DIPLOMACY

INTRODUCTION
Why to study-this topic?
>Co- existance of separate politcal units necessitates acertain degreeofcontactamong them
>Communication between the goxernments to enstre smooth internationalprocesss
>Instrumentof foreignpoligy Use ofsoft powerfnsteadlofallout chaos,
>Thus dfplomacy has become co-manager of all international relatfoms

FOREIGN POLICY
A country's foreign policy, also called the foreign relations policy, consists of self-interest
strategies chosen by the state to safeguard its national interests and to achieve its goals within
international relations milieu. The approaches are strategically employed to interact with other
countries. In recent times, due to the deepening level of globalization and transnational activities, the
states will also have to interact with non-state actors. The afore mentioned interaction is evaluated and
monitored in attempts to maximize benefits of multilateral international cooperation. Since the national
interests are paramount, foreign policies are designed by the government through high-level decision
making processes. National interests accomplishment can occur as a result of peaceful cooperation
with other nations, or through exploitation. Usually, creating foreign policy is the job of the head of
government and the foreign minister (or equivalent). In some countries the legislature also has
considerable oversight.

DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY

1. Geography
2. History and Culture
3. Economic Development
4. National Interest
5. National character and National Morale
6. Political Structure
7. Social Structure
8. Ideology
9. Public Opinion
10. Power

DIPLOMACY: DEFINITION
 Management of international relations by negotiations
-Oxford dictionary
 The application of Intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between governments
of independent states.
-Sir Enest satow in ‘guide to diplomatic practice’
 Represents the accumulative political, economic and military pressures upon each side
formalized in the exchange of demands and concessions between negotiators.
-’The theory and Practice of International Relation’

DIPLOMACY CAN BE TAKEN AS-

 Synonym of foreign policy,
 negotiations,
 machinery by which such negotiations are carried out,
 branch of foreign service, or ....
  An abstract quality or gift, which, in its best sense, implies skill in the conduct of international
conduct; and in its worst sense, implies the more guileful aspects of tact
-Nicolson
Diplomacy is the political process under which political entities are interconnected with official relations
in the framework of international environment to formulate policies and strategies centred around their
own national interest and thus results in maximization of profit for the state.

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION
 Greece, Byzantium and renaissance Italy made the most notable contribution to the evolution
of Diplomacy.
 Byzantine Diplomacy
 Italian diplomacy: The practice spread from Italy to the other European powers. Milan was the
first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455
 Diplomacy in Europe: Peace of Westphalia
 Post Westphalia Diplomacy
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
 Diplomacy in India

CONGRESS OF VIENNA

THE ORIGIN OF MODERN DAY DIPLOMACY.

The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by
Austrian statesman K W Metternich, and held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815.The
objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars,
the Napoleonic Wars, and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire
This objective resulted in the redrawing of the continent's political map, establishing the boundaries of
France, the Duchy of Warsaw, the Netherlands, the states of the Rhine, the German Kingdom of
Saxony, and various Italian territories, and the creation of spheres of influence through which Austria,
Britain, France and Russia brokered local and regional problems. Thus the concept of modern day
diplomacy arose.
 The two treaties i.e. The Aix-la-chappelleand the Congress of Vienna ultimately established the
diplomatic services and representation of the powers on agreed basis.
 Four Categories of representatives were defined, namely
 Ambassadors, papal legates and papal nuncios
 Extraordinary envoys and plenipotentiary ministers
 Ministers resident
 Charge d’ Affaires

THE VIENNA CONFERENCE OF DIPLOMATIC INTERCOURSE AND IMMUNITIES 1961

 IT is an international treaty that defines a framework for diplomatic relations between
independent countries. It specifies the privileges of a diplomatic mission that enable diplomats
to perform their function without fear of coercion or harassment by the host country. This forms
the legal basis for diplomatic immunity. Its articles are considered a cornerstone of modern
international relations. As of June 2013, it has been ratified by 189 states
 The treaty is an extensive document, containing 53 articles
FUNCTIONS OF DIPLOMACY
According to Hans J Morgenthau;
(1)Diplomacy must determine its objectives in the light of the power actually and potentially
available for the pursuit of these objectives.
(2) Diplomacy must assess the objectives of other nations and the power actually and potentially
available for the pursuit of these objectives.
(3) Diplomacy must determine to what extent these different objectives are compatible with
each other.
(4) Diplomacy must employ the means suited to the pursuit of its objectives.
To him a Diplomat fulfills three basic functions for his government: Symbolic, Legal and Political Failure
in any one of these tasks may jeopardize the success of foreign policy and with it the peace of the
world.

