UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

FACULTY OF ARTS AND

SOCIAL SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF DIPLOMACY
AND INTERNATIONAL
STUDIES

COURSE: DIS080 -
DIPLOMACY
LECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION TO DIPLOMACY
 INTRODUCTION
 The existence of mankind at a reasonable level of civilization is
practically impossible without peace, trade and social relations.
And more so between nation-states and these things depend
upon diplomacy, upon the representation of states and the
adjustments of their contacts.
 States conduct their relations within the framework of
diplomacy through institutions such as embassies, consulates,
and attachés in foreign policy.
 The concept of diplomacy in the international system is the
views and mutual agreements between countries with sub-
state or supra-state institutions. It is seen that the crises that
arise between states are generally resolved through diplomacy.
But when diplomacy is insufficient, states tend to conflict.
OBJECTIVES OF THE LESSON
At the end of this unit, you should be able
to: ·
give definitions of diplomacy by different
authors ·
give reasons for having different
definitions ·
explain the meaning of diplomacy
BASIC DEFINITIONS OF DIPLOMACY
 Lesson is concerned with basic definitions of diplomacy by relevant authorities of diplomacy.
 The word diplomacy became the ancient Greek word and comes from the word "diploö”
 There is no general definition of diplomacy. Diplomacy is the means by which States
throughout the world conduct their affairs in ways to ensure peaceful relations. (Safeguarding
the interests of their respective countries abroad)
 Promotion of political, economic, cultural or scientific relations as it does international
commitment to defend human rights or the peaceful settlement of disputes.
 Random House Dictionary defines diplomacy as: the conduct by government officials of
negotiations and other relations between nations; the art or science of conducting such
negotiations, skills in managing negotiation, handling of people so that there is little or no ill-
feeling.
 The Oxford English Dictionary defines diplomacy as: the management of international relations
by negotiations; the method by which these relations are adjusted and managed by
Ambassadors and Envoys; the business or art of diplomacy.
 According to Adams Smith different nations of the world are endowed differently with different
potentials and these endowed potentials can only be gained and be made possible through the
art of diplomacy. In this way, diplomacy can be defined as “the art of representing states and
of conducting negotiations for a better cooperation for peaceful coexistence among nation
states”. No one definition considered to be comprehensive or universal in nature.
 Sir Earnest Satow asserts that: Diplomacy is the application of intelligence and tact to the
conduct of official relations between the governments of independent state, extending
sometimes also to their relations with vassal states; or briefly still, the conduct of business
between states by peaceful means (Satow, 1962:1).
 Adams Watson on the other hand believes that: the diplomatic dialogue is the instrument of
international society: a civilized process based on awareness and respect for other people’s
point of view; and a civilizing one also, because the continuous exchange of ideas, and the
attempt to find mutually acceptable solutions to conflicts of interests increase that awareness
CONT…………
 Some leading diplomats and scholars of international relations have
used the word “diplomacy” to mean the practice of international
legal principles and norms in international relations. In the words of
E.J.J Johnson (Johnson: 1964:11)
 From the different definitions of diplomacy by these authorities, it is
therefore believed that diplomacy is concerned with the
management of relations between independent states and between
these states and other actors. Diplomacy is often thought of as
being concerned with peaceful activity, although it may occur within
war or armed conflict or be used in the orchestration of particular
acts of violence.
 Diplomacy goes beyond the definitions to view diplomacy in a
restrictive or formal sense as being the preserve of foreign
ministries and diplomatic service personnel.
APPROACHES TO DIPLOMACY
 Undertaken by officials from a wide range of domestic ministries or agencies with their
foreign counterparts, reflecting its technical content, between officials from
international organizations such as International Monetary Funds (IMF) and the United
Nations (UN) Secretariat or involve foreign corporations and a host of government
transnationally and with or through- Non Governmental Organizations and private
individuals.
 States generally pursue diplomacy in one of three ways:
 Unilaterally: The states acts alone, without the assistance or consent of any other
state.
 Bilaterally: The state works in conjunction with another state.
