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ERNEST YEUNG
Fund Science! & Help Ernest finish his Physics Research! : quantum super-A-polynomials - a thesis by Ernest Yeung
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Ernest Yeung is supported by Mr. and Mrs. C.W. Yeung, Prof. Robert A. Rosenstone, Michael Drown, Arvid Kingl, Mr .
and Mrs. Valerie Cheng, and the Foundation for Polish Sciences, Warsaw University.
I 2.5 Exercises - Introduction to set theory, Notations for designating sets, Subsets, Unions, intersections, complements.
Exercise 10. Distributive laws
Let X = A ∩ (B ∪ C), Y = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Suppose x ∈ X
x ∈ A and x ∈ (B ∪ C) =⇒ x ∈ A and x is in at least B or in C
then x is in at least either (A ∩ B) or (A ∩ C)
x ∈ Y, X ⊆ Y
Suppose y ∈ Y
y is at least in either (A ∩ B) or A ∩ C
then y ∈ A and either in B or C
y ∈ X, Y ⊆ X
X=Y
Let X = A ∪ (B ∩ C), Y = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Suppose x ∈ X
then x is at least either in A or in (B ∩ C)
if x ∈ A, x ∈ Y
if x ∈ (B ∩ C), x ∈ Y x ∈ Y, X ⊆ Y
Suppose y ∈ Y
then y is at least in A or in B and y is at least in A or in C
if y ∈ A, then y ∈ X
if y ∈ A ∩ B or y ∈ A ∪ C, y ∈ X (various carvings out of A, simply )
if y ∈ (B ∩ C), y ∈ X y ∈ X, Y ⊆ X
X=Y
1
Exercise 11. If x ∈ A ∪ A, then x is at least in A or in A. Then x ∈ A. So A ∪ A ⊆ A. Of course A ⊆ A ∪ A.
If x ∈ A ∩ A, then x is in A and in A. Then x ∈ A. So A ∩ A ⊆ A. Of course A ⊆ A ∩ A.
Exercise 12. Let x ∈ A. y ∈ A ∪ B if y is at least in A or in B. x is in A so x ∈ A ∪ B. =⇒ A ⊆ A ∪ B.
Suppose ∃b ∈ B and b ∈
/ A. b ∈ A ∪ B but b ∈
/ A. so A ⊆ A ∪ B.
Exercise 13. Let x ∈ A ∪ ∅, then x is at least in A or in ∅. If x ∈ ∅, then x is a null element (not an element at all). Then
actual elements must be in A. =⇒ A ∪ ∅ ⊆ A.
Let x ∈ A. Then x ∈ A ∪ ∅. A ⊆ A ∪ ∅. =⇒ A = A ∪ ∅.
Exercise 14. From distributivity, A ∪ (A ∩ B) = (A ∪ A) ∩ (A ∪ B) = A ∩ (A ∪ B).
If x ∈ A ∩ (A ∪ B), x ∈ A and x ∈ A ∪ B, i.e. x ∈ A and x is at least in A or in B.
=⇒ x is in A and is in B or is not in B. Then x ∈ A. =⇒ A ∩ (A ∪ B) ⊆ A. Of course, A ⊆ A ∩ (A ∪ B).
=⇒ A ∩ (A ∪ B) = A ∪ (A ∩ B) = A.
Exercise 15. ∀a ∈ A, a ∈ C and ∀b ∈ B, b ∈ C. Consider x ∈ A ∪ B. x is at least in A or in B. In either case, x ∈ C.
=⇒ A ∪ B ⊆ C.
Exercise 16.
if C ⊆ A and C ⊆ B, then C ⊆ A ∩ B
∀c ∈ C, c ∈ A and c ∈ B
x ∈ A ∩ B, x ∈ A and x ∈ B. Then ∀c ∈ C, c ∈ A ∩ B. C ⊆A∩B
Exercise 17.
(1)
if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ C then
∀a ∈ A, a ∈ B.∀b ∈ B, b ∈ C.
then since a ∈ B, a ∈ C, ∃c ∈ C such that c ∈
/ B.
∀a ∈ A, a ∈ B so a 6= c∀a. =⇒ A ⊂ C
(2) If A ⊆ B, B ⊆ C, A ⊆ C since, ∀a ∈ A, a ∈ B, ∀b ∈ B, b ∈ C. Then since a ∈ B, a ∈ C. A ⊆ C
(3) A ⊂ B and B ⊆ C. B ⊂ C or B = C. A ⊂ B only. Then A ⊂ C.
(4) Yes, since ∀a ∈ A, a ∈ B.
(5) No, since x 6= A (sets as elements are different from elements)
Exercise 18. A − (B ∩ C) = (A − B) ∪ (A − C)
Suppose x ∈ A − (B ∩ C)
then x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B ∩ C =⇒ x ∈
/ B∩C
then x is not in even at least one B or C
=⇒ x ∈ (A − B) ∪ (A − C)
Suppose x ∈ (A − B) ∪ (A − C)
then x is at least in (A − B) or in (A − C) =⇒ x is at least in A and not in B or in A and not in C
then consider when one of the cases is true and when both cases are true =⇒ x ∈ A − (B ∩ C)
Exercise 19.
[
Suppose x ∈ B − A
A∈F
[
then x ∈ B, x ∈
/ A
A∈F
[
x∈
/ A =⇒ x ∈
/ A, ∀A ∈ F
A∈F
\
since ∀A ∈ F, x ∈ B, x ∈
/ A, then x ∈ (B − A)
A∈F
2
\
Suppose x ∈ (B − A)
A∈F
then x ∈ B − A1 and x ∈ B − A2 and . . .
then ∀A ∈ F, x ∈ B, x ∈
/A
then x ∈
/ even at least one A ∈ F
[
=⇒ x ∈ B − A
A∈F
\
Suppose x ∈ B − A
A∈F
\
then x ∈
/ A
A∈F
then at most x ∈ A for ∀A ∈ F but one
then x is at least in one B − A
[
=⇒ x ∈ (B − A)
A∈F
[
Suppose x ∈ (B − A)
A∈F
then x is at least in one B − A
then for A ∈ F, x ∈ B and x ∈
/A
Consider ∀A ∈ F
\
=⇒ then x ∈ B − A
A∈F
Exercise 20.
Suppose x ∈ (A − B) − C
then x ∈ A − B, x ∈
/C
then x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B and x ∈
/C
x∈
/ B and x ∈
/ C =⇒ x ∈
/ even at least B or C
x ∈ A − (B ∪ C)
Suppose x ∈ A − (B ∪ C)
then x ∈ A, x ∈
/ (B ∪ C)
then x ∈ A and x ∈
/ B and x ∈
/C
=⇒ x ∈ (A − B) − C
To show that (i) is sometimes wrong,
Suppose y ∈ A − (B − C)
y ∈ A and y ∈
/ B−C
y∈
/ B−C
then y ∈
/ B or y ∈ C or y ∈
/C
(where does this lead to?)
Consider directly,
Suppose x ∈ (A − B) ∪ C
then x is at least in A − B or in C
then x is at least in A and ∈
/ B or in C
Suppose x = c ∈ C and c ∈
/A
3
(2)
If C ⊆ A,
A − (B − C) = (A − B) ∪ C
I 3.3 Exercises - The field axioms. The goal seems to be to abstract these so-called real numbers into just x’s and y’s that
are purely built upon these axioms.
Exercise 1. Thm. I.5. a(b − c) = ab − ac.
b
Let x = for ax = b
a
y = a−1 for ay = 1
Want: x = by
Now b(1) = b, so ax = b = b(ay) = a(by)
=⇒ x = by (by Thm. I.7)
−1 −1
Thm. I.10. If a 6= 0, then (a ) = a.
Now ab = 1 for b = a−1 . But since b ∈ R and b 6= 0 (otherwise 1 = 0, contradiction), then using Thm. I.8 on b,
ab = b(a) = 1; a = b−1 .
Thm.I.11. If ab = 0, a = 0 or b = 0.
ab = 0 = a(0) =⇒ b = 0 or ab = ba = b(0) =⇒ a = 0. (we used Thm. I.7, cancellation law for multiplication)
Thm. I.12. Want: x = y if x = (−a)b and y = −(ab).
ab + y = 0
ab + x = ab + (−a)b = b(a + (−a)) = b(a − a) = b(0) = 0
0 is unique, so ab + y = ab + x implies x = y( by Thm. I.1 )
Thm. I.13. Want: x + y = z, if a = bx, c = dy, (ad + bc) = (bd)z.
(bd)(x + y) = bdx + bdy = ad + bc = (bd)z
So using b, d 6= 0, which is given, and Thm. I.7, then x + y = z.
4
Thm. I.14. Want: xy = z for bx = a, dy = c, ac = (bd)z.
(bd)(xy) = (bx)(dy) = ac = (bd)z
b, d 6= 0, so by Thm. I.7, xy = z.
Thm.I.15. Want: x = yz, if bx = a, dy = c, (bc)z = ad
(bc)z = b(dy)z = d(byz) = da
d 6= 0 so by Thm. I.7, by z = a, byz = abx
b 6= 0 so by Thm. I.7, yz = x
Exercise 2. Consider 0 + z = 0. By Thm. I.2, there exists exactly one z, z = −0. By Axiom 4, z = 0. 0 = −0.
Exercise 3. Consider 1(z)z(1) = 1. Then z = 1−1 . But by Axiom 4, there exists distinct 1 such that z(1) = 1, so z = 1.
Exercise 4. Suppose there exists x such that 0x = 1, but 0x = 0 and 0 and 1 are distinct, so zero has no reciprocal .
ad − bc
z= (bd)z = ad − bc by previous exercise or Thm. I.8, the possibility of division
bd
a
x= bx = a
b
−c
t= dt = −c (By Thm. I.3, we know that b − a = b + (−a) )
d
5
dbx + bdt = (bd)(x + y) = ad − bc = (bd)z
b, d 6= 0, so x + y = z
Exercise 1.
Exercise 2. If x = 0, x2 = 0. 0 + 1 = 1 6= 0. So x 6= 0.
Exercise 3.
Exercise 4. Consider ax = 1.
xb − ax = xb − 1 > 0 =⇒ bx > 1 = by
b > 0 so x > y
Exercise 6.
6
If a = b and b = c, then a = c
If a = b and b < c, then a < c
If a < b and b = c, then a < c
If a < b and b < c, then a < c (by transitivity of the inequality)
=⇒ a ≤ c
Exercise 7. If a ≤ b and b ≤ c, then a ≤ c. If a = c, then by previous proof, a = b.
Exercise 10.
If x = 0, done.
x
If x > 0, x is a positive real number. Let h = .
