Transilvania” University of Braşov,
Considering biomechanical parameters 2008.
in monitoring the fence crossing technique, 2. Donskoi, D. Biomecanica. Moscova:
the following must be taken into account: Fizkultura and Sport Publishing
- Given the high level of performance House, 1971.
events at senior international level and the 3. Iliescu, A. Biomecanica exerciŃiilor
poor one at home, it is necessary at least on fizice. Bucureşti: Publishing House of
the juniors’ level to move to the the National Council for Physical
establishment of biomechanical models, Education and Sport, 1968.
ensuring the achievement of such 4. Iorga, S.; Bărbuceanu, M.
performance. Biomecanica Sportivă. Piteşti:
- Depending on the biomechanical models, Publishing House of the University of
competition results will evidence that Piteşti, 2003.
during a relatively short experiment we
will be able to work on modeling effective
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE
OPTIMIZATION OF
STRENGTH CONVERSION TRAINING
IN JUNIOR SPRINT EVENTS
C. SCURT1 G. ZANFIRESCU2
Table 1
Oct. Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. Jul Aug. Sep.
Training I Competition I T Training II Competition II T
AA FMx Conv. Maint. AA FMx Conv. Maint. Compensation
to P to P
Table 4
Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat
1 5-6 series x 2 min Pliometry 9x8 Power: lying leg Speed Pliometry: penta Cross-country
ATM recovery fences lift (4x15) 2x (30, 60, 80, jump 6x
pull-ups (4x3) 120m) boxes10x3
jumps P=10min
(70cm→max)
2 Special exerc. for Indoors dorsals: Recovery: swim Rehears. Pliometry: fences Competition –
technique 5x20 20kg: back: 200m (9x8) assessment 100m
6-8 x 3 x 200 5x20 300m (achieved 12.80)
90% p=7-10’ abdomen: 5x12,
15 kg
3 A1: long light A1:rehears A1: light run A2: Pliometry:boxes Walking Competition
A2:10x30m slope A2:indoors or technical 10x3 (worm-up) (without obj.)
P=3-5min slopes
4 Rehearsals 2x120 Pliometry: 10x6 Starts Break or light run Warm-up for School N.Ch.
p=2min fences (40cm) competition (achieved 200
boxes10x3 m- 25.70)
5 Spec. tech exerc Isotonic 3x200m p= 1min 50m light run+ Pliometry. Fartlek
6-8 x; starts 6x dynamic: 20 85-90% 50m accel run Penta jump 4x 60-70% pool
80% grass p.s.r. 90-98% depth jump
2x250 m90% Slope run 3-5x 2x400m 60cm
p=7-10’ or 50m 90% p= p=10min 6-8x 10 p=5min
1x500m + 7min vol. can be
1x150m p=5- modif. dep. on
7min subject condition
6 Training. model Pliometry: 10x6 2x120m 85-90% Tonus. abd., Specific.compet 400mp
400m: fences(40cm) p=15min back pull-up warm-up 3-4 200mp -
5x80m 82-90% boxes 10x3□ □ٱFc=110-120/min acc.run : 6- bend starts (Sunday)
p=80m mL (40-60 cm) 8x80m
determine the athlete’s capabilities the 150 m and 100 m times. The differences
trainer can impose an evaluation test in occur depending on the technique used,
order to redirect the training towards manual or electronic timing (0.27”-0.50”)
performance improvement. but also on the start technique used. The
The evaluation test was achieved by results of the initial test were recorded
recording the times for 50, 100,150, 200 during the training while the final test
m. The time difference between the 200 results were recorded for the standard
run and the 150 m run should not exceed events during competitions.
by more than 0.25s the difference between
Table 5
EVENT 100m 200m 400m 30m 50m 80m 150m 300m 350m
INITIAL TEST 12.8 26.3 60.0 4,8 6.9 10.2 20.2 42.1 51.0
20 - 25 April
FINAL TEST 12.5 25.8 58.1 4,6 6.6 9.8 19.7 40.6 49.2
14 May
COMPETITION 12.37 25.57 56.65
WITH STAKE
TEST INIłIAL
TEST FNAL
CONCURS CU MIZĂ
Recommendations References
C. SCURT1 M. ZANFIRESCU2
Table 2
We provided initial and final tests and surprising results. We selected a numbers
the progress obtained was recorded. of 4 representative test events for a study
At the end of the initiation and period extending over one competition
promotion period, a number of 6 subjects year in order to monitor the children’s
showed real aptitudes for prospective evolution in time and obtain a practical
performance. confirmation of the theory in this field.