FUNCTIONS OF DIPLOMATS
According to Palmer and Perkins a Diplomat has five Functions:
 Representation
 Negotiations
 Reporting
 Protections of national Interest abroad
 Maintenance of International peace and promotion of peace and cooperation
 Role of Diplomacy In Foreign Policy

TRADITIONAL DIPLOMACY
Diplomacy rooted community of Interest of a small group of leaders.
Old diplomacy was a variant of secret diplomacy.
Diplomacy pre 19 century is termed as traditional diplomacy
Features of Traditional Diplomacy:
 Europe centric: Concert of Europe
 Monopoly of Aristocratic class and of professional diplomats
 Based largely on Bilateral basis and was usually undertaken in secrecy.
 Agenda of traditional diplomacy was parochial and narrow in comparison.

NEW DIPLOMACY
 Emerged together with the Balance of Power system, as at the heart of the transition lay the
suspicion of then public about the whole system of balance of power which they identified as
the main cause of the First World War.
 Role of Diplomacy merged with secrecy and espionage.
 Presidents Woodrow Wilson:Diplomacy to thrive in public view rather in private international
understandings.
 Integration of Public opinion Into Diplomacy and formulation of Foreign Policy
 Change in The structure of the International society: rise of Multilateral Diplomacy and Role of
UNO.
 The Stage of diplomacy now shared with other Non-state actors.
 The agenda of New Diplomacy Also includes Economic and social welfare as well as military
issues.
MODERN DIPLOMACY
 THE post-cold war period the role of Diplomacy has taken a huge turn. It is seen under a new
light
 Previously During the cold war the Diplomatic concept was looked upon with doubt and
suspicion.
 But in the new world order Diplomacy has thrived and thus helped in getting out of many exigent
circumstances.
 Diplomacy in its current form helps not only in maintaining International peace and security but
also promotes International cooperation and helps in maintaining global stability.

TYPES OF DIPLOMACY
SHOPKEEPER VS WARRIOR METHOD
 The “warrior,” diplomacy is aggressive, intransigent, recalcitrant stubborn, rigid, impolite, and
undiplomatic and usually is found among nations which share a tragic history of conflict and War
Like that of DPRK and ROK.
 The “shopkeeper,” diplomacy is characterized as
 Practical, open-minded, candid, and compromising. This characterization was put forth by some
scholars and diplomats who either observed or participated in North Korea-United States
negotiations and in the inter-Korean summit. In fact, Kim Jong-il’s practical, candid negotiating
style surprised many people who had held a different image of him and other North Korean
officials.
SECRET VS OPEN
 A secret treaty is a treaty between nations that is not revealed to other nations or interested
observers. An example would be a secret alliance between two nations to support each other in
the event of war. The opposing nations would be unaware of the treaty and therefore unable to
add it to their calculations, which could obviously result in a difficult situation for the party that
declared war when suddenly confronted with the troops of two or even three nations. Secret
treaties were common before the First World War, and many blamed them for helping spark
that conflict.
DEMOCRATIC DIPLOMACY
 Participation of People in the politics of state and Importance of public opinion led to
democratization of diplomacy.
 Governments no longer domain of Aristocrats and sole affairs of Diplomats or ministers.
 Major shortcoming: failure of common people to understand the intricacies of Foreign Policy
 Strong public opinion may pull down a diplomatic negotiation or dog it with delay and impression
TOTALITARIAN DIPLOMACY
 Rise of totalitarian states such as Germany, Italy, the Soviet union after WWI introduced this
negative form of Diplomacy.
 The states used techniques such as Military, Political and Psychological power to expand their
spheres of Influence.
 For this they Invoked doctrine of racial superiority, Mysticism, materialism and militarism to
further their national interest.
 Diplomacy used as an instrument of National policy.
 Rendered traditional diplomacy methods useless
SUMMIT DIPLOMACY
 Involves direct participation of Foreign Ministers, Heads of State and Heads of Governments in
Diplomatic negotiations.
 Atlantic Charter Summit,Yalta conference,
 Operate through regional organization as well
PERSONAL DIPLOMACY
 Use of normal channels of diplomacy are limited.
 Heads of States use personal agents to settle delicate Problems in IR.
 Example-Roosevelt reliance on Harry Hopkiss
 Direct approach to the counterpart .
 Though it provides a secrecy to the affairs of the world it does tend to make the process a bit
undemocratic.
DIPLOMACY BY CONFERENCE
 International conferences held to discuss joint interest
 Foreign offices and consular's has helped in making the structure of Diplomacy more federal.
 It involves periodic meetings of regional and international organizations
 Has had many positive results like signing of various disarmament treaties and also related to
sustainable development and environmental issues
ECONOMIC DIPLOMACY
 Trade and Aid Diplomacy
 Carrot or stick theory
 Used and Evolved during and in post Cold war period
 Role of UNO
 Economic sanctions against Cuba
 Iraq
 ASEAN Boycott of Myanmar
NUCLEAR DIPLOMACY
 Has Different form and meaning depending on the nuclear capability of the state.
 Options available are deterrence or compel lance or coercive diplomacy.
 Only problem a crisis situation may escalate and put the world on the threshold of Nuclear war.