2
x
=⇒ > x Contradiction.
2
I 3.12 Exercises - Integers and rational numbers, Geometric interpretation of real numbers as points on a line,
Upper bound of a set, maximum element, least upper bound (supremum), The least-upper-bound axiom (completeness
axiom), The Archimedean property of the real-number system, Fundamental properties of the suprenum and infimum.
We use Thm I.30, the Archimedean property of real numbers, alot.
Theorem 9 (I.30). If x > 0 and if y is an arbitrary real number, there exists a positive integer n such that nx > y.
We will use the least upper-bound axiom (completeness axiom) alot for continuity and differentiation theorems later.
Apostol states it as an axiom; in real analysis, the existence of a sup for nonempty, bounded sets can be shown with an
algorithm to zoom into a sup with monotonically increasing and monotonically decreasing sequence of “guesses” and showing
its difference is a Cauchy sequence.
Axiom 1 (Least upper-bound axiom). Every nonempty set S of real numbers which is bounded above has a suprenum; that
is, there’s a real number B s.t. B = supS.
Exercise 1. 0 < y − x.
=⇒ n(y − x) > h > 0, n ∈ Z+ , h arbitrary
y − x > h/n =⇒ y > x + h/n > x
so let z = x + h/n Done.
a ± by
x±y =
b
a − mb
If a ± by was an integer, say m, then y = ± which is rational. Contradiction.
b
ay ay
xy = =
b1 b
n
If ay was an integer, ay = n, y = , but y is irrational. =⇒ xy is irrational.
a
x
y
y is not an integer
Exercise 8. Proof by counterexamples. We want that the sum or product of 2 irrational numbers is not always irrational. If y
1
2m1 + 1 = 2m2 2(m1 − m2 ) = 1 m1 − m2 =
. But m1 − m2 can only be an integer.
2
(2) By the well-ordering principle, if x ∈ Z+ is neither even and odd, consider the set of all x. There must exist a
smallest element x0 of this set. But since x0 ∈ Z+ , then there must exist a n < x such that n + 1 = x0 . n is even or
odd since it doesn’t belong in the above set. So x0 must be odd or even. Contradiction.
(3)
(2m1 )(2m2 ) = 2(2m1 m2 ) even
2m1 + 2m2 = 2(m1 + m2 ) even
(2m1 + 1) + (2m2 + 1) = 2(m1 + m2 + 1) =⇒ sum of two odd numbers is even
(n1 + 1)(n2 + 1) = n1 n2 + n1 + n + 2 + 1 = 2(2m1 m2 )
2(2m1 m2 ) − (n1 + n2 ) − 1 odd, the product of two odd numbers n1 , n2 is odd
(4) If n even, n is even, since for n = 2m, (2m)2 = 4m2 = 2(2m2 ) is even.
2
p 2l m 2l−n m
= n = and at least m or p odd
q 2 p p
a
Exercise 11. b can be put into a form such that a or b at least is odd by the previous exercise.
a
However, a2 = 2b2 , so a even, b even, by the previous exercise, part (d) or 4th part. Thus b cannot be rational.
Exercise 12. The set of rational numbers satisfies the Archimedean property but not the least-upper-bound property.
p
Since q ∈ Q ⊆ R, n pq11 > p2
q2 since if q1 , q2 > 0,
np1 q2 q1 p2
> np1 q2 > q1 p2
q1 q2 q1 q2
I 4.4 Exercises - An example of a proof by mathematical induction, The principle of mathematical induction, The
well-ordering principle. Consider these 2 proofs.
N + N + · · · + N = N2
N
X N
X −1
(N − 1) + (N − 2) + · · · + (N − (N − 1)) + (N − N ) = N 2 − j= j
j=1 j=1
N N
X X N (N + 1)
N2 + N = 2 j =⇒ j=
j=1 j=1
2
So that
N N m N
X X X X m(m + 1) N (N + 1)
j= j+ j= j+ =
j=1 j=m j=1 j=m
2 2
N
X N (N + 1) − m(m + 1) (N − m)(N + m + 1)
j= =
j=m
2 2
S= 1+ 2+ · · · + (N − 2)+ (N − 1)+ N
but S = N + N − 1+ ···+ 3+ 2+ 1
N (N + 1)
2S = (N + 1)N S=
2
9
PN
Telescoping series will let you get j=1 j 2 and other powers of j.
N
X N (N + 1)
(2j − 1) = 2 − N = N2
j=1
2
N N N
X X X N (N + 1)
(j 2 − (j − 1)2 ) = (j 2 − (j 2 − 2j + 1)) = (2j − 1) = 2 − N = N2
j=1 j=1 j=1
2
N
X N
X N
X
3 3 3 3 3 2
(j − (j − 1) ) = N = (j − (j − 3j + 3j − 1)) = (3j 2 − 3j + 1)
j=1 j=1 j=1
N 3 2 N
X N (N + 1) 2N + 2N − 3N − 3N N (N + 1)(2N + 1) X 2
=⇒ 3 j 2 = −3 + N = N 3 =⇒ = = j
j=1
2 2 6 j=1
N
X N
X N
X
j 4 − (j − 1)4 = N 4 = j 4 − (j 4 − 4j 3 + 6j 2 − 4j + 1) = 4j 3 − 6j 2 + 4j − 1 =
j=1 j=1 j=1
N
X N (N + 1)(2N + 1) N (N + 1)
=4 j3 − 6 +4 − N = N4
j=1
6 2
N
X 1 4 1
=⇒ j3 = (N + N (N + 1)(2N + 1) − 2N (N + 1) + N ) = (N 4 + (2N )N (N + 1) − N (N + 1) + N )
j=1
4 4
1 4 1 1 (N (N + 1))2
= (N + 2N 3 + 2N 2 − N 2 − N + N ) = N 2 (N 2 + 2N + 1) =
4 4 4 2
N +1 n
1(1 + 1) X X n(n + 1) n(n + 1) + 2(n + 1) (n + 2)(n + 1)
j= j+n+1= +n+1= =
2 j=1 j=1
2 2 2
Exercise 6.
(1)
1 1 8k + 8 (2k + 3)2
A(k + 1) = A(k) + k + 1 = (2k + 1)2 + k + 1 = (4k 2 + 4k + 1) + =
8 8 8 8
(2) The n = 1 case isn’t true.
(3)
(n + 1)n n2 + n n2 + n + 41
1 + 2 + ··· + n = = <
2 2 2
2
(n + 1/2)2 n2 + n + 1/4
2n + 1 1
and = =
2 2 2 2
Exercise 7.
I 4.7 Exercises - Proof of the well-ordering principle, The summation notation. Exercise 1.
P4
(1) n(n+1)
2 = k=1 k = 10
P5 n−2
P3
(2) n=2 2 = n=0 2n = 1 + 14 = 15
3 P3
(3) 2 r=0 22r = 2 r=0 4r = 170
P
P4
(4) j j = 1 + 4 + 27 + 44 = 288
P5j=1 5(6)
(5) j=0 (2j + 1) = 2 2 + 6(1)= 36
P 1 Pn 1 1 1 n
(6) k(k+1) = k=1 k − k+1 = 1 − n+1 = n+1
Exercise 9.
n = 1(−1)(3) + 5 = 2 = 2n
n = 2(−1)(3) + 5 + (−1)7 + 9 = 4 = 2n
2n
X
n (−1)k (2k + 1) = 2n
k=1
2(n+1) 2n
X X
n+1 (−1)k (2k + 1) = (−1)k (2k + 1) + (−1)2n+1 (4n + 3) + (−1)2n+2 (4n + 5) =
k=1 k=1
= 2n + 2 = 2(n + 1)
Exercise 10.
11
(1) am + am+1 + · · · + am+n
(2)
1 1 1 1
n=1 = − =
2 1 2 2
2(n+1) 2n 2n
X 1 X (−1)m+1 1 1 1 X (−1)m+1 1 (−1)2n+1+1
n+1 = − + + = +− +
k m=1 m n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 2 m=1 m 2(n + 1) (2n + 1)
k=n+2
2(n+1)
X (−1)m+1
=
m=1
m
Exercise 13.
√ 1 √
n = 12( 2 − 1) < 1 < 2 since > 2 − 1
2
√ √ r
√ √ √ √ n+1+ n 1 1
n case ( n + 1 − n)( n + 1 + n) = n + 1 − n = 1 < √ = ( 1 + + 1)
2 n 2 n
√ √ √ √
n + 1 case ( n + 2 − n + 1)( n + 2 + n + 1) = n + 2 − (n + 1) = 1
√ √
q
1
n+2+ n+1 1 + 1 + n+1
√ = >1
2 n+1 2
So then, using the telescoping property,
n−1 m m
X √ √ √ X 1 X √ √ √ √
2( n + 1 − n) = 2( m − 1) < √ < 2( n − n − 1) = 2( m − 1) < 2 m − 1
n=1 n=1
n n=1
(9) x = a − b, b − c = −y.
|x| ≤ |x − y| + | − y| |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|
(10)
(
|x| − |y| if |x| − |y| ≥ 0
||x| − |y|| =
|y| − |x| if |x| − |y| ≤ 0
|x| ≤ |x − y| + | − y| =⇒ |x| − |y| ≤ |x − y|
|y| ≤ |y − x| + | − x| =⇒ |y| − |x| ≤ |y − x| = |x − y|
Exercise 4.
⇒
If ∀k = 1 . . . n; ak x + bk = 0
n
!2 n
!2 n
! n
! n
! n
!
X X X X X X
2
ak (−xak ) = x ak = a2k (−xak ) 2
= a2k b2k
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
bk
⇐ Proving ak x + bk = 0 means x = − , ak 6= 0
ak
n
X n
X n
X n
X
(a1 b1 + a2 b2 + · · · + an bn )2 = a2j b2j + aj ak bj bk == a2j b2j + a2j b2k
j=1 j6=q j=1 j6=k
=⇒ a2j b2k
− aj ak bj bk = aj bk (aj bk − ak bj ) = 0
bj
if aj , bk 6= 0, aj bk − ak bj = 0 =⇒ ak + bk = 0
−aj
Exercise 8. The trick of this exercise is the following algebraic trick (“multiplication by conjugate”) and using telescoping
property of products:
j j j
+2j j+1
(1 − x2 )(1 + x2 ) = 1 − x2 = 1 − x2
1 1 j n
Y j−1 Y 1 − x2 1 − x2
1 + x2 = =
j=1 j=1
1 − x2j−1 1−x
if x = 1, 2n
Exercise 10.
x>1
x2 > x xn+1 = xn x > x2 > x
3 2
x >x >x
0<x<1
x2 < x xn+1 = xn x < x2 < x =⇒ xn+1 < x
X 3 < x2 < x
Exercise 12.