One of them clearly distinguished The evolution of metrical skills was
himself, as he was a national level monitored over a period of 9 months
performer. The physical stress level (with without programming any break. Five
little exceptions) was almost the same training sessions per week of 1,5-2 hours
during each training session. each were carried out. Although not all
The effect of adaptation to physical volume and especially intensity parameters
stress materialized in the children’s health could be observed, the obtained stress level
condition and performance. The was 75-80 % of its maximum.
multilateral and poly-athletic training were The first test included the four events
priorities over the entire year. during the first week of October. The final
We found out that work with children at test was accomplished in the last week of
this level enables interesting studies with June, study year 2007-2008.
148 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The test included following events: Oina ball toss with 3-5 take-off steps:
– Speed running 50 m flat, standing start; – 2 trials (explosive arms strength);
– 2 trials (traveling velocity); – 600 m running (endurance);
– Standing long jump: 2 trials (legs – Anthropometric data:
explosive strength); • Height (cm)
• Body weight (kg)
Extreme
Average Performance R.p.
Event Test ±S C.V.% W %>M %<M
(sec;m) %
L(s) L(i)
T.I. 8,7 0,3 3,9 8,0 9,2 1,2 50 50
50 m
T.F. 8,0 0,3 3,4 7,6 8,5 0,9 56,3 43,7 8,04
T.I. 153 24 16,6 129 216 87 62,5 37,5
600 m
T.F. 132 10,2 7,7 118 158 41 68,7 31,3 13,7
St.long. T.I. 158 12,6 8,2 185 145 40 31,2 68,8
jump T.F. 174 11,3 6,5 200 160 40 50 50 8,3
Oina T.I. 16 3 18,7 25 12 13 43,7 56,3
ball toss T.F. 20 6,2 31 30 13 17 50 50 20
T.I. 142,3 - - - - - - -
Height
T.F. 144,7 - - - - - - - 1,7
T.I. 32,3 - - - - - - -
Weight
T.F. 33 - - - - - - - 3
• For speed running, initial testing Initial testing has shown that
has shown an average deviation of individual values deviate from the
0.3%. 11 of the 16 cases evolved central value by 24 seconds, only 2 cases
with normal distribution, only 5 are exceptions. Homogeneity is average.
cases were exceptions. Final testing yielded a deviation of 10.2
• After final testing, the average seconds from the central value. 13 cases
deviation is equally 0.3% but only have normal distribution, 3 cases are
12 cases lay within the admissible exceptions.
limits. Homogeneity is good. The The progress rate is 13.7%. The
progress rate is 8.04%. The percentage of subjects above average has
number of results better than or increased by 6.2%.
equal with average increase by
6.3%.
Scurt, C. et al.: Study of Dynamics of Certain Motrical Capacity … 149
There is a positive correlation although The annual training cycle extending over
negligible, between endurance and speed 11 months, around 280 days will become a
(r=0.15), the affirmation accuracy of the constant in our training plans already
affirmation is 30%, low, random providing motivation by enabling 13-14
correlation. year old children to participate in junior
There is a positive correlation between N.C. finals according to FRA standards.
endurance and strength (r=0.52), accuracy During the winter training period, the
of affirmation is 95%, good correlation. application courses should be included in
Somatic indicators improved by 2% for the trainer’s planning’s as their dynamicity
waist and 3% for weight. and attractiveness compensate for the low
The muscle mass has grown a little level of effort characteristic to indoor
compared with skeleton length. The activity period.
working programme had no negative The action means should be properly
effects on the age’s specific nutrition tried and dosed in order to ensure
indicators. polyvalent training levels capable to
The comparison was made using the simplify orientation to an envisaged event.
indicators provided by the Institute for Working with patterns must be adapted
School Hygiene in 1992. to the level of each training group
(initiation, beginners, advanced) since it is
helpful in systematic monitoring of the
Conclusions
training level and the way it is tolerated by
The study has ascertained that not all child athletes.