 Multilaterally: The state works in conjunction with several other states. Involves
contacts between several States often within the institutionalized setting of an
international organization.
 Diplomacy takes place either bilaterally or multilaterally.
 There are pros and cons to each of these three approaches. Acting unilaterally, for
example, allows a state to do what it wants without compromise, but it must also bear
all the costs itself. Acting with allies, on the other hand, allows a state to maintain
good relations and to share the diplomatic burden, but this often requires compromise.
 Negotiation is the one of most important means of conducting diplomacy, and in
many cases results in the conclusion of treaties between States and the codification
of international law. International treaties aim at striking a balance between State
interests.
THE LINK BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL
RELATIONS AND DIPLOMACY
 International relations is a discipline that focuses on
the study of the interaction of the actors
in international politics, including states and non-
state actors, such as the United Nations (UN),
the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World
Bank, and Amnesty International etc. States use
diplomacy to resolve disputes, form alliances, negotiate
treaties, strengthen economic relations, promote
cultural and military exchanges, and for a variety of
other purposes. Non-state actors play an increasingly
important role in diplomatic relations as the tides of
globalization shift the international landscape. Yet, no
matter how much the international arena changes,
diplomacy will always play a central role in dictating
THE LINK BETWEEN FOREIGN POLICY AND
DIPLOMACY
 The term foreign policy refers to a state’s international goals and its
strategies to achieve those goals. Foreign policy involves the aspirations
and aims a country wants to achieve in its relations with other states and
international governmental organizations. It is generally a government
strategy of dealing with other nations. It consists of self-interest strategies
chosen by the state to safeguard its national interests and to achieve
goals within its international relations
 Diplomacy plays an important part in shaping what happens in
international relations. Diplomacy provides the opportunity for one state’s
political interests to interface with those of another without resorting to
military force. Diplomacy is used to manage the goals of foreign policy
focusing on communication. Diplomacy attempts to manage the goals of
foreign policy mostly by implementing goals but also by preparing foreign
policy decisions.
 Foreign policy is the manner in which a country behaves toward other
members of the international community. It involves a state setting an
agenda and using its resources to achieve established goals. Nations
strive to achieve foreign policy goals with a combination of the following
instruments: Diplomacy, Military Force, Sanctions, Foreign Aid, etc
CONT…………
 Diplomacy as an instrument of achieving ones foreign policy
involves the act of working and negotiating with representatives of
foreign nations to reach consensus and set the stage for future
rules. This can involve working on the development of accords,
treaties, alliances and conventions. Diplomats form relationships
with officials from other countries to understand their perspectives,
while simultaneously portraying and promoting the values and
position.
 Although there are many images in the media depicting diplomatic
meetings regarding large-scale foreign policy decisions, most
diplomatic relations — especially those of particular importance —
occur behind the scenes through private discussions and
negotiations.
 In addition to discussing issues with foreign officials, diplomats
meet with many other members of foreign societies, ranging from
business officials to representatives of nongovernmental
organizations. By cultivating connections throughout civil society,
diplomats can gain a better understanding of a country’s culture in
order to find common ground on which to base relations and
THE LINK BETWEEN DIPLOMACY AND
CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
 Diplomacy’ as stated in the Oxford English Dictionary ‘is the management of
international relations by negotiation, the method by which these relations are
adjusted and managed by ambassadors and envoys. The emphasis on
negotiation is viewed by most people as the essence of diplomacy – negotiating
a treaty, reaching an executive agreement, or bargaining with another state
over the terms of proposed agreement.
 Diplomatic negotiations constitute the most effective means of conflict-
resolution for reconciling the divergent interests of the state. Through mutual
give and take, accommodation and reconciliation, diplomacy tries to secure the
desired goals and objectives of national interest.
 We can say that diplomacy is a policy method applied by countries in foreign
policy. Just as foreign policy is seen as one of the sub-disciplines of
international relations, diplomacy is the determining factor in foreign policy.