13
(1)
n n j n k
1 X n 1 X n! 1
1+ = =
n j=0
k n (n − k)!k! n
k=0
k−1 k−1
Y
Y r n−r 1 n!
1− = = k
r=0
n r=0
n n (n − k)!
n k−1
X 1 Y r 1 n!
1− = k
k! r=0 n n (n − k)!
k=1
(2)
1 n+1
n k−1
! n n n
1
1 X 1 Y r X 1 X 1 − 1
(1 + )n = 1 + (1 − ) < 1 + <1+ =1+ 2 2
1 = 1 + (1 − )
n k! r=0 n k! 2k 2
2
k=1 k=1 k=1
<3
The first inequality obtained from the fact that if 0 < x < 1, xn < x < 1. The second inequality came from the
1
previous exercise, that k! < 21k .
n k n−1 k n−1 k
1 n X n 1 1 X n 1 1 X n 1 n 1
(1 + ) = =1+ + =1+ + + > >2
n k n n k n n k n 1 n
k=0 k=1 k=2
Exercise 13.
(1)
p−1 k b p
X b 1− a
S= =
k=0
a 1 − ab
p−1 b p
X 1− bp − a p
bk ap−1−k = ap−1 a
=
k=0
1 − ab b−a
(2)
(3) Given
(n + 1)p+1 − np+1
np < < (n + 1)p
p+1
We want
n−1 n
X np+1 X
kp < < kp
p+1
k=1 k=1
2p+1
n = 21p < < 1p + 2p
p+1
p=1
1 < 22 /2 = 2.2 < 1 + 2 = 3
p−2
1 < 8/3 < 1 + 4 = 5
(1)
(2)
(3) Let n = 2.
2−1 2
X np+1 2p+1 X p
k p = 1p = 1, = k = 1 + 2p
p+1 p+1
k=1 k=1
What makes this exercise hard is that we have to use induction on p itself. Let p = 1.
21+1
1< = 2 < 1 + 21 = 3
1+2
14
Now assume pth case. Test the p + 1 case.
2p+2 2p+1
2(p + 1)
= >1
p+2 p+2 p+1
since p + 2 < 2p + 2 = 2(p + 1) for p ∈ Z+
For the right-hand inequality, we will use the fact just proven, that 2p − (p) > 0 and pth case rewritten in this manner
2p+1
(1 + 2p ) > =⇒ (1 + 2p )(p + 1) > 2p+1
p+1
So
(p + 2)(1 + 2p+1 ) = (p + 2) + ((p + 1) + 1)2p (2) = (p + 2) + 2(p + 1)2p + 2p (2) >
> (p + 2) + 2(2p+1 − (p + 1)) + 2p (2) = −p + 2p+2 + 2p+1 > 2p+2
So the n = 2 case is true for all p ∈ Z+ .
Assume nth case is true. We now prove the n + 1 case.
n n−1
X X np+1 np+1 (n + 1)p+1 − np+1 (n + 1)p+1
kp = k p + np < + np < + =
p+1 p+1 p+1 p+1
k=1 k=1
n+1 n
X X np+1 (n + 1)p+1 − np+1 (n + 1)p+1
kp = k p + (n + 1)p > + =
p+1 p+1 p+1
k=1 k=1
(n+1)p+1 −np+1
We had used the inequality proven in part b, np < p+1 < (n + 1)p .
1 + a1 = 1 + a1
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) = 1 + a2 + a1 + a1 a2 ≥ 1 + a1 + a + 2
k n k n k k k+1
(n + 1)nn 12
(n + 1)! n 1 1 1 1 1 1
≥ = = 1− < =
(n + 1)n+1 (n + 1)n+1 n+1 2 n+1 2 2 2 2
where in the second to the last step, we had made this important observation:
n 1 n+1 1 1 1
k≤ =⇒ k + ≤ =⇒ ≤ <
2 2 2 n+1 2k + 1 2
Exercise 16.
15
√
1+ 5
a1 = 1 <
2
√ !2 √ √
1+ 5 1+2 5+5 6+2 5
a2 = 2 < = =
2 4 4
√ !n √ !n−1 √ !n
1+ 5 1+ 5 1+ 5 2
an+1 = an + an−1 < + = 1+ √ =
2 2 2 1+ 5
√ !n √ ! √ !n+1
1+ 5 2(1 − 5) 4 1+ 5
= + =
2 1−5 4 2
Exercise 18.
1/4 1/2
a4 + b4 + c4 a2 + b2 + c2 23/2
≥ = since
3 3 31/2
64
a4 + b4 + c4 ≥
3
Pn
Exercise 19. ak = 1, k=1 1=n
Now consider the case of when not all ak = 1.
a1 = 1
a1 a2 = 1 and suppose, without loss of generality a1 > 1. Then 1 > a2 .
(a1 − 1)(a2 − 1) < 0
a1 a2 − a1 − a2 + 1 < 0 =⇒ a1 + a2 > 2
(consider n + 1 case ) If a1 a2 . . . an+1 = 1, then suppose a1 > 1, an+1 < 1 without loss of generality
b1 = a1 an+1
b1 a2 . . . an = 1 =⇒ b1 + a2 + · · · + an ≥ n (by the induction hypothesis)
(a1 − 1)(an+1 − 1) = a1 an+1 − a1 − an+1 + 1 < 0, b1 < a1 + an+1 − 1
=⇒ a1 + an+1 − 1 + a2 + · · · + an > b1 + a2 + · · · + an ≥ n
=⇒ a1 + a2 + · · · + an+1 ≥ n + 1
16
1.7 Exercises - The concept of area as a set function. We will use the following axioms:
Assume a class M of measurable sets (i.e. sets that can be assigned an area), set function a, a : M → R.
•
Axiom 2 (Nonnegative property).
(1) ∀S ∈ M, a(S) ≥ 0
•
Axiom 3 (Additive property). If S, T ∈ M, then S ∪ T, S ∩ T ∈ M and
(2) a(S ∪ T ) = a(S) + a(T ) − a(S ∩ T )
•
Axiom 4 (Difference property). If S, T ∈ M, S ⊆ T then T − S ∈ M and
(3) a(T − S) = a(T ) − a(S)
•
Axiom 5 (Invariance under congruence). If S ∈ M, T = S, then T ∈ M, a(T ) = a(S)
•
Axiom 6 (Choice of scale). ∀ rectangle R ∈ M, if R has edge lengths h, k then a(R) = hk
•
Axiom 7 (Exhaustion property). Let Q such that
(4) S⊆Q⊆T
If ∃ only one c such that a(S) ≤ c ≤ a(T ), ∀S, T such that they satisfy Eqn. (??)
then Q measurable and a(Q) = c
Exercise 1.
(1) We need to say that we consider a line segment or a point to be a special case of a rectangle allowing h or k (or both)
to be zero.
Let Tl = { line segment containing x0 }, Q = {x0 }.
For Q, only ∅ ⊂ Q
By Axiom 3, let T = S.
a(T − S) = a(∅) = a(T ) − a(T ) = 0
∅ ⊂ Q ⊆ Tl =⇒ a(∅) ≤ a(Q) ≤ a(Tl ) =⇒ 0 ≤ a(Q) ≤ 0
=⇒ a(Q) = 0
(2)
N
[ N
X
a Qj = a(Qj )
j=1 j=1
p 1 p 1
a(A ∩ B) = a2 + b2 d + ab − ( ab + a2 + b2 d) = ab
2 2
Exercise 3. Prove that every trapezoid and every parallelogram is measurable and derive the usual formulas for their areas.
A trapezoid is simply a rectangle with a right triangle attached to each end of it. Tr = R + T1 + T2 . T1 , T2 are right
triangles and so by the previous problem, T1 , T2 are measurable. Then Tr is measurable by the Additive property axiom (note
that the triangles and the rectangle don’t overlap).
17
We can compute the area of a trapezoid:
Tr = R + T1 + T2 =⇒ a(Tr ) = a(R) + a(T1 ) + a(T2 )
1 1 1
a(Tr ) = hb1 + h(b2 − b1 )/2 + h(b2 − b1 )/2 = h(b1 + h2 )
2 2 2
P = R (a parallelogram consists of a right triangle rotated by π and attached to the other side of the same right triangle;
the two triangles do not overlap). Since two right triangles are measurable, the parallelogram, P is measurable.
Using the Additive Axiom, a(P ) = 2a(T ) = 2 12 bh = bh
Exercise 4. A point (x, y) in the plane is called a lattice point if both coordinates x and y are integers. Let P be a polygon
whose vertices are lattice points. The area of P is I + 12 B − 1, where I denotes the number of lattice points inside the polygon
and B denotes the number on the boundary.
(1) Consider one side of the rectangle lying on a coordinate axis with one end on the origin. If the rectangle side has
length l, then l + 1 lattice points lie on this side (you have to count one more point at the 0 point. Then consider the
same number of lattice points on the opposite side. We have 2(l + 1) lattice points so far, for the boundary.
The other pair of sides will contribute 2(h−1) lattice points, the −1 to avoid double counting. Thus 2(l +h) = B.
I = (h − 1)(l − 1) by simply considering multiplication of (h − 1) rows and (l − 1) columns of lattice points
inside the rectangle.
I + 21 B − 1 = hl − h − l + 1 + (l + h) − 1 = hl = a(R)
(2)
(3)
Exercise 5. Prove that a triangle whose vertices are lattice points cannot be equilateral.
My way: I will take, for granted, that we know an equilateral triangle has angles of π/3 for all its angles.
Even if we place two of the vertices on lattice points, so that its length is 2L, and put the midpoint and an intersecting
perpendicular bisector on a coordinate axis (a picture would help), but the ratio of the perpendicular bisector to the third
vertex to half the length of the triangle is cot π/3 = √13 . Even if we go down by an integer number L, L steps down, we go
√
“out” to the third vertex by an irrational number 3L. Thus, the third vertex cannot lie on a lattice point.
Exercise 6. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and let M denote the class of all subsets of A. (There are 32 altogether counting A itself
and the empty set ∅). (My Note: the set of all subsets, in this case, M, is called a power set and is denoted 2A . This is
because the way to get the total number of elements of this power set, |2A |, or the size, think of assigning to each element a
“yes,” if it’s in some subset, or “no”, if it’s not. This is a great way of accounting for all possible subsets and we correctly
get all possible subsets.) For each set S in M, let n(S) denote the number of distinct elements in S. If S = {1, 2, 3, 4} and
T = {3, 4, 5},
[
n(S T) = 5
\
n(S T) = 2
n(S − T ) = n({1, 2}) = 2
n(T − S) = n({5}) = 1
n satisfies nonnegativeSproperty
T because by definition, there’s T thing as a negative number of elements. If S, T are
S no such
subsets of A, so are S T , S T since every element in S ST , S T is in S. Thus n could T be assigned to T
it, so that it’s
measurable. Since n counts only distinct elements, then n(S T ) = n(S) + a(T ) − a(S T ), where −a(S T ) ensures
there is no double counting of distinct elements. Thus, the Additive Property Axiom is satisfied.