psycho-motrical qualities have the same
150 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov ▪ Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
CONSIDERATIONS ON SPECIFIC
RESISTANCE IN A SOCCER GAME
Gabriel SIMION1
Soccer - generally considered the most work done in the state of repressing
popular sport in the world - may owe its fatigue” [1, p. 332];
appeal to simplicity as well as the skill and - “The ability to work for a relatively
cunning required in the fast-paced intrigue long duration and with a relatively high
of the game. Played at a professional level intensity, maintaining constant indices of
all over the world as well as by serious optimal effectiveness” [4, p.47];
amateur teams, or for pure entertainment, - “The ability to make efforts for a long
soccer is a regular pastime for over 240 time without reducing efficiency”
million people in over 200 countries [13, p.169];
worldwide. The Soccer World Cup, held - “Resistance refers to the time required
every four years, pits the top teams in the for an individual to run with certain
world against each other and draws intensity” [3, p.92];
enormous audiences for both the stadium - The ability to perform high intensity
games and television. work longer;
In literature resistance is defined by - Maintaining working capacity during
multiple formulations, all expressing the long-term efforts by defeating the
same kind of issue: phenomenon of fatigue, and a high tempo
- “The ability to cope with fatigue caused of restoring the body after tiring it;
by physical effort, without a decline over - The ability to do any activity for a long
the actions of those potential movements time without reducing its effectiveness;
of work necessary to achieve the - The psychophysical ability of the
objectives” [14, p.206]; performer’s body to cope with fatigue by
- “The ability to perform mechanical specific activity.
work of certain intensity for a long time From these definitions come off a few
without lowering the efficiency of the key elements which characterize the
driving quality, namely:
1
Dept. of Physical Education and Sport, Transilvania University of Braşov.
152 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
- The capacity of the central nervous speed, strength as force, resistance in the
system to coordinate the activity of the regime of detention, etc.;
locomotive and vegetative functions; - Depending on the nature of the effort:
- Aerobic capacity, aerobic potential constant resistance and variable resistance
which enables the production of energy in in the effort;
the presence of oxygen and anaerobic - Depending on the duration of the effort:
capacity; long-term strength (with effort over 8
- The adaptation to effort of the minutes), average resistance time (effort
cardiovascular and respiratory systems and 2-6 minutes) and short-lasting resistance.
of all body functions; (effort between 45 seconds and 2 minutes);
- The energy and oxidative metabolism - Depending on the energy sources and
of the muscle, notably the fact that in the effort: resistance of the aerobic load
muscle cells there can be distinguished times are from 3-5 minutes to several
three sources of energy to ensure muscle hours, of anaerobic resistance in the load
contractions: alactacid anaerobic energy, duration of 7-60 seconds, and mixed
lactacid anaerobic energy, and aerobic resistance-types with variable durations
energy; and intensity.
- Strength of will in sport – which is an Aerobic resistance develops during the
important component in training speed, transition period and the initial phase of
demanding the athletes in particular when training using uniform and stable
they have to make an effort in conditions conditions with a moderate intensity from
of fatigue, or when the level of fatigue the average. As a consequence, the cardio-
increases as a result of prolonged activity; respiratory system of athletes improves
athletes command nervous centres to progressively. Along with the adaptation to
continue or even intensify the effort; training, the work load should increase, in
- Book speed of athletes. particular the volume of training. There
Moreover, development of resistance is must be a transition from aerobic
achieved only through efforts that lead to resistance specified by the pace of activity
the appearance of fatigue and attempts to and specific rhythmic exercises.
overcome fatigue and continue the effort As a general line, the following are
after it. significant in training to develop aerobic
Oancea V. says: “Resistance depends on resistance:
many factors, including speed, muscle - Intensity of training below 70% of the
strength, technical skills in the maximum speed; the intensity can be
implementation of effective actions, the measured by performance time on a certain
ability to use one’s potential economically, distance, the speed in meters per second or
physiological and psychological conditions heart rate (training stimuli that do not
at the time of that effort.” increase heart rate more than 130 beatings
Regarding the forms of manifestation of per minute do not develop significant
resistance, the author believes that a aerobic capacity);
systematic classification is appropriate: - The duration of a stimulus in isolation
- Depending on the participation share of (a repetition) should differ from 60-90
muscle groups: general strength, specific seconds to 3-10 minutes;
strength (specific) and local resistance; - Calculate the rest breaks so that the
- Depending on how they are combined next stimulus can produce favourable
with other driving qualities: resistance as changes in the period from the previous
work (45-90 sec.) Aerobic resistance for
154 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
the rest should not exceed 3-4 minutes 2-5 min. develop requirements in aerobic
(usually work may start when the heart rate sports teams.