ROLE OF DIPLOMACY IN FOREIGN POLICY FORMULATION

 Diplomacy is a technique to implement foreign policy.
 But it is not the substance of Foreign policy .
 Foreign policy is What you do; and diplomacy is how you do .
 Diplomacy is considered as the Central Technique as:
 It involves direct government to government interactions so that a particular state can draw
inference from such talks or negotiations while formulating its foreign policy.
 Diplomacy Leads o better cooperation and helps in resolution of conflict.
 Diplomacy is Used to mould the FP of Other parties: The carrot/stick Theory
 Use of Economic measures and embargos and sanctions to influence the events or actions of a
aggressor state.
 Sub Version Techniques
 Post cold war diplomacy has become more complex
 And also has emerged as foremost weapon in modern day IR.
 The INDIAN Scenario: Panchsheel

NATURE OF DIPLOMACY
 Global Governance:Thebasic nature of Diplomacy has evolved post globalization,
 Contribution of Non –state actors: privatization of Diplomacy
 Authority beyond the State: Regional co-operation and formation of Regional alliance
 Role of Economic status of A country on Diplomacy.
 In the levels of diplomatic activity, from the local through the domestic national
  to the bilateral, regional and global;

MERITS OF DIPLOMACY
 Helps in Arbitration and mediations
 Use of Soft power methods ensure international peace
 Promotes Universal Brotherhood.
 Helps in formulation of foreign policy taking into account various factors necessary for a
successful relationship.
 Dispute resolution
 Represent the national interest in international forum.

THE EVIL FACETS OF DIPLOMACY: THE POWER THEORY

CONCLUSION
 The overall picture that emerges from this presentation is one of an institution characterized by
great resilience and adaptability. Within the essential dimensions of communication,
representation and the reproduction of international society, diplomacy has adjusted to changing
circumstances and has sometimes been instrumental in affecting these changes. Given its long
history of adaptability, then, diplomacy does not seem a likely candidate for obsolescence or
decline in the future.
 There is no need of reinventing diplomacy every few decades, with a succession of one “new
diplomacy” after another. The basis ingredients are as old as the hills, although differences in
their “mix” result indifferent types of diplomacy. If a diplomacy emerges that appears different
from that of the recent past, it would be risky to call it “new” or “modern,” for it is likely to be
best a reincarnation of an earlier type

REFERENCES
Introduction: Diplomacy and Global Governance: Locating Patterns of (Dis)Connection: Andrew F.
Cooper, Brian Hocking, and William Maley
Essence of Diplomacy: Palgrave Macmillian:ChristerJönsson, Martin Hall
International Relations, PeuGhosh
International Relations: Girishmalhotra
http://www.ediplomat.com/nd/history.htm
http://www.diplomacy.edu/resources/general/history-and-evolution-diplomacy

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS AND OF PERMANENT DIPLOMATIC

MISSIONS
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PURPOSES
• Diplomatic relations between states may be established by friendly contacts of any form between
their governments;
• Permanent diplomatic relations are considered to exist only with the establishment of a
diplomatic mission, or preferably with the exchange of diplomatic missions.
• These are established by mutual consent and on the basis of a mutual understanding of the
functions that will be undertaken by the mission.

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS ACCORDING TO 1961 VIENNA

CONVENTION ON DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS?
1. representing the sending state in the receiving state;
2. protecting in the receiving state the interests of the sending state and its nationals, within the
limits permitted by international law;
3. negotiating with the government of the receiving state;
4. ascertaining, by all lawful means, conditions and developments in the receiving state, and
reporting thereon to the government of the sending state;
5. promoting friendly relations between the sending state and the receiving state, and developing
their economic, cultural and scientific relations.
Apart from their diplomatic functions, members of the diplomatic staff of a mission may also act in
a consular capacity.