(1)
[x + n] = y ≤ x + n, y ∈ Z; y − n ≤ x
[x] + n = z + n ≤ x + n
If y − n < z, then y < z + n ≤ x + n. then y wouldn’t be the greatest integer less than x + n
=⇒ y = z + n
(2)
= y2 ≤ x − [x] = −y2 ≥ −x − y2 − 1 ≤ x
−x ≥ y1 = [−x] = −y2 − 1 = −[x] − 1; ( and y1 = −y2 − 1 since −y2 > −x )
If x is an integer −[x] = [−x]
(3) Let x = q1 + r1 , y = q2 + r2 ; 0 ≤ r1 , r2 < 1.
(
q1 + q2
= [q1 + q2 + r1 + r2 ] =
q1 + q2 + 1 if r1 + r2 ≥ 1
[x] + [y] = q1 + q2 [x] + [y] + 1 = q1 + q2 + 1
(4)
1
If x is an integer , [2x] = 2x = [x] + [x + ] = [x] + [x] = 2x
( 2
1 q if r < 12
[x] + [x + ] = q +
2 2q + 1 if r > 12
(
2q if r < 12
[2x] = [2(q + r)] = [2q + 2r] =
2q + 1 if r > 12
(5)
(
2
(
1 3q
if r < 31
1 2 q if r < q if r <
[x] + [x + ] + [x + ] = q + 2
3 + 3
1
= 3q + 1 if 13 < r < 2
3
3 3 q + 1 if r > q+1 if r >
if r > 32
3 3
3q + 2
3q
if r < 13
[3x] = [3(q + r)] = [3q + 3r] = 3q + 1 if 13 < r < 2
3
if r > 23
3q + 2
nq
if r < n1
[nx] = [n(q + r)] = nq + 1 if n1 < r < 2
n
if r > n−1
nq + n − 1
n
Exercise 6.
1
a(R) = hk = IR + BR − 1
2
b
X
[f (n)] = [f (a)] + [f (a + 1)] + · · · + [f (b)]
n=a
[f (n)] = g ≤ f (n), g ∈ Z, so that if f (n) is an integer,g = f (n), and if f (n) is not an integer, g is the largest integer such
that g < f (n), so that all lattice points included and less than g are included.
Exercise 7.
19
(1) Consider a right triangle with lattice points as vertices. Consider b + 1 lattice points as the base with b length.
Start from the vertex and move across the base by increments of 1.
The main insight is that the slope of the hypotenuse of the right triangle is ab so as we move 1 along the base, the
hypotenuse (or the y-value, if you will) goes up by ab . Now
h na i
(5) = number of interior points at x = n and below the hypotenuse line of the right triangle of sides a, b,
b
including points on the hypotenuse
b−1 h
X na i 1 ab
+ ((a + 1) + b) − 1 =
n=1
b 2 2
(a − 1)(b − 1) ab a b 1
Now = − − +
2 2 2 2 2
b−1 h
X na i (a − 1)(b − 1)
=⇒ =
n=1
b 2
(2) a, b ∈ Z+
b−1 h b−1
X na i X a(b − n)
= (reverses order of summation)
b n=1 n=1
b
b−1
( P
b−1
− n=1 an if an n
Xh an i −a b − a4 is an integer (but a − 1 can’t be!)
a− = Pb−1 ban b
n=1
b − n=1 b −a −1 otherwise
b−1 h b−1 h
X an i X an i
=− −a −1 =− − a − (b − 1) =
n=1
b n=1
b
b−1 h
X an i
=− + a(b − 1) − (b − 1)
n=1
b
b−1 h
X na i (a − 1)(b − 1)
=
n=1
b 2
Exercise 8. Recall that for the step function f = f (x), there’s a partition P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn } of [a, b] such that f (x) = ck
if x ∈ Ik . (
1 ∀x ∈ S
Given that χs (x) = .
0 ∀x ∈ /S
If x ∈ [a, b], then x must only lie in one open subinterval Ij , since real numbers obey transitivity.
n
X n
X
ck χIk (x) = cj for x ∈ Ij =⇒ ck χIk (x) = f (x)∀x ∈ [a, b]
k=1 k=1
1.15 Exercises - The definition of the integral for step functions, Properties of the integral of a step function, Other
notations for integrals. Exercise 1.
R3
(1) 1 [x]dx = (−1) + 1 + (2) = 2
R3 R 7/2
(2) −1 [x + 21 ]dx = −1/2 [x]dx = (−1) 12 + (1)(1) + (2)(1) + 12 3 = 4
R3
(3) −1 ([x] + [x + 12 ])dx = 6
R3
(4) −1 2[x]dx = 4
R3 R6
(5) −1 [2x]dx = 12 −2 [x]dx = 12 ((−2)1 + (−1) + (1) + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5) = 6
R3 R −3 R1
(6) −1 [−x]dx = − 1 [x]dx = −3 [x]dx = −3 + −2 + −1 = −6
Exercise 2.
(
5/2 if 0 < x < 2
s=
−1 if 2 < x < 5
20
Exercise 3. [x] = y ≤ x so −y ≥ −x.
Exercise 4.
Rn Pn−1 (n−1)(n−1+1) (n−1)n
(1) n ∈ Z+ , 0
[t]dt = t=0 t= 2 = 2
(2)
Exercise 5.
R2 R2 √ √ √ √ √ √
(1) 0 [t2 ]dt = 1 [t2 ]dt = 1( 2 − 1) + 2( 3 − 2) + 3(2 − 3) = 5 − 2 − 3
R3 2 R3 2 R0 2 R3 2 R0 2 R3 2
(2) −3 [t ]dt = 0 [t ]dt + −3 [t ]dt = 0 [t ]dt + − 3 [t ]dt = 2 0 [t ]dt
Z 3 √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
[t2 ]dt = 4( 5 − 2) + 5( 6 − 5) + 6( 7 − 6) + 7( 8 − 7) + 8(3 − 8)
2
√ √ √ √
16 − 5 − 6 − 7 − 8
Z 2
2
Z 3 √ √ √ √ √ √
[t ]dt + [t2 ]dt = 21 − 3 2 − 3 − 5 − 6 − 7 − 8
0 2
Z 3 √ √ √ √ √
=⇒ [t2 ]dt = 42 − 2(3 2 + 3 + 5 + 6 + 7)
−3
Exercise 6.
Rn Rn Pn−1 (n−1)n(2n−1)
(1) [t]2 dt = [t]2 dt = j=1 j2 = 6
R0x 2 1
P[x−1]
(2) 0
[t] dt = j=1 j 2 + q r where x = q + r, q ∈ Z+ , 0 ≤ r < 1.
2
Z x
q(q − 1)(2q − 1)
[t]2 dt = + q 2 r = 2(x − 1) = 2(q + r − 1)
0 6
=⇒ q(q − 1)(2q − 1) + 6q 2 r = 12q + 12r − 12
=⇒ x = 1, x = 5/2
Exercise 7.
(1)
Z 9 √ Z 9√
[ t]dt = [ t]dt = 3(1) + 5(2) = 13
0 1
Z 1 √ (4)(3)(17)
6[ t]dt = 3(1) + 5(2) + 7(3) = 34 =
0 6
√n2
n(n − 1)(4n + 1)
Z
Assume [ t]dt =
0 6
Z (n+1)2 √ Z n2 √ √ (n+1)2
n(n − 1)(4n + 1)
Z
[ t]dt = [ t]dt + [ t]dt = + n((n + 1)2 − n2 ) =
0 0 n2 6
(n2 − n)(4n + 1) + 6n(2n + 1) 4n3 + n2 − 4n2 − n + 12n2 + 6n 4n3 + 9n2 + 5n
= = =
6 6 6
indeed ,
(n + 1)(n)(4(n + 1) + 1) (n2 + n)(4n + 5) 4n3 + 5n2 + 4n2 + 5n
= =
6 6 6
21
R b+c R b+c−c Rb
Exercise 8. a+c
f (x)dx = a+c−c
f (x − (−c))dx = a f (x + c)dx
R kb 1
R (kb)/k x Rb
Exercise 9. ka
f (x)dx = 1 (ka)/k
f 1/k dx = k a f (kx)dx
k
Rp
Exercise 10. Given s(x) = (−1)n n if n ≤ x < n + 1; n = 0, 1, 2, . . . p − 1; s(p) = 0, p ∈ Z+ . f (p) = 0
s(x)dx.
R3
So for f (3) = 0
s(x)dx, we need to consider n = 0, 1, 2.
s(0 ≤ x < 1) = 0
s(1 ≤ x < 2) = (−1)(1)
s(2 ≤ x < 3) = 2;
s(3 ≤ x < 4) = −3
So then
f (3) = (−1)(1) + 2(1) = 1
f (4) = 1 + (−3)(1) = −2
f (f (3)) = f (1) = 0
We obtain this formula (
p p+1
f (p) = 2 (−1) p even
since
p−1 p+1
2 (−1) p even
Z p+1 n
f (p + 1) = f (p) + s(x)dx = p−1
2 (−1)
p+1
p even + (−1)p p
p
( ( (
−p p
2 p even p 2
= p−1 + = −p−1 =
2 p odd −p 2
(
− (p+1)
2 if p + 1 even
= p
2 if p + 1 odd
Thus, p = 14, p = 15.
Exercise 11.
(1)
Z b n
X
s(x)dx = s3k (xk − xk−1 )
a k=1
Z b Z c n1
X n2
X n2
X Z c
s+ s= s2k (xk − xk−1 ) + s3k (xk − xk−1 ) = s3k (xk − xk−1 ) = s(x)dx
a b k=1 k=n1 k=1 a
Rb Pn3 Rb Rb
(2) (s + t) = k=1 (s + t)3k (xk − xk−1 ) 6= t s+ a
Rab Pn Rb a
(3) a cs = k=1 (cs)3 (xk − xk−1 ) 6= c a s
(4) Consider these facts that are true, that xk−1 < x < xk , s(x) = sk ; x0 = a + c, xn = b + c,
xk−1 − c < x − c < xl − c =⇒ yk−1 < y < yk so then s(y + c) = sk .
n
X k
X
s3k (xk − xk−1 ) = s3k (xk − c − (xk−1 − c)) =
k=1 k=1
Xn Z b
= s3k (yk − yk−1 ) = s(y + c)dy
k=1 a
Rb Pn 3
(5) s < t, a
s= k=1 sk (xk − xk−1 ).
if 0 < s, s3 < s2 t < st2 < t3
if s < 0t, s3 < and t3 > 0
ts > t2
if s < t < 0, s3 < s2 t, s(st) < t(ts) = t2 s
t2 s < t 3
s3 < s2 t < t2 s < t3
22
Rb Rb
Then a
s< a
t.