decreases to 120 BPM); Resistance specific games can be
- Normally work during a rest break is developed using the method of
reduced in intensity to stimulate biological determination, where training will be
restoration. calculated so as to correspond to specific
Anaerobic resistance is an important physical or psychological characteristics,
physiological advantage. Most of the and tactical game, respectively.
development of anaerobic resistance is The development of resistance has a
cyclical and of high intensity. series of specific variants:
The preparation for anaerobic resistance - “The distance: distance less than the
presumes the following: sample equal to the sample distance with
- The intensity of the situation may be tactical tasks, longer than the distance of
limited to the maximum sub-maximal, the sample;
even if the training intensity is varied; for - The speed intensity of playing: faster
the development of resistance the than the speed of the game, as fast as the
anaerobic intensities of 90-95% should speed of the game, slightly less, or less
predominate; than the intensity of the game”.
- The duration of work must fall between Football is one of the most complex
5 and 120 seconds, depending on the sports games, seeking quality driven,
intensity used by athletes; mental and technical merit, but especially a
- The break after a rest-activity must be perfect mix of their own.
sufficiently long to compensate for the Modern competitive football claims
oxygen debt, which can be 2-10 minutes; it overall resistance (as basic physical
is recommended to divide the total number fitness). Even if we refer to the simple
of repetitions in some repetitious series of parameters of the game, 90 minutes of
4-6 each, with the most between long- effort over 10-12 km, with many jumps,
range in order to oxidize lactic acid; processes, etc., resistance comes in clear
- Up to halftime the activity must be evidence. Although the general feature of
active, easy and relaxing; the game is determined by movements in
- The number of repetitions must fall executions and speed, one should not
below the lower average. forget that a pronounced degree of fatigue
In sports games in particular, the prevents the recovery potential. After 60-
development of resistance is a complex 70 minutes of a game, even the faster or
task because sports games are more technical players cannot cope with
combinations of aerobic and anaerobic competition requirements unless they have
components. To support the three energy good physical training.
systems used in sports games, exercises are The characteristic energy of the effort is
proposed for specific intensified energy classified by most authors into anaerobic
systems such as: types. Following complex measurements
- High intensity exercise with a duration made during the game on different
of 5-15 sec. alactacid system calls; positions in different games, these data
- High intensity exercises, with a have been reconsidered, increasing the
duration of 20-90 sec. lactacid calling share of aerobic processes. They even
system; reached proportions of 40%, which is
- Years of continuous average intensity / explainable by the multitude of game
high duration equal to or longer than
Simion, G.: Consideration on Specific Resistance in a Soccer Game 155
When lessons are organized, the training 2. Apolzan, D. Fotbal – 2010. Bucureşti:
model must take into account several factors F.R.F. Publishing House, 1998.
such as volume of work, speed, rest intervals, 3. Bompa, T.O. Teoria şi metodologia
the number of repetitions, individual antrenamentului. Bucureşti: Ex. Ponto
peculiarities and characteristics of the game Publishing House, 2002.
of soccer. This method is shown in pre- 4. Cârstea, Gh. Teoria şi metodica
competition and competition periods. educaŃiei fizice si sportului. Bucureşti:
When taking into account the technical, Editura Universul, 1993.
tactical and physical game, a complex 5. Cernăianu, C. Fotbal. Manualul
training model can be organized that may antrenorului profesionist. Bucureşti:
require capacity building and driving the Roteck Pro Publishing House, 2000.
necessary physiological football game. 6. Cojocaru, V. Fotbal de 6 la 18 ani.
In the game of football are recommended Metodica pregătirii. Bucureşti:
the following distances and intensities of A.N.E.F.S. Publishing House, 2002.
the activities performed: 7. Colibaba, E.D.; Bota, I. Jocuri sportive.
Sprint 30 m to 100%; Teorie şi metodică. Bucureşti: Aldin
Running steps to 30-50 m high at 70%; Publishing House, 1998.
Heat resistance of 50-400 m low 8. Dragnea, A. Măsurarea şi evaluarea în
intensity; educaŃie fizică şi sport. Bucureşti.
Acceleration – deceleration to Sport Turism Publishing House,
10-20 m, 80-100%; 1984.
Starts-stops on the 5-15 m, 9. Dragnea, A. Antrenamentul sportiv.
70-100%; Bucureşti: Didactic and Pedagogic
Variations of the direction changes at Publishing House, 1996.