CLASSES OF HEADS OF MISSION

Heads of mission may be of one of three classes depending on the mutual agreement of the
governments concerned:
1. Ambassadors, Apostolic Nuncios, and other heads of mission of equivalent rank (e.g. High
Commissioners exchanged between Commonwealth countries) who are accredited to Heads of
State.
2. Envoys, Ministers and Papal Internuncios who are accredited to Heads of State. This class is
now virtually non-existent.
3. Chargés d’Affaires (en titre, en pied, or titular) who are accredited to Ministers for Foreign Affairs.
This class is also rare.
No differentiation may be made between heads of mission on account of their class, except in
matters of precedence and protocol, and in that the right of reception by a Head of State is normally
reserved to those of ambassadorial rank.

TITLES OF HEADS OF MISSION

• It is usual for an Ambassador to be styled ‘Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary’. This
title was at one time superior in status to a resident Ambassador
• The head of a legation is likely to be styled ‘Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary’.

APPROVAL OF A HEAD OF MISSION BY THE HOST STATE

 Before a head of mission is appointed to a post, the approval or agreement of the receiving
state is sought confidentially.
CREDENTIALS
 A head of mission is provided with credentials to prove his authenticity to the Head of State to
whom he is accredited. These are alternatively referred to as Letters of Credence and are
somewhat ornate in style
  In the Commonwealth the Sovereign is Head of State of several of the member states, and when
heads of mission are exchanged between such states they are provided with a letter of
introduction from Prime Minister to Prime Minister.

WHAT IS THE EFFECT WHEN A HEAD OF STATE WHO IS A SOVEREIGN DIES OR OTHERWISE
CEASES TO REIGN ON THE CREDENTIALS OF THE HEADS OF THE MISSION?
 When a Head of State who is a sovereign dies or otherwise ceases to reign, the credentials of
all heads of mission accredited to the sovereign become invalid; similarly the credentials issued
by the sovereign become invalid; and in both instances require renewal. This requirement does
not, however, apply in the event of the death of a President or the termination of his period of
office. It is also no longer effective in some countries and is likely to disappear gradually from
the diplomatic scene.

(For Ambassadors)

To [full name and title of head of state]

Excellency:
I have appointed X.Y.Z., a distinguished citizen of [name of sending state], to represent me
before your Government as Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of [name of sending
state].He is well aware of the mutual interests of our two countries and shares my sincere desire to
preserve and enhance the long friendship between us. My faith in his high character and ability gives
me entire confidence that he will carry out his duties in a manner fully acceptable to you.
Accordingly I entrust him to your confidence. I ask that you receive him favourably, and give full
credence to what he shall say on the part of [name of sending state] as well as to the assurances which
he bears of my best wishes for the prosperity of [name of receiving state].

Yours very truly,

[Signature of Head of State]
By the head of state,
[Signature of Minister for Foreign Affairs]
[Place] [Date]

HOW IS THE DATE OF THE ASSUMPTION OF FUNCTIONS DETERMINED?

A head of mission of ambassadorial rank is considered to have taken up his functions in the state
to which he is accredited when:
a. He has presented his credentials to the Head of State.
b. He has notified the appropriate ministry (usually the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) of his arrival
and has presented them with a working copy (copie d’usage) of his credentials. (in a few states
notably the UK)
The ceremonies for the formal acceptance of heads of mission are held strictly in the order that
they arrived to take up their functions.

WHAT IS THE NATIONALITY OF THE HEAD OF THE MISSION?

 A head of mission will, save in most exceptional circumstances, have the nationality of the state
he is representing; but this requirement does not necessarily apply to his spouse.
 In many diplomatic services officers may be given special permission to marry foreign nationals
provided the circumstances and the particular nationality involved are such that they do not in
any way jeopardise or interfere with the officer’s career.
  In Arab countries it is the general rule that diplomats may not marry foreigners, though in certain
instances the Head of State may authorise marriage to other Arabs.

WHAT IS THE NATIONALITY OF MEMBERS OF THE DIPLOMATIC STAFF?

 The members of the diplomatic staff of a mission should in principle be nationals of the state
they serve, but in exceptional cases they may be nationals of the state in which the mission is
situated; in this event, the specific approval of the host state must be obtained, and it may be
withdrawn at any time. Such diplomats will enjoy only limited privileges and immunities.

CAN A HEAD OF DIPLOMATIC MISSION BE ACCREDITED TO MORE THAN ONE STATE?

 YES. A head of mission may be accredited (and members of the diplomatic staff assigned) to
more than one state, provided there is no objection on the part of any of the states concerned.
 In the event of such an arrangement, Chargés d’Affaires ad interim (or in certain circumstances
members of the diplomatic staff of lesser standing) may be established in diplomatic missions
in those capitals where the head of mission does not have his permanent seat.