Exercise 12.
Rb Rc Pn1 Pn2 Pn3 Rc
(1) a
s+ b s = k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) + k=n 1
sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) = k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) = a s
Rb Pn3 2 2
Pn3 2 2
Pn3 2 2
Pn3 2 2
(2) a
(s+t) = k=1 (s+t)k (xk −xk−1 ) = k=1 (sk +tk )(xk −xk−1 ) = k=1 sk (xk −xk−1 )+ k=1 tk (xk −xk−1 )
since P3 = {xk } is a finer partition than the partition for s, P1 , t, P2 , then consider
sk (yj2 − yj−1
2
) = sk ((x2k+1 − x2k ) + (x2k − x2k−1 )), so
n3
X n3
X n1
X n2
X
2 2
sk (x2k −x−k−1 )+ tk (x2k −x−k−1 )= sj (x2j −x−j−1 )+ 2
tj (x2j − x − j − 12 ) =
k=1 k=1 j=1 j=1
Z b Z b
= s+ t
a a
Rb Pn Pn Rb
(3) cs = csk (x2k − x2k−1 ) = c k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) =
k=1 c a s
Rab+c Pn
(4) a+c
s(x)dx = k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) where
s(x) = sk if xk−1 < x < xk
x(y + c) = sk if xk−1 < y + c < xk =⇒ xk−1 − c < y < xk − c =⇒ yk−1 < y < yk
0
where P = {yk } is a partition on [a, b]
Z b n
X
s(y + c)dy = sk (yk2 − yk−1
2
)=
a k=1
Xn n
X
= sk ((xk − c)2 − (xk−1 − c)2 ) = sk (x2k − 2xk c + c2 − (x2k−1 − 2xk−1 c + c2 )) =
k=1 k=1
Xn n
X
= sk (x2k − x2k−1 − 2c(xk − xk−1 )) 6= sk (x2k − x2k−1 )
k=1 k=1
Rb Pn Rb Pn
(5) Since x2k − x2k−1 > 0, a sdx = k=1 sk (x2k − x2k−1 ) < k=1 tk (x2k − x2k−1 ) = a tdx
Note that we had shown previously that the integral doesn’t change under finer partition.
Exercise 13.
Z b n
X Z b n2
X
s(x)dx sk (xk − xk−1 ); t(x)dx = tk (yk − yk−1 )
a k=1 a k=1
P = {x0 , x1 , . . . , xn }, Q = {y0 , y1 , . . . , yn }
Note that x0 =S y0 = a; xn = yn2 = b.
Consider P Q = R. R consists of n3 elements, (since n3 ≤ n + n2 some elements of P and Q may be the same. R is
another partition on [a, b] (by partition definition) since xk , yk ∈ R and since real numbers obey transitivity, {xk , yk } can be
arranged such that a < z1 < z2 < · · · < zn3 −2 < b where zk = xk or yk .
(s + t)(x) = s(x) + t(x) = sj + tk if xj−1 < x < xj ; yj−1 < x < yj
If xj−1 ≶ yj−1 , let zl−1 = yj−1 , xj−1 and
If xj ≶ yj , let zl = xj , yj
Let sj = sl ; tk = tl
(s + t)(x) = s(x) + t(x) = sl + tl , if zl−1 < x < zl
Z b Z b n3
X n3
X n3
X
(s(x) + t(x))dx = ((s + t)(x))dx = (sl + t)l)(zl − zl−1 ) = sl (zl − zl−1 ) + tl (zl − zl−1 )
a a l=1 l=1 l=1
In general, it was shown (Apostol I, pp. 66) that any finer partition doesn’t change the integral R is a finer partition. So
Xn3 n
X Xn Xn2 Z b Z b
sl (zl − zl−1 ) + tl (zl − zl−1 ) = sk (xk − xk−1 ) + tk (yk − yk−1 ) = s(x)dx + t(x)dx
l=1 l=1 k=1 k=1 a a
23
Exercise 14. Prove Theorem 1.4 (the linearity property).
Z b Z b n
X n2
X
c1 s(x)dx + c2 t(x)dx = c1 sk (xk − xk−1 ) + c2 tk (xk − xk−1 ) =
a a k=1 k=1
n3
X n3
X n3
X
= c1 sl (zl − zl−1 ) + c2 tl (zl − zl−1 ) = (c1 sl + c2 tl )(zl − zl−1 ) =
l=1 l=1 l=1
Z b
= (c1 s + c2 t)(x)dx
a
We relied on the fact that we could define a finer partition from two partitions of the same interval.
s(x) < t(x) ∀x ∈ [a, b]; s(x)(zl − zl−1 ) < t(x)(zl − zl−1 ) (zl − zl−1 > 0)
Z b n
X n3
X n3
X n2
X
s(x)dx = sk (xk − xk−1 ) = sl (zl − zl−1 ) < tl (zl − zl−1 ) = tk (yl − yk−1 ) =
a k=1 l=1 l=1 k=1
Z b
= t(x)dx
a
Z b Z b
=⇒ s(x)dx < t(x)dx
a a
Exercise 16. Prove Theorem 1.6 (additivity with respect to the interval).
Use the hint: P1 is a partition of [a, c], P2 is a partition of [c, b], then the points of P1 along with those of P2 form a
partition of [a, b].
Z c Z b n1
X n2
X n3
X Z b
s(x)dx + s(x)dx = sl (xk − xk−1 ) + sk (xk − xk−1 ) = sk (xk − xk−1 ) = s(x)dx
a a k=1 k=1 k=1 a
P 0 = {y0 , y1 , . . . , yn }; yk = xk + c;
=⇒xk−1 + c < y < xk + c
xk−1 < y − c < xk
yk − yk−1 = xk + c − (xk−1 + c) = xk − xk−1
1.26 Exercises - The integral of more general functions, Upper and lower integrals, The area of an ordinate set ex-
pressed as an integral, Informal remarks on the theory and technique of integration, Monotonic and piecewise mono-
tonic functions. Definitions and examples, Integrability of bounded monotonic functions, Calculation of the integral
Rb
of a bounded monotonic function, Calculation of the integral 0 xp dx when p is a positive integer, The basic properties
of the integral, Integration of polynomials.
R2
Exercise 16. 0
|(x − 1)(3x − 1)|dx =
24
Z 2 Z 2 2
(x − 1)(3x − 1)dx = (3x2 − 4x + 1)dx = (x3 − 2x2 + x)1 = 2
1 1
Z 1 1 4
(1 − x)(3x − 1)dx = − (x3 − 2x2 + x)1/3 =
1/3 27
Z 1/3
4
(x − 1)(3x − 1)dx =
0 27
So the final answer for the integral is 62/27.
R3 R3 R 3−5/2 1/2
Exercise 17. 0 (2x − 5)3 dx = 8 0 (x − 52 )3 dx = 8 −5/2 x3 dx = 8 14 x4 −5/2 = 39
2
R3 R3 Rx R3 R3
Exercise 18. −3
(x2 − 3)3 dx = 0
(x2 − 3)3 + −3
(x2 − 3)3 = 0
(x2 − 3)2 + − 0
(x2 − 3)3 = 0
2.4 Exercises - Introduction, The area of a region between two graphs expressed as an integral, Worked examples.
Exercise 15. f = x2 , g = cx3 , c > 0
For 0 < x < 1c , cx < 1 (since c > 0). So cx3 < x2 (since x2 > 0).
Z Z 1/c
1 3 c 4 1
f − g = x2 − cx3 = x − x =
3 4 0 12c3
Z
2 1 1
f −g = = ; c= √
3 12c3 2 2
(1) r
Z 3 Z 3 x 2 Z 1
p
2
p 9π
9 − x dx = 3 1− = 3(3) 1 − x2 =
−3 −3 3 −1 2
Now Z kb x Z b
f dx = k f dx
ka k a
(2) r
Z 2 Z 1
1 p 2π π
1 − x2 dx = 2 1 − x2 dx = =
0 4 0 4 2
R2 √
(3) −2 (x − 3) 4 − x2 dx
Z 2 p Z −2 p Z 2 p
2
x 4 − x dx = (−1) 2
−x 4 − x =⇒ 2 x 4 − x2 = 0
−2 2 −2
Z 2 r x 2 Z 1p
−3 2 1− dx = (−6)(2) 1 − x2 = −6π
−2 2 −1
Exercise 18. Consider a circle of radius 1 and a twelve-sided dodecagon inscribed in it. Divide the dodecagon by isosceles
triangle pie slices. The interior angle that is the vertex angle of these triangles is 360/12 = 30 degrees.
Then the length of the bottom side of each triangle is given by the law of cosines:
√ ! s √
3 √ 3
c2 = 1 + 1 − 2(1)(1) cos 30◦ = 2 1 − =⇒ c = 2 1 −
2 2
25
The height is given also by the law of cosines
√
s
1 + 23
r
◦ 1+ cos 30◦
h = 1 cos 15 = =
2 2
The area of the dodecagon is given by adding up twelve of those isosceles triangles
√ √
s s
√
1 3 1 3
(12) 1 + √ 2 1 − =3
2 2 2 2
So 3 < π.
Now consider a dodecagon that’s circumscribing the circle of radius 1.
√ √ !
v
3
u
1 tu 1 − 2 3
(12) 2 √ (1) = 12 2 − >π
2 1+ 2 3 2
Exercise 19.
Exercise 20. Let f be nonnegative and integrable on [a, b] and let S be its ordinate set.
2.8 Exercises - The trigonometric functions, Integration formulas for the sine and cosine, A geometric description of
the sine and cosine functions. Exercise 1.
Exercise 2.
Exercise 3.
sin x + π = − sin x + π/2 + π/2 = cos x + π/2 = − sin x
cos x + π = cos x + π/2 + π/2 = − sin x + π/2 = − cos x
Exercise 4.