50-100 m. 5-20%; 10. Nicu, A. Antrenamentul sportiv modern.
5-10 jump over simple obstacles Bucureşti: Editis Publishing House,
25-40 cm high. 1993.
In modern practice, the preparation of 11. Oancea, V. Fotbal. Curs de
sports requires a huge volume of daily, specializare. Braşov: Transilvania
monthly, yearly training, requiring full University Publishing House, 1996.
body resistance. Phenomena that occur in 12. Oancea, V. Fotbal. ConsideraŃii
the body during exercise or subsequent asupra factorului fizic. Braşov: Omnia
resistance effects are profound, easy to S.A.S.T. Publishing House, 2002.
dose, measurable techniques using both 13. PrescorniŃă, A. Antrenamentul sportiv:
simple and complex investigation. o viziune integrativă. Braşov: Editura
UniversităŃii „Transilvania”” din
References Braşov, 2006.
14. Şiclovan, I. Teoria antrenamentului
1. Alexe, N. Antrenamentul sportiv sportiv. Bucureşti: Editura I.E.F.S.,
modern. Bucureşti: Editura Editis, 1993. 1985.
Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009
Series VIII: Art • Sport
MORPHO-FUNCTIONAL AND
PSYCHIATRIC ASPECTS OF
CHILDREN AT THE AGE OF
10-14 YEARS
Dragoş TOHĂNEAN1
Middle school age, between 10 and 14, is the expression of the quantitative
one of the most important steps of phenomena regarding the body’s growth in
development in which start the size and its segments. Development
transformations that will ultimately lead to gathers the qualitative processes of the
the organism’s maturation. During this evolution and consists of the functional
period we may find a combination of differentiation of the tissues, the functional
certain characteristics that are part of the perfection of the apparatus and the systems
junior high process along with others that, within the organism [7].
in one way or another, prefigure those Growth dominates – first of all the
characteristics of teenagers. The morpho- superior and inferior limbs grow and
functional changes that take place during afterwards the thorax and the pelvis. All in
the preadolescence period are essential, all, the average growth in height is
displaying themselves through the intensity between 3-4 cm and 6-7 annually. At the
of growth, especially physical growth, age of 11-12 the girls overgrow the boys a
which is characterized by a superior bit, being taller, but between 13 and 14
rhythm in comparison with other periods years old this difference fades away. The
of ontogenetic development. The entire growth in height is accompanied by a gain
process of development can take different in weight, and the process of calcification
shapes, but regardless of these, it does not is intense. Thus, the facial part of the brain
take place proportionally and is not is developed, the process of calcification in
produced instantaneously at all the body’s the bones of the hands is finalized and the
segmental levels. Growth can be defined as growth of the permanent denture occurs.
1
Transilvania University of Braşov.
158 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The adjustment of the growth process is at the age before puberty the muscular
being influenced by the extra hypothalamic fibers are relatively larger than those of
existence of certain somatostatine adults and the tendon portions are shorter.
secretions (STH) at the hypothalamic level, At the beginning of the period they are still
and the receptors of the adrenergic thin, have a big nucleus and are relatively
hormones stimulate the STH secretion, rich in karyoplasms and water. Among
whereas the noradrenergic hormones them one can find a great amount of
inhibit this stimulation; the free fat acids, conjunctive tissue. The muscular tonus is
with the help of the ventral median lower for children at the age before
nucleus, have a positive action on the STH; puberty in comparison with the adult’s,
the priogenical substances have a positive which favors a better execution of the joint
action with the help of the thermo- movements, but aggravates the execution
adjusting hypothalamic nucleus. The laws of certain smooth movements segregated
of normal growth and development, stated by precision [7].
by [5, p. 300], are as follows: the unequal The neuromuscular excitability is lower
and asymmetrical growth law of tissues at junior high children in comparison with
and organs; the different rhythm law of adults, the cronaximetric values being
growth and development; the proportion higher. The speed in reaction and
law; the alternance law; the opposite sex execution is very good, but the strength is
law of growth and development. Growth is still weak, due to the reduced muscular
generally uniform [1, p. 536] becoming mass. At the age of 10 the girls manage to
really accelerated at the end of the period; achieve over 87% of the speed they will
it mainly occurs in the elongation of the develop at the end of their physical and
inferior limbs, which generates a severe functional (17 years old) growth and
fragility of the child’s body. Up to the age development, whereas the boys 75% of the
of 10, the differences in growth of children speed they will develop at the end of the
of opposite sex are not big; starting with growth period.