CAN A HEAD OF DIPLOMATIC MISSION BE ACCREDITED BY MORE THAN ONE STATE?

 YES. Two or more states may, in exceptional circumstances, accredit the same person as head
of mission to another state, unless objection is raised by the receiving state.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS: ACCREDITATION OF HEADS OF MISSION

 A head of mission or any member of the diplomatic staff of his mission may act as representative
of his state to any international organization, and in this instance the state to which he is
accredited need not be informed, nor may it raise any objection.

WHERE IS THE SEAT OF DIPLOMATIC MISSION USUALLY LOCATED?

 A diplomatic mission is established in the capital of a state; additional offices forming part of the
mission may only be established in other parts of the state if special permission is given by that
state.
 In a few instances, e.g. The Netherlands, the diplomatic capital (The Hague) is different from
the capital of the country (Amsterdam).

HOW IS THE SIZE OF THE MISSION DETERMINED?

 The size of diplomatic missions may be agreed on a reciprocal basis; alternatively a state may
require that the number of members of a mission should be kept within reasonable limits taking
into consideration the circumstances and conditions in the host state and the needs of the
mission.
 Within such limits, and provided that the principle of representation by its own nationals is
adhered to, a state should be free to appoint whomsoever it wishes to any of its diplomatic
missions.
 In the case of military, naval and air attachés it is within the discretion of the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs to require their names to be submitted in advance, and for approval to be obtained before
any appointment is made.
 A state may also refuse to accept officials of a particular category, provided that the restriction
is applied on a non-discriminatory basis to all diplomatic missions in the state.
 Can a state declare a head of member of a mission as “persona non grata”?
 A state has the right to declare a head of a mission or member of his diplomatic staff to be
unacceptable (persona non grata) and to inform his government accordingly.
WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF SUCH DECLARATION?
 In this event the diplomat’s functions are terminated and he is (unless a national or permanent
resident of the state in which he is serving) recalled.
 If his government takes no such step, the host state may refuse to recognize him as being a
member of the mission. The declaration of persona non grata may be made either before or
after the diplomat’s arrival, and no reasons for it have to be given. Similarly, members of the
administrative and technical staff may be declared nonacceptable.

WHAT ARE THE GROUNDS BY WHICH A HEAD OR MEMBER OF A MISSION MAY BE

DECLARED AS “PERSONA NON GRATA”?
There are two principal grounds on which a diplomat may be declared persona non grata:
a. those which spring from personal weakness, and result in criminal or antisocial behavior; and
deliberate acts hostile to the security or other interests of the state, carried out under the cloak
of diplomatic immunity.
b. A further possible pretext for a diplomat being so declared is as a retaliation against a state that
has declared one of its own diplomats to be persona non grata; but although such practice is
contrary to the spirit of international relations, it is regrettably not infrequent.
c. What are the obligations of the host state in accepting a diplomatic mission?
d. By agreeing to the establishment of a permanent diplomatic mission a state implicitly
accepts certain obligations: it must provide such facilities and immunity as will enable the mission
to function satisfactorily, and it must grant to those who work in the mission the personal
privileges and immunities necessary for them to carry out their functions without fear or
hindrance.

HOW IS THE DIPLOMATIC RELATION CONDUCTED IN THE ABSENCE OF A FULL

DIPLOMATIC MISSION OR WHEN DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS HAVE BEEN SEVERED?
No state maintains a diplomatic mission in every capital in the world; most have to be selective,
and balance their national interest against the cost involved.
The problem of not having full diplomatic representation in a particular state can be resolved in
any of four ways:
1. By requesting a government which is represented by a permanent mission in the state concerned
to act on its behalf, which it may do with the approval of that state. In these circumstances the
head of the permanent mission would normally limit his activities to transmitting messages
between the two governments concerned and dealing with consular matters; and if any conflict
arose between the interests of his own government and those of the foreign government on
whose behalf he was acting, the interests of his own government would prevail;
2. By accrediting one of its heads of mission resident in another state as a non-resident or ‘visiting’
head of mission in the state concerned;
3. By establishing a diplomatic mission headed by a duly accredited non-resident head of mission,
but with a Chargé d’Affaires ad interim in charge. In practice, owing to the difficulty encountered
by several states in finding adequate senior diplomatic staff for the posts they wish to fill, it is
not uncommon for a host state to agree to such a mission being headed by a diplomat of lesser
standing;
4. By accrediting a very senior official (e.g. the Permanent Secretary of the Foreign Ministry) as a
non-resident or ‘visiting’ head of mission in a number of states while maintaining his residence
in his own capital.