26
sin 3x = sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x = 2 sin x cos2 x + sin x(cos2 x − sin2 x) = 3 cos2 x sin x − sin3 x =
= 3(1 − sin2 x) sin x − sin3 x = 3 sin x − 4 sin3 x
cos 3x = cos 2x cos x − sin 2x sin x = (cos2 x − sin2 x) cos x − (2 sin x cos x) sin x = cos x − 4 sin2 x cos x
cos 3x = −3 cos x + 4 cos3 x
Exercise 5.
(1) This is the most direct solution. Using results from Exercise 4 (and it really helps to choose the cosine relationship,
not the sine relationship),
cos 3x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
x = π/6
cos 3π/6 = 0 = 4 cos3 π/6 − 3 cos π/6 = cos π/6(4 cos2 π/6 − 3) = 0
√
=⇒ cos π/6 = 3/2, sin π/6 = 1/2( by Pythagorean theorem )
√
(2) sin 2π/6 = 2 cos π/6 sin π/6 = 32, cos π/3 √= 1/2 (by Pythagorean theorem)
(3) cos2π/4 = 0 = 2 cos π/4 − 1, cos π/4 = 1/ 2 = sin π/4
Note that the most general way to solve a cubic is to use this formula. For x3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0,
9bc − 27d − 2b3
R=
p
54 S = (R + Q3 + R2 )1/3
3c − b2
p
Q= T = (R − Q3 + R2 )1/3
9
x1 = S + T − b/3
√
x2 = −1/2(S + T ) − b/3 + 1/2 −3(S − T )
√
x3 = −1/2(S + T ) − b/3 − 1/2 −3(S − T )
Exercise 6.
1
!
sin x − y sin x cos y − sin y cos x cos x cos y tan x − tan y
tan x − y = = 1 =
cos x − y cos x cos y + sin x sin y cos x cos y
1 + tan x tan y
if tan x tan y 6= −1
Similarly,
sin x + y sin x cos y + sin y cos x tan x + tan y
tan x + y = = = , tan x tan y 6= 1
cos x + y cos x cos y − sin x sin y 1 − tan x tan y
cos x + y cos x cos y − sin x sin y cot x cot y − 1
cot x + y = = =
sin x + y sin x cos y + sin y cos x cot y + cot x
√ √
3 3 3
Exercise 7. 3 sin x + π/3 = A sin x + B cos x = 3(sin x 12 + 2 cos x) = 3
2 sin x + 2 cos x
Exercise 8.
C sin x + α = C(sin x cos α + cos x sin α) = C cos α sin x + C sin α cos x
A = C cos α, B = C sin α
Exercise 9. If A = 0, B cos x = B sin π/2 + x = C sin x + α so C = B, α = π/2 if A = 0.
If A 6= 0,
B
A sin x + B cos x = A(sin x +
cos x) == A(sin x + tan α cos x)
A
A A
= (cos α sin x + sin α cos x) = (sin x + α)
cos α cos α
A
where −π/2 < α < π/4, B/A = tan α, C = cos α
Exercise 10. C sin x + α = C sin x cos α + C cos x sin α.
√
C cos α = −2, C sin α = −2, C = −2 2, α = π/4
Exercise 15.
sin x + h − sin x sin (x + h/2) cos h/2 + cos (x + h/2) sin h/2 − sin (x + h) cos h/2 − cos x + h/2 sin h/2
=
h h
sin h/2
= cos (x + h/2)
h/2
cos x + h − cos x cos (x + h/2) cos h/2 − sin (x + h/2) sin h/2 − (cos (x + h/2) cos h/2 + sin (x + h/2) sin h/2)
=
h h
sin h/2
=− sin (x + h/2)
h/2
Exercise 16.
(1)
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x
if sin 2x = 2 sin x and x 6= 0, x 6= πn, cos x = 1 but x 6= πn =⇒ x = 2πn
(2) cos x + y = cos x cos y − sin x sin y = cos x + cos y.
p
cos x cos y − cos x − cos y = sin y 1 − cos2 x
Letting A = cos x, B = cos y,
A B + A + B − 2A2 B − 2AB 2 + 2AB = 1 − A2 − B 2 + A2 B 2
2 2 2 2
A2 + B 2 − A2 B − AB 2 + AB = 1/2
B 2 (1 − A) + B(A − A2 ) + A2 − 1/2 = 0
p
A(1 − A) ± A2 (1 − A)2 − 4(1 − A)(A2 − 1/2) 1
B= =A± √ (A2 (1 − A) − 4(A2 − 1/2))1/2 =
1−A 1−A
1
=A± √ (−3A2 − A3 + 2)1/2
1−A
Note that −1 ≤ B ≤ 1, but for |A| ≤ 1. √ √
Solve for the roots of −3A2 − A3 + 2, A0 = −1, −1 + 3, −1 − 3. So suppose cos x = 9/10. Then there is
no real number for y such that cos y would be real and satisfy the above equation.
(3) sin x + y = sin x cos y + sin y cos x = sin x + sin y
=⇒ sin y(1 − cos x) + sin y + − cos x sin y = 0, =⇒ y = 2πn
Checking our result, we find that sin (2πn + y) = sin 2πn + sin y(1)
28
(4) Z y
y
sin xdx = − cos x|0 = −(cos y − 1) = 1 − cos y = sin y
0
p
=⇒ 1 − cos y = 1 − cos2 y
2(j + 1)π
1 − 2 cos y + cos2 y = 1 − cos2 y =⇒ cos y(cos y − 1) = 0; y = , 2πn
2
Rb b
Exercise 17. a
sin xdx = − cos x|a = − cos b + cos a
√
(1) − 23 + 1
√
(2) − 22 + 1
1
(3) 2
(4) 1
(5) 2
(6) 0 We were integrating over one period, over one positive semicircle and over one negative semicircle.
(7) 0 We
√
had√integrated over two equal parts, though it only shaded in up to x = 1.
(8) − 2 + 23
2
Rπ π 2 2
Exercise 18. 0 (x + sin x)dx = ( 12 x2 − cos x)0 = π2 − (−1 − 1) = π2 + 2
R π/2 π/2
Exercise 19. 0
(x2 + cos x)dx = ( 13 x3 + sin x)0 = 31 (π/2)3 + 1
R π/2 π/2
Exercise 20. 0
(sin x − cos x)dx = (− cos x − sin x)|0 = −1 − (−1) = 0
R π/2 R π/4 π/4 √
Exercise 21. | sin x − cos x|dx = ( by symmetry )2
0 0
(cos x − sin x)dx = 2(sin x + cos x)|0 = 2( 2 − 1)
Rπ 1 π
Exercise 22. 0 ( 2 + cos t)dt = ( 12 t + sin t)0 = π2
Exercise 23.
Z 2π/3 Z π 2π/3 2π/3
1 1 t t
( + cos t)dt + −( + cos t)dt = ( + sin t) + ( + sin t)
0 2 2π/3 2 2 0 2 π
√
π 3 π π √
= 2( + )− = + 3
3 2 2 6
Exercise 24. If −π < x ≤ − 2π
3 ,
Z x Z −π −π
1 1 t π x
−( + cos t)dt = ( + cos t)dt = + sin t = − − − sin x
−π 2 x 2 2 x 2 2
If −2π/3 ≤ x ≤ 2π/3,
Z −2π/3
−π/6 √
Z x
1 1 x
−( + cos t)dt + ( + cos t)dt = 3/2 + (t/2 + sin t)|−2π/3
−π 2 −2π/3 2 +
√ √ x
= x/2 + sin x − π/3 − 3/2 + 3/2 − π/6 = + sin x − π/3
2
If 2π/3 ≤ x ≤ π,
√ Z x √ 2π/3
√
3/2 + −(1/2 + cos t)dt = 3/2 + (t/2 + sin t)|x = π/3 + 3 − x/2 − sin x
2π/3
R x2 x6 −x3
Exercise 25. x
(t2 + sin t)dt = ( 13 t3 + − cos t) = 3 + cos x − cos x2
R π/2 π/2
− cos (2x)
Exercise 26. sin 2xdx = = (−1/2)(−1 − 1) = 1
0 2
0
R π/3 π/3
Exercise 27. 0
cos x/2dx = 2 sin x/2|0 = 2 21 = 1
Exercise 28.
29
Z x Z x cos a x
cos (a + bt)dt = (cos a cos bt − sin a sin bt)dt = sin bt − sin a(− cos bt/b) =
0 0 b 0
cos a sin a 1
= sin bx + (cos bx − 1) = sin a + bx − sin a/b
b b b x
Z x Z x
sin a cos a
sin (a + bt)dt = (sin a cos bt + sin bt cos a)dt = sin bt − cos bt =
0 0 b b 0
1
= (cos bx + a + cos a)
b
Exercise 29.
(1)
x x x
3 sin t − sin 3t cos 3x − 1
Z Z
3 3
sin tdt = dt = − cos t + cos 3t/12 = −3/4(cos x − 1) + =
0 0 4 4 0 12
1 3 1
= − cos x + (cos 2x cos x − sin 2x sin x) = 2/3 − 1/3 cos x(2 + sin2 x)
3 4 12
(2)
Z x Z x x
3 1 1 sin 3t 3
cos tdt = + sin t =
(cos 3t + 3 cos t)dt =
0 0 4 4 3 4 0
1 3 1
= (sin 2x cos x + sin x cos 2x) + sin x = (2 sin x cos x + sin x(2 cos2 x − 1)) =
12 4 12
sin x cos2 x + 2 sin x
=
3
Exercise 30. Now using the definition of a periodic function,
Exercise 31.