this age, the girls proceed to growth The heart reacts strongly to effort, but
acceleration due to puberty. Between 9-11, uneconomically; the coronary irrigation is
for girls, and 11-12, for boys, this period rich, the control mechanisms are still weak
represents an active proliferation, which till the age of 7, are poorly developed and
leads to the incubation of the apophasis, of more proper as far as easy solicitations are
the sesamoidal bones as well as the concerned. The heart has a globule shape,
finalization of the medullar cavity, a stage the transversal diameter is longer than the
that continues along with puberty. longitudinal diameter and the atriums are
If at the age of 8 years old the muscular bigger than the ventricles. The heart’s
mass represents approximately 27.2% of transversal diameter is proportionally
the entire body mass, at the age of 15 it longer than that of the adult’s. The growth
increases to 32.6%. Along with the of the longitudinal diameter occurs at a
development of the muscular mass the slow pace, until puberty. At the age of 7
force increases also, having a boost the circumference of the right ventricle is 2
between 13 and 14 years old. For children cm bigger than that of the left ventricle.
Tohănean, D.: Morpho-functional and Psychiatric Aspects of Children at the Age of 10-14 159
At the age of 8 the weight of the heart is of the organism, both in rest and in relative
of 96.0 g. For children before the age of intense efforts.
puberty the vascular net is relatively well Thus, the amplitude of the respiratory
developed. The fast development of the movements increases on average from 230
elastic type arteries simplifies the ml of air current volume at the age of 11,
myocardium’s task. At the age of 9 the up to 300 ml air at the age of 13, and up to
cardiac frequency at rest is an average 350 ml air at the age of 15. Nevertheless, a
90-96/minute and 88-91/minute at the age decrease in the respiratory frequency is
of 10; 87-88/minute at the age of 11 and recorded from 22 breathings/minute at the
80/minute at the age of 13. This age of 11, to 20 breathings/minute at the
tachycardia present in the first years of age of 13, and to18 breathings/minute at
school represents a significant burden for the age of 15. The vital capacity (VC)
the myocardium, given the energetic and marks a great leap in the puberty period.
relatively important consumption of At the age of 11, the child’s VC is
maintaining a high cardiac rhythm of rest somewhere between 2000-2200 ml air. In
and the weak economical (metabolic) the first stage of puberty (10-13 years old)
efficiency of sustaining this. When it the annual increase of the vital capacity is
comes to effort the situation is far more up to 250 ml air for girls and up to 300 ml
precarious since the volume of the heart is air for boys. In the second stage of puberty,
smaller, any excess of blood irrigation to the vital capacity develops quickly, the
the respective muscles claiming a annual increase of this parameter reaching
considerable boost of the cardiac values of 400-500 ml air at the age of 14-
frequency, which has a negative impact on 15, thus, at the end of the stage reaching an
the functional efficiency of the average of 3500 ml air [4, p. 43-54].
myocardium, which poorly handles intense In accordance with the characteristics of
solicitations for a long period of time. the morphological development, a
The respiratory apparatus undergoes a decreased capacity of functional resistance
very important development as well, and a decreased adaptation to the cardio-
acquiring new functional capacities, being vascular and respiratory apparatus is
capable of ensuring a better oxygen supply observed as far as intense physical effort is
concerned.
160 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Brasov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
The great organic and somatic During this period, there are obvious
transformations, common at this age, are changes not only in the way the child
accompanied by proper transformations in memorizes, but also in what he memorizes.
the mental life as well. He often tries to put his memory to work
At the age of 10, the age that marks the calling upon different cultural fields
end of junior high and the beginning of the (music, film, sport), the memory capacity
middle stage, the relief of the brain cortex to this extent being really high. Storing the
is being finalized, the intellectual logic is gradually achieved after 12 years.
capacities are approaching a very high This form of storage schemes operate with
level and the entire superior nervous logic. Evocation of memory, which is still
activity is developing quickly. required, develops at ages 12-14. Motor-
Psychologically speaking, the child shows verbal memory develops in puberty, in
a good mental balance, dealing addition to visual memory (situation) and
successfully with school tasks and verbal memory, continuing to be
extracurricular activities. Intellectually particularly active.
speaking, he is still shaped by the concrete, The sensory-perceptual evolution
assimilating knowledge without browses a significant route for mental
manifesting a critical spirit. development and adaptation activities.