Researchers see diplomacy as a field of expertise. The main purpose of
diplomacy is to preserve peace by preventing conflicts. We know that
diplomacy theory is an effective method of communication and solution in
international relations without racial, sectarian, or language discrimination in
the world order.
 Headley Bull, originally from Australia, Professor of International Relations,
explains diplomacy as follows: "The conduct of relations between states and
other entities involved in world politics through official policies and peaceful
means" (Bull 1932).
CONT…………
 Another important view on diplomacy theory was expressed by
the US diplomat and politician Henry Kissinger as follows:
Diplomacy is a new world order and modern diplomacy is the
balance of power between the forces of war and peace. In
addition, the decisions taken as a result of diplomacy affect the
future foreign and domestic policy (May 1994).
 Armand Jean du Plessis de Richelieu was a French politician and
made a great contribution to the development of the theory of
diplomacy. Richelieu attached importance to the necessity of
establishing permanent relations as the most important actor in
diplomacy (Encyclopedia Britania 2020).
 Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli, a military strategist, has an
important place in diplomacy in making diplomacy an important
actor in international relations. He explained the importance of
diplomacy in resolving security problems in his book titled "The
Prince". The author defined diplomacy as cheating and hypocrisy.
In addition, Machiavelli stated in his book that he saw diplomacy
as a modern policy.
SUMMARY
 Diplomacy is the means by which states through their formal and other
representatives, as well as other actors articulate, coordinate and
secures particular or wider interests using correspondence, private
talks, exchange of view, lobbying, visits, persuasions, and other related
activities.
 Widely accepted definition is that Diplomacy can be defined as the
conduct of international relations by negotiation and dialogue or by any
other means to promote peaceful relations among states.
 Diplomacy in the broadest sense may be defined as the conduct of
international relations by non-violent means. Diplomacy is the art
and practice of conducting negotiations between
representatives of groups or states. International relations these
days, refers not only to relations between sovereign states, but also
relations involving non state actors such as international
organizations and individuals.
 In a slightly more restrictive sense, diplomacy can be defined as the
conduct of international relations by official agents of states,
international organizations and other international actors. The
art of diplomacy involves the presentation of the goals and
objectives of national interest in such a way as to persuade others
to accept these as just and rightful demands of the nation.
CONT…………
 Diplomats in a broad sense can be defined as individual engaged
in the conduct of relations involving states, international
organizations, or lesser international actors. Diplomats are
agents of a state, international organization or other international
actors, who formally are entrusted with acting on behalf of their
state/international actor in regard to the conduct of external
relations. Diplomacy therefore is the conduct of international
relations through professional diplomats with regard to issues of
treaties, trade, war and peace, economics and culture.
 As an instrument of securing national interest, diplomacy is
a universally recognized and most frequently used means.
Morgenthau regards diplomacy as the most primary means.
However, all the objectives and goals of national interest cannot
be secured through diplomacy.
 The art of diplomacy involves tact, and the use of intelligence,
and in this role the work of the missions become paramount.
ASSIGNMENT
1. Define diplomacy and its contents.
2. Explain diplomacy in accordance with
the definition given by different scholars.
3. Define the following terms:
Sovereignty, Sovereign states, Diplomat,
Foreign policy, Nation, Nation-state,
Treaty, Theory
LECTURE 2
EVOLUTION OF DIPLOMACY
Ancient diplomacy
 Diplomacy can only function where human communities exists
independent of each other, and thus have to rely on designated
representatives if they want to communicate.
 Historically, such communication become necessary as soon as in any
given region human population grew so numerous that groups could no
longer avoid contacts, and indeed had to compete for the same scarce
resources.
 This normally led to violent clash, and the first acts of diplomacy were
efforts to arrange truces so that each side could recover and bury its dead.
Envoys would normally use sign language to show their peaceful intent,
and soon strong taboos were established to protect them against violence
from the warriors of the side with whom they were attempting to
negotiate.
 The practice of sending and receiving diplomatic agents has been followed
since the ancient time; one can find the practice in ancient India or Egypt,
where evidence of ancient treaties have been recovered.