(1)
Z 2π Z 2πn
2πn
1 1 1
sin nxdx = (− cos x) = − (1 − 1) = 0
sin xdx =
0 0 n n 0 n
Z 2π 2πn
1 2πn
Z
1
cos nxdx = cos xdx = sin x =0
0 n 0 n 0
(2)
Z 2π Z 2π
1
sin nx cos mxdx = (sin (n + m)x + sin (n − m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
0 0 2
Z 2π Z 2π
1
sin nx sin mxdx = (cos (n − m)x + cos (n + m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
0 0 2
Z 2π Z 2π
1
cos nx cos mxdx = (cos (n − m)x + cos (n + m)x)dx = 0 + 0 = 0
0 0 2
While
2π 2π
1 − cos 2nx
Z Z
sin2 nxdx = dx = π
0 0 2
Z 2π Z 2π
1 + cos 2nx
cos2 nxdx = dx = π
0 0 2
30
Exercise 32. Given that x 6= 2πn; sin x/2 6= 0,
n n n
X X X x x x
2 sin x/2 cos kx = 2 sin x/2 cos kx = sin (2k + 1) − sin (2k − 1) = sin (2n + 1) − sin x/2
2 2 2
k=1 k=1 k=1
= sin nx cos x/2 + sin x/2 cos nx − sin x/2 =
= 2 sin nx/2 cos nx/2 cos x/2 + sin x/2(1 − 2 sin2 nx/2) − sin x/2 =
= 2(sin nx/2)(cos (n + 1)x/2)
cos (2k + 1)x/2 − cos (2k − 1)x/2 = cos kx + x/2 − cos kx − x/2 =
= cos kx cos x/2 − sin kx sin x/2 − (cos kx cos x/2 + sin kx sin x/2) =
= −2 sin kx sin x/2
n
X n
X
−2 sin x/2 sin kx = (cos (2k + 1)x/2 − cos (2k − 1)x/2) = cos (2n + 1)x/2 − cos x/2 =
k=1 k=1
= cos nx + x/2 − cos x/2
Now
sin nx/2 sin nx/2 + x/2 = sin nx/2(sin nx/2 cos x/2 + sin x/2 cos nx/2) =
= sin2 nx/2 cos x/2 + sin x/2 cos nx/2 sin nx/2 =
1 − cos nx sin nx
= cos x/2 + sin x/2 =
2 2
1 1
= (cos x/2 − cos x/2 cos nx + sin nx sin x/2) = (cos x/2 − cos (nxx /2)
2 2
Then
n
X 1
−2 sin x/2 sin kx = −2 sin nx/2 sin (n + 1)x
2
k=1
n
X sin nx/2 sin 12 (n + 1)x
sin kx =
sin x/2
k=1
Exercise 34. Using triangle OAP, not the right triangle, if 0 < x < π/2
1 1 x
cos x sin x < sin x <
2 2 2
=⇒ sin x < x
Now if 0 > x > −π/2, sin x < 0,
| sin x| = − sin x = sin −x = sin |x| < |x|
1
x2 dx = 13 (b2 + ab + a2 )
R
2.17 Exercises - Average value of a function. Exercise 1. b−a
1 7
x2 + x3 =
R
Exercise 2. 1−0 12
1 4
x1/2 =
R
Exercise 3. 4−0 3
1 45
x1/3 =
R
Exercise 4. 8−1 28
1
R π/2 2
Exercise 5. π/2−0 0
sin x = π
1
R
Exercise 6. π/2−−π/2 cos x = 2/π
1
R
Exercise 7. π/2−0 sin 2x = −1/π(−1 − 1) = 2/π
1 1
R
Exercise 8. π/4−0 sin x cos x = π
31
π
1
sin2 x = 1 1
R
Exercise 9. π/2−0 π (x − sin 2x/2)0 = 2
1 1
cos2 x =
R
Exercise 10. π−0 2
Exercise 11.
1
√
x2 = a2 /3 = c2 =⇒ c = a/ 3
R
(1) a−0 a
1 an
x = a1 n+1
1 a
R n
(2) xn+1 = n+1 = cn =⇒ c =
a−0
0 (n+1)1/n
Exercise 12.
Z Z Z Z
A = wf / w wx2 =k x
Z
1 1 1
x3 = x4 = k x2 ; k = ,w = x
4 2 2
Z
1 1 3
x4 = x5 = k x3 ; k = , w = x2
5 3 5
Z
1 1 2
x5 = x6 = k x4 ; k = , w = x3
6 4 3
Exercise 13.
Z Z Z
1 1 1
A(f + g) = f +g = f+ g = A(f ) + A(g)
b−a b−a b−a
Z Z
1 1
A(cf ) = cf = c f
b−a b−a
Z Z
1 1
A(f ) = f≤ g = A(g)
b−a b−a
Exercise 14.
R R R
w(c1 f + c2 g) c1 wf c2 wg
A(c1 f + c2 g) = R = R + R
w w w
= c1 A(f ) + c2 A(g)
f ≤ g w > 0( nonnegative ), =⇒ wf ≤ wg
Exercise 15.
b c b
! Rc ! Rb
c−a f b − a − (c − a) a f
Z Z Z
1 1
Aba (f ) = f= f+ f = a
+
b−a a b−a a c b−a c−a b−a b−c
a<c<b
c−a
c−a Let t =
0< <1 b−a
b−a
=⇒ Aba (f ) = tAca (f ) + (1 − t)Abc (f )
Rb Rc Rc Rb Rc ! Rb
wf w wf w − w wf
Aba (f ) = Ra b = Rab Ra c + a
Rb
a c
Rb
w w a w w w
a a a c
Rc Rc
w w
0 < Rab < 1 since w is a nonnegative function. Let t = Rab
a
w a
w
=⇒ Aba (f ) = tAca (f ) + (1 − t)Abc (f )
R R
Exercise 16. Recall that xcm = R xρ or rcm =
rdm
ρ M .
32
RL
x L
xcm = R0L =
1 2
Z0 Z
Icm = r2 dm = x2 (1) = L3 /3
Icm L
r2 = R L = L2 /3 =⇒ r = √
0
1 3
Exercise 17.
R l/2 RL
0
x+ L/2
2xdx yL2
xcm = L =
2 + 2(L − L/2) 12
Z L/2 Z L √
5L3 /8 5L2 5L
Icm = x2 + 2x2 = 5L3 /8 r = 2
= =⇒ r = √
0 L/2 3L/2 12 2 3
1 3 L
R
xxdx 3 x 0 2
xcm = R = L = L
xdx 1 2 3
2x 0
Z
Icm = x2 xdx = L4 /4
L4 /4 L
r2 = = L2 /2 r= √
L2 /2 2
Exercise 19.
1 3 L/2
L
xxdx + x L2 dx 3x 0 + L2 (x2 /2)L/2
R R
xcm = R R = = 11L/18
xdx + L/2 1 2 L/2
L
2 x 0
+ 2 (L − L/2)
Z Z
2 2 4
Icm = x xdx + x L/2dx = L 31/192
√
31L
r2 = Icm /(L2 3/8) = L2 31/72 r = √
6 2
xx2 dx
R
xcm = R = 3L/4
x2
Z
Icm = x2 x2 dx = L5 /5
r
2 Icm 3 2 3
r = 1 3 = L r= L
3 L 5 5
Exercise 21.
R L/2 RL 2
0
xx2 dx + L/2
x L4 dx
xcm = R L/2 R L L2 = 21L/32
0
x2 dx + L/2 4
dx
L
L2
Z
L/2 2 2
Icm = int0 x x dx + x2
dx = 19L5 /240
L/2 4
Icm √ √
r2 = = 19L2 /40 =⇒ r = 19L/2 10
L3 /6
Exercise 22. Be flexible about how you can choose a convenient origin to evaluate the center-of-mass from
33
Let ρ = cxn
Z L
1
c xn dx =
Ln+1 c = M
0 n + 1
(n + 1)M
=⇒ c =
Ln+1
Z L
1 n+1 3M L
c xxn dx = c Ln+2 = ML =
0 n+2 n+2 4
R Z
xρ 3L n+1 3
xcm = = =⇒ xρ = = =⇒ n = 2
M 4 n+2 4
3M 2
ρ= x
L3
Exercise 23.
(1) Z
1 6
3 sin 2t =
π/2 − 0 π
(2)
1
Z √
9 sin2 2t = 9/2 =⇒ vrms = 3 2/2
π/2 − 0
Exercise 24. T = 2π (just look at the functions themselves)
1
Z 2π √
160 sin t2 sin (t − π/6) = 80 3
2π 0
Rx
2.19 Exercises - The integral as a function of the upper limit. Indefinite integrals. Exercise 1. 0
(1 + t + t2 )dt =
x + 12 x2 + 13 x3
Exercise 2. 2y + 2y 2 + 8y 3 /3
Exercise 3. 2x + 2x2 + 8x3 /3 − (−1 + 1/2 + −1/3) = 2(x + x2 + 4x3 /3) + 5/6
R 1−x 1−x
Exercise 4. 1
(1 − 2t + 3t2 )dt = (t − t2 + t3 )1 = −2x + 2x2 − x3
Rx 1 5
x x5 x3
Exercise 5. −2
t4 + t2 = 5t + 13 t3 −2 = 5 + 3 + 40
3
R x2 x2
t5
Exercise 6. t4 + 2t2 + 1 = + 23 t3 + t = 51 (x10 − x5 ) + 23 (x6 − x3 ) + x2 − x
x 5
x
2 3/2
x
Exercise 7. 3t + t 1 = 23 (x3/2 − 1) + (x − 1)
2 3/2
x2
Exercise 8. 3t + 45 t5/4 x = 23 (x3 − x3/2 ) + 45 (x5/2 − x5/4 )
x
Exercise 9. sin t|iπ = sin x
t
x2 x2
Exercise 10. 2 + sin t 0 = 2 + sin x2
1
x2 x2 −x
Exercise 11. 2t + cos t x = 2 + cos x2 − cos x
1 3
x x3
Exercise 12. 3u + − 13 cos 3u 0 = 3 + − 13 (cos 3x − 1)
x2
1 3 cos 3v x6 −x3 −1 2
Exercise 13. 3v + = + 3 (cos 3x − cos 3x)
−3 3
x
1−cos 2x 1 sin 2x
y y sin 2y y 2
+ 12 x2 0 =
R
Exercise 14. 2 +x= 2x − 4 − +
2 4 2
34
− cos 2w
x (cos 2x − 1) x
Exercise 15. 2 + 2 sin w2 0 = − + 2 sin
2 2
Rx Rx x
Exercise 16. (1
−π 2
+cos t)2 dt = 1
−π 4
+cos t+cos2 t = 41 (x+π)+sin x+ 1
2 t+ sin 2t
2
= 3 (x+π)+sin x+ 1 sin 2x
−π 4 4
Rx 1
Rx
Exercise 17. 0
(t3 − t)dt = 3
√
2
(t − t3 )dt
√
Note that t3 − t < 0 for 0 < t ≤ 1 and t3 − t > 0 for t > 1. t − t3 < 0 for t > 2.
x
1 4 1 2 1 1 2 1 4 1 1
x − x = t − t √ = x2 − x4
4 2 3 2 4 2 6 12
1 4 2 2 √
=⇒ x − x = 0 =⇒ x = 0, x = 2
3 3
R1 R √2
0
(t3 − t)dt + 1
(t3 − t)dt “cancel” each other out.
1
Exercise 18. f (x) = x − [x] − 2 if x is not an integer; f (x) = 0 if x ∈ Z.
For any real number, x = q + r, 0 ≤ r < 1, q ∈ Z. So then
x − [x] = r
1
f (x) = r −
2
(1) To show the periodicity, consider
1 1
f (x + 1) = x + 1 − [x + 1] − = r − = f (x) sincex + 1 = q + 1 + r, [x + 1] = q + 1
2 2
1
x + 1 − [x + 1] = r −
2
Rx Rx
(2) P (x) = 0 f (t)dt = 0 (t − 12 ) = 12 x2 − 21 x because given 0 < x ≤ 1, then q = 0 for x, so we can use r = t.