At this age, all mental processes undergo Given the process of biological
an ascendant development, notable maturation, sensitivity is also restructured
modifications being achieved. Thus, the by erotic functions. The phenomenon is
voluntary attention is being developed, and most obvious in visual, auditory and tactile
the involuntary attention is being modified, sensitivity. Perceptual experience is under
becoming more efficient. The the influence of development orders, and
preadolescent can concentrate and can be observations constitute associations
attentive longer (approximately 2 hours), leading him to express what he feels. He
often making efforts of correction and self learns to observe, be attentive to
education as far as attention is concerned. everything that surrounds him, to show
Moreover, the memory has an important interest in knowledge and thereby
growth rhythm after the age of 10. stimulate complex functions intellect.
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT IN
PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND
SPORTS INSTITUTIONS
1
Ioan TURCU
More than 20 years ago, under the name profoundness of actions or cultural
of informational society, the real flow of experience. The intelligence based on
goods and services started to be replaced knowledge and professional competence
by the flow of information with the help of which is analyzed through the assimilation
virtual economy. Nowadays this economy of new abilities and knowledge indicates a
appears under the name of “society of personal life of high quality, able to
knowledge”, having the continuous contribute to the development of the
improvement of the human part as the national and local community” [5].
main factor in the progress of humanity. The whole world is changing in order to
As presented in the UNESCO report achieve high performances. Change is
”Higher Education in a Learning Society”, certainly the axis for the whole mankind of
we can say that ”the societies formed at the 21st century. We notice that the
present and in the near future become more phenomenon of change, even if it is often
and more societies of knowledge and controversial, is becoming more important
learning. Production, transmission and every day. The organizations that will
application of knowledge in any domain of succeed on this “journey” of transformation
activity are means of raising productivity. are the organizations of the future – which
At the same time, if there is no continuous will of course derive from classical
learning, the personal adaptability or the organizations having the ability to challenge
individual way of living becomes of poor the future and to hold up against it. Change is
quality in content and performance, and a permanent “journey” of the whole modern
the quality of life decreases in terms of organization, while the manager is the guide
economic standards, of diversity and – the key factor in the attempt to change.
1
Dept. of Theory and Collective Sports, Transilvania University of Braşov.
164 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
Therefore, the managers of the future must knowledge comes with a series of mutations
own a series of qualities, knowledge, skills, at the level of society: mass production is de-
and behaviors common to the employees and massified; the mass market is segmented
specific of the management. We offered a down to “atoms”; the relative homogeneous
general presentation about them and society becomes heterogeneous; the social-
underlined the great importance they play political and economic life that once was
from the point of view of the performances centralized becomes decentralized; the
achieved by the organization and its problems of life which appear minor are
management. becoming global; the social-economic life,
The major programs for change must relatively stable and stationary, is
initially be guided by the head manager, who accelerating. Under these circumstances we
will also use the power of change in order to are stressing the important role of
implement the programs. This power of knowledge as the main resource for modern
change could offer the new technologies or organization and a fundamental resource
conditions for legislative changes, for the creation of value. The revolution of
privatization, free trade etc. Many times a cognizance leads to the expansion of
combination of these factors calls for a knowledge frontiers and decisively marks the
fundamental reorganization of the activity evolution of all components of the global
field. All these changes raise questions about system. The acquiring, the ownership and the
strategy, while the answers to these questions capitalization of knowledge are becoming
impose much more than the redesigning of the keys to a modern society.
the organization processes; it is necessary to The fortune and the power of the future
reinvent the organization itself. society will be based mainly on intangible
The change into a post-capitalistic society intellectual resources and on the knowledge
widens the spectrum of scientific approaches capital. The acquiring of fortune won’t be
in the field of value and its capacity to rise on possible without the rational combination of
the whole front of scientific research and the the production factors, where the
passing to a society based on knowledge. As “knowledge” factor will play the leading
a result, the change – the element of role, being capable of substituting the others
transition to a society based on knowledge – without completely replacing them. The
is the name of the game that involves acquired fortune will modify its structure in
everyone in the 21st century. It is not favor of the created super-symbolic goods.
surprising that in some cases the progress is Traditional resources are exhaustible, finite
slowing down. The change starts with the in time, while knowledge is unlimited and
ones that hold the power of decision and the inexhaustible at all levels, and continuously
initiative – the managers in general – it grows if used.