CONT…………
 These treaties showed characteristics of modern treaties of peace,
friendship, alliance and commerce. Ancient diplomacy was however
not as uniform as it is today. Diplomatic agents were sent temporarily
to other states for some specific purpose. Once the purpose was
fulfilled they were obligated to return back to their home countries.
 Greek and Roman Empire
 In some regions of the world, situations developed where populations
sharing a common language, culture and religion were split into
autonomous entities which had to interact through a kind of diplomacy
which often achieved a high degree of sophistication. The Ancient
Greek city states is the best depiction of an ancient society that
in some way conducted a form of diplomacy that is similar to today’s
own.
 The principles and methods of Greek diplomacy had in fact been
developed by the 5th century BC into a recognized system to which
much subsequent thinking on the subjects owes its origin. Ancient
Greek diplomacy provided one of the earliest and clearest illustrations
of the difficulty of reconciling efficient negotiation with the
processes of diplomacy.
CONT…………
 In ancient Greek City states diplomats were sent only for specific
negotiations, and would return immediately after their mission
concluded. Diplomats were usually relatives of the ruling family or of
very high rank in order to give them legitimacy when they sought to
negotiate with the other states.
 The Greek City States on some occasions sent envoys to each other in
order to negotiate specific issues, such as war and peace or
commercial relations, but did not have diplomatic representatives
regularly posted in each other's territory.
 The most celebrated Ancient Greek conference of Sparta of 432BC
is perhaps the first account of a diplomatic conference and can give as a
better understanding of how diplomacy was conducted in this era. The
conference was called by the Spartans to decide on whether or not to go
to war with Athens. However an Athenian diplomatic mission or
delegation was by chance in Sparta on other business and was invited to
address the Assembly and indeed to remain in Sparta even after a vote
by Sparta and her allies had been taken to go to war with Athens.
Clearly then it had already emerged that diplomats, enjoyed some form
of protection and were afforded rights which other visitors from Athens
were unlikely to have been granted.
CONT…………
 The Roman Empire also contributed to the
advancement of diplomacy by negotiation as we
know it today. The romans were particularly noted for
their contribution to the advancement of international
law.
 The Byzantine Empire (also known as Eastern Roman
Empire) on the other hand created a form of
diplomatic practice that helped it achieve its military
and trade interest. They transformed the traditional
role of an envoy from an orator who simply set out the
emperor’s views, to a trained observer and negotiator
attempting to interpret what he saw for his master
and to negotiate an accord which was most closely to
the liking of his master and of the empire’s interest.
ITALIAN SYSTEM
 In Europe, early modern diplomacy's origins are often traced to the states
of Northern Italy in the early Renaissance, with the first embassies being
established in the 13th century. Milan played a leading role, especially
under Francesco Sforza who established permanent embassies to the other
city states of Northern Italy. Tuscany and Venice were also flourishing
centers of diplomacy from the 14th century onwards. It was in the
Italian Peninsula that many of the traditions of modern diplomacy began,
such as the presentation of an ambassador's credentials to the
head of state.
 From Italy the practice was spread to other European regions. Milan was
the first to send a representative to the court of France in 1455. However,
Milan refused to host French representatives fearing espionage (spying)
and that the French representatives would intervene in its internal affairs.
As foreign powers such as France and Spain became increasingly
involved in Italian politics the need to accept emissaries was recognized.
Soon the major European powers were exchanging representatives. Spain
was the first to send a permanent representative; it appointed an
ambassador to the Court of England in 1487. By the late 16th century,
permanent missions became customary. The rise of nationalism and the
nation state system through the treaty of Westphalia made it necessary
for states in Europe to have permanent missions.
TREATY OF WESTPHALIA
 What was the Treaty of Westphalia? The treaty of
Westphalia also known as the Peace of Westphalia was a
series of peace treaties signed between May and October
1648 in Germany. These treaties ended the
Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) that involved the
Holy Roman Emperor; the Kingdom of Spain; the
Kingdom of France; the Swedish Empire; the Dutch
Republic; the Princes of the Holy Roman Empire; and
sovereigns of the free imperial cities. This treaty is
significant to our understanding of international relations
today as it the marked a new understanding of the State
and the importance of Sovereignty. Westphalian
sovereignty is the principle of international law that
each nation state has sovereignty over its territory and
domestic affairs, on the principle of non-interference in
another country's domestic affairs, and that each state (no
matter how large or small) is equal in international law.