stimulates the executants and it never ends, The society based on knowledge is an
no matter how good the global economy is. essential element of the “outer environment”
The civilization that has just arrived – of organization management, and it carries
based on knowledge – brings a new genuine specific opportunities and threats, while
way of life based on: diversified resources knowledge resources are considered the key
that are interchangeable and easy to replace; constituent of the “inner environment” of
production methods that replace the outdated organization management. The managerial
present fabrication systems; training systems strengths and/or weaknesses end with a
based on the capacities and virtues of the success or failure of the managerial task of
individual versus the ones based on the the organization which operates in the
group. The new civilization based on context of the emerging of three global
Turcu, I.: Performance Management in the Institutions of Physical Education and … 165
processes: the globalization of the economy, the activity of physical education and
the managerial revolution and the society sports.
based on knowledge [4, p. 118]. In this society of knowledge and learning
The doctoral thesis entitled Performance we observe that the world’s leading
Management in Institutions of Physical orientation is towards performance. It is
Education and Sports is written in the performance that really and highly
context of the predictable mutations of the evaluates all kinds of resources, being the
21st century (change, globalization, most efficient and certain way to achieve
organization and management based on this goal.
knowledge) and distinguishes in the Based on the same theory, the following
conceptual part between the main is confirmed about the activity of physical
characteristics of the intellectual capital, education and sports:
which represents the creational engine the managerial act must be
for performance in the modern sports streamlined on a social scale;
organization: concrete criteria are needed in order
the mobility of the intellectual to distinguish between values;
capital is much higher than that of strategic management is becoming
tangible assets; more important every day (the
the value of the intellectual capital adaptation of strategic management
mostly depends on the capacity to depending on the possibilities,
use it efficiently and to motivate objectives, needs and applying
the people involved; individual strategic management –
the value of the intangibles will get in every sports branch, elaborating a
higher and higher in the value strategy for performance of a
content of the future capital; minimum of four years).
the multiplication capacity of the The respondents also confirmed the
intellectual capital is much higher necessity of management in the activity of
than other capitals; physical education and sports. More so,
the investments in intellectual this management must be realized as a
capital generate a series of other subsystem of general management. Its
investments; object consists of the functions, the
the intellectual capital has a operations and the subsystems applied in
specific circuit (with its help we the activity of physical education and
understand the economic sports.
mechanism that permits adding In order achieve performance, the
value to knowledge with an management of the modern organization
economic finality). must consider three distinctive forms:
There are plenty of reasons why the efficiency and effectiveness; completing
management concept needs to be the strategic objectives; creating value.
introduced in physical education and Therefore, performance is the way to
sports. The majority of respondents satisfy both the needs of the internal
confirm that the future world is based on environment and those of the external
knowledge. Therefore it is obvious that the environment by finding a perfect
leading features of the contemporary world combination of efficiency and
(change, economy, organization and effectiveness. The latter measures what is
management based on knowledge), and the being done, while the efficiency shows us
knowledge capital have a great impact on how it is being done; it is not the same if
166 Bulletin of the Transilvania University of Braşov • Vol. 2 (51) - 2009 • Series VIII
A N
Albulescu, E. ..................................... 81 Nechita, F. ....................................... 135
Nireşteanu, L. .................................... 37
B
Balint, L. .......................................... 107 P
Beldean, L. .......................................... 9 Pepelea, R........................................... 41
Bostan, M. ......................................... 17 Petrescu, A. R. . .................................. 45
Petrescu, C. F. .................................... 49
C Pop, C................................................. 55
Cioroiu, S. G. ..............................85, 127
Chicomban, M. .................................. 93 R
Rucsanda, M. ..................................... 61
D
Demenescu, V. L. .............................. 21 S
Scurt, C. ....................................139, 145
E Simion, G. ....................................... 151
Enoiu, R. .......................................... 101
Enoiu, R. S. ...................................... 101 T
Tohănean, D. ................................... 157
F Turcu, I. ........................................... 163
Feşteu, F. ......................................... 107
Filip, I. ............................................... 27 ł
łuŃu, C. .............................................. 67
I
Ionescu-Bondoc, D. ......................... 115 V
Vârlan, P.M. ....................................... 73
M
Martoma, A. .................................... 119 Z
MăniuŃ, P. M. ..................................... 31 Zanfirescu, G. .................................. 139
Moldovan, E. ..............................85, 127 Zanfirescu, M. ................................. 145