CONGRESS OF VIENNA- 1815
 By the 19th century permanent missions rule and diplomacy had
become an established profession and a generally accepted
method of international relations. By the second half of the 19th
century, diplomatic agents were given certain rights, duties and
privileges by states which tended to be identical in nature. This
led to the development of some customary rules of diplomacy.
 By the 18th Century the Industrial America and French Revolutions
led to a new era of diplomacy. Diplomats in this period like
Benjamin Franklin represented his nation in the streets of Paris
and London. He symbolized the coming era of a more democratic
form of diplomacy. The attempt to represent a nation rather a
ruler imposed a more complicated role of the diplomat. Indeed, it
called for a new type of diplomatic agent who also were required
to get some skills and knowledge on the nature of international
relations. As diplomacy become more formal, its rules become
more specific and generally accepted. The Congress of Vienna of
1815 for the first time codified the customary rules of
international law on the ranks of diplomatic
representatives.
VIENNA CONVENTION OF DIPLOMATIC
RELATIONS
 The institution of diplomatic agents continued to develop even
after 1815. After the establishment of the United Nations, the
task for codifying the law relating to the diplomatic agents was
given to the international Law Commission. The Commission
prepared the draft articles and submitted them to the General
Assembly of the United Nations. The Assembly convened a
conference which was attended by 84 nations at Vienna in 1961.
The Conference adopted ‘The Vienna Convention of Diplomatic
Relations’. The convention codified a significant part of
customary international law concerning diplomatic relations and
immunities. In 1963 the United Nations adopted ‘The Vienna
Convention of Consular Relations’ that was to guide member
states on consular affairs.
 So, it can be said that only after the revision and regulation of
existing diplomatic institutions and practices during the Congress
of Vienna, under the social and political impact of the French
Revolution and its consequences, was modern diplomacy born in
1815.
CONT…………
 After World War I, diplomacy experienced a number of important
transformations, giving sense to the so-called transition from old
diplomacy to new diplomacy. In a context in which states became
more and more aware of their interdependence, and increasingly
interested in obtaining popular support, the European and the
colonial wars appeared both to politicians and citizens as the
clearest expression of the failure of classic diplomacy.
 Public opinion, mobilized first by governments in support of war
efforts, would later be one of the principal sources of change.
From very diverse political positions, including the peace
movement, it would be claimed that diplomacy should be more
open to public scrutiny, effectively submitted to international and
domestic legal constraints, and specifically directed to the
peaceful settlement of conflicts and the prevention of war.
 The most prominent result of this new climate of opinion in the
critical postwar context was the creation of the League of Nations.
CONT…………
 Although the experience of the League would fail two decades later with the
outbreak of a new world war, its relevance for the contemporary transformation
of diplomacy is fundamental.
 The League of Nations established some important limitations on the use of force,
institutionalizing different procedures for the peaceful settlement of disputes and
creating a completely new system of collective security with the possibility of
international sanctions.
 The League of Nations was also very important in the gradual institutionalization
of multilateral diplomacy over social, economic, and technical issues.
 Furthermore, the experience of the League of Nations substantially improved the
techniques and methods of multilateral diplomatic negotiation, and created the
first political basis to end the secrecy of the old diplomacy, in order to restore, as
the Enlightenment thinkers had proposed, the duty of making public international
treaties.

 Several realities have, during the last decades, dramatically changed the
environment in which diplomatic dialog takes place, imposing the need for
rethinking the central role of diplomacy in contemporary international relations.
In fact, all this seems to suggest that diplomacy needs to reconsider its methods
and role in global governance, even if it is difficult to foresee its disappearance.
END!!!!!!!!!!