To show periodicity,
Z x+1 Z 1 Z x+1 Z x Z x
P (x + 1) = f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (t)dt = 0 + f (t + 1)dt = f (t)dt = P (x)
0 0 1 0 0
Z 1 1
1 2
since f (t)dt = (x − x) = 0
0 2 0
(3) Since P itself is periodic by 1, then we can consider 0 ≤ x < 1 only. Now x − [x] = r and P (x) = 12 (r2 − r). So
P (x) = 12 ((x − [x])2 − (x − [x])).
(4)
Z 1 Z 1
(P (t) + c)dt = 0 =⇒ P (t)dt = −c
0 0
1
0 ≤ t ≤ 1 so P (t) = (t2 − t)
2
Z 1 1
1 1 3 1 2 1 −1 1
=⇒ P (t)dt = t − t = =⇒ c =
0 2 3 2 0 2 6 12
Rx
(5) Q(x) = 0
(P (t) + c)dt
Z x+1 Z 1
Z x+1
Q(x + 1) = (P (t) + c)dt =
(P (t) + c)dt + (P (t) + c)dt =
0 0 1
Z x Z x
=0+ (P (t + 1) + c)dt = (P (t) + c)dt = Q(x)
0 0
so without loss of generality, consider 0 ≤ x < 1
Z x
1 2 1 1 1 x
=⇒ Q(x) (t − t) + = x3 − x2 +
0 2 12 6 4 12
35
R 2π
Exercise 19. g(2n) = 0
f (t)dt
Consider Z 1 Z 1 Z 0 Z 1 Z 0
1
f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (t)dt = f (t)dt + f (−1t)dt =
−1 0 −1 0 −1 1
Z 1 Z 0
f+ f (t)dt = 0
=
0 1
R3 R1 R1
Consider that 1 f (t)dt = −1 f (t + 2)dt = −1 f (t)dt = 0. Then, by induction,
Z 2n+1 Z 2n−1 Z 2n+1 Z 1 Z 1
f= f+ f (t)dt = 0 + f (t + 2n)dt = f (t)dt = 0
1 1 2n−1 −1 −1
(1)
Z 1 Z 2n−1 Z 2n Z 1 Z 0 Z 1 Z 0
g(2n) = f+ f+ f= f+ f (t)dt = f +− f (−t)dt
0 1 2n−1 0 −1 0 1
Z 1 Z 0
= f+ f =0
0 1
(2)
Z −x Z x Z x
g(−x) = f =− f (−t)dt = f (t)dt = g(x)
0 0 0
Z x+2 Z 2 Z x+2 Z x Z x
g(x + 2) = f (t)dt = f+ f= f (t + 2)dt = f (t)dt = g(x)
0 0 2 0 0
Exercise 20.
(3)
Z x Z x−5 Z x−5 Z x−5 Z 0 Z −5
f (t)dt = f (t + 5)dt = g(t)dt = g+ g = f (x − 5) + − g(t)dt =
0 −5 −5 0 −5 0
Z 5
f (x − 5) + g(−t)dt = f (x − 5) + f (5) = −g(x) + g(0)
0
where we’ve used f (x − 5) = −g(x) in the second and third to the last step.
3.6 Exercises - Informal description of continuity, The definition of the limit of a function, The definition of continuity
of a function, The basic limit theorems. More examples of continuous functions, Proofs of the basic limit theorems.
Polynomials are continuous.
1 1 1
Exercise 1. limx→2 x2 = limx→2 x2 = 4
(x−2)(x+2)
Exercise 3. limx→2 (x−2) =4
(2x−1)(x−1)
Exercise 4. limx→1 x−1 =1
t2 +2th+h2 −t2
Exercise 5. limh→0 h = 2t
(x−a)(x+a)
Exercise 6. limx→0 (x+a)2 = −1
(x−a)(x+a)
Exercise 7. lima→0 (x+a)2 =1
(x−a)(x+a)
Exercise 8. limx→a (x+a)2 =0
limt→0 sin t 0
Exercise 9. limt→0 tan t = limx→0 cos t = 1 =0
Exercise 10. limt→0 (sin 2t + t2 cos 5t) = limt→0 sin 2t + limt→0 t2 limt→0 cos 5t = 0 + 0 = 0
|x|
Exercise 11. limx→0+ x =1
|x|
Exercise 12. limx→0− x = −1
√
x2
Exercise 13. limx→0+ x = +1
√
x2
Exercise 14. limx→0− x = −1
2 sin x cos x
Exercise 15. limx→0 x =2
2 sin x cos x
Exercise 16. limx→0 cos 2x sin x =2
5 sin 5x 3 sin 3x
limx→0 5x − limx→0 3x = 5 − 3 = 2 Exercise 19.
37
x+a x−a
− sin x+a x−a
sin 2 + 2 −2 2
lim =
x→0 x−a
!
sin x+a
2 cos x−a
2 + sin x−a
2 cos x+a
2 − sin x+a
2 cos x−a
2 − sin x−a
2 cos x+a
2
= lim =
x→0 x−a
2 sin x−a x+a
2 cos 2
= lim = cos a
x→a x−a
2 sin2 x/2 1 sin x/2
Exercise 20. limx→0 4(x/2)2 = 2 limx→0 x/2 = 12
√ √ 1
1− 1−x2 1+√1−x2 1−(1−x2 )
Exercise 21. limx→0 x2 2
= limx→0 √ =
1+ 1−x x2 (1+ 1−x2 ) 2
Exercise 26.
Exercise 29.
3.11 Exercises - Bolzano’s theorem for continuous functions, The intermediate-value theorem for continuous func-
tions. These theorems form the foundation for continuity and will be valuable for differentiation later.
Theorem 10 (Bolzano’s Theorem).
Let f be cont. at ∀x ∈ [a, b].
Assume f (a), f (b) have opposite signs.
Then ∃ at least one c ∈ (a, b) s.t. f (c) = 0.
Proof. Let f (a) < 0, f (b) > 0.
Want: Fine one value c ∈ (a, b) s.t. f (c) = 0
Strategy: find the largest c.
Let S = { all x ∈ [a, b] s.t. f (x) ≤ 0 }.
S is nonempty since f (a) < 0. S is bounded since all S ⊆ [a, b].
=⇒ S has a suprenum.
Let c = supS.
If f (c) > 0, ∃(c − δ, c + δ) s.t. f > 0
c − δ is an upper bound on S
but c is a least upper bound on S. Contradiction.
If f (c) < 0, ∃(c − δ, c + δ) s.t. f < 0
c + δ is an upper bound on S
but c is an upper bound on S. Contradiction.
ck xk ck Pn−1
Since limx→∞ ck−1 xk−1
= limx→∞ ck−1 x = ∞ ∃M > 0 such that |cn M n | > | k=0 ck M k . So then
n−1
X
f (M ) = cn M n + ck M k ≶ cn
k=0
Exercise 2. Try alot of values systematically. I also cheated by taking the derivatives and feeling out where the function
changed direction.
(1) If P (x) = 3x4 − 2x3 − 36x2 + 36x − 8, P (−4) = 168, P (−3) = −143, P (0) = −8, P ( 12 ) = 15 16 , P (1) = −7,
P (−3) = −35, P (4) = 200
(2) If P (x) = 2x4 − 14x2 + 14x − 1, P (−4) = 231, P (−3) = −7, P (0) = −1, P ( 21 ) = 18 , P ( 23 ) = − 11 8 , P (2) = 2
(3) If P (x) = x4 + 4x3 + x2 − 6x + 2, P (−3) = 2, P (− 52 ) = − 16
3
, P (−2) = 2, P ( 13 ) = 22
81 , P ( 1
2 ) = 3
− 16 , P ( 32 ) =
14
− 81 , P (1) = 2.
Exercise 5. Consider g(x) = f (x) − x. Then g(x) is continuous on [0, 1] since f is.
Since 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 for each x ∈ [0, 1], consider g(1) = f (1) − 1, so that −1 ≤ g(1) ≤ 0. Likewise 0 ≤ g(0) ≤ 1.
If g(1) = 0 or g(0) = 0, we’re done (g(0) = f (0) − 0 = 0. f (0) = 0. Or g(1) = f (1) − 1 = 0, f (1) = 1 ).
Otherwise, if −1 ≤ g(1) < 0 and 0 < g(0) ≤ 1, then by Bolzano’s theorem, ∃ at least one c such that
g(c) = 0 (g(c) = f (c) − c = 0. f (c) = c).
Exercise 3. D = R, g(y) = 1 − y
Exercise 5. D = R,
y
if y < 1
√
g(y) = y if 1 ≤ y ≤ 16
y 2
8 if y > 16
Pn Pn
Exercise 6. f (Mf ) = f (f −1 1 1
n i=1 f (ai ) ) = n i=1 f (ai )
1
Pn
Exercise 7. f (a1 ) ≶ n i=1 f (ai ) ≶ f (an ). Since f is strictly monotonic.
g preserves monotonicity.
=⇒ a1 ≶ Mf ≶ an
n
! n
! n
!
1X 1X 1X
Mh = H h(ai ) = H (af (ai ) + b) = H a f (ai ) + b
n i=1 n i=1 n i=1
h−b
= H(h) = h−1 . So then
The inverse for h is g a
n
!
1X
Mh = g f (ai ) = Mf
n i=1
The average is invariant under translation and expansion in ordinate values.
3.20 Exercises - The extreme-value theorem for continuous functions, The small-span theorem for continuous func-
tions (uniform continuity), The integrability theorem for continuous functions.
Exercise 1.
1 1
g = x9 > 0 for x ∈ [0, 1]; f = √ m = √ ,M = 1
1+x 2
Z 1 1
1 10 1
x9 = x =
0 10 0 10
Z 1 9
1 x 1
√ ≤ √ dx ≤
10 2 0 1 + x 10
Exercise 2.
p 1 − x2 1 2
1 − x2 = √ .f = √ g = (1 − x2 ) M = √ , m = 1
1−x 2 1−x 2 3
Z 1/2 1/2
1 11
(1 − x2 )dx = (x − x3 )
=
0 3 0 24
Z 1/2 p r
11 11 4
≤ 1 − x2 dx ≤
24 0 24 3
Exercise 3.
42
a a
a3 a5
Z
1 1 1
g = 1 − x2 + x4 1 − x2 + x4 = x − x3 + x5 = a −
f= +
1 + x6 0 3 5 0 3 5
1
m= M =1
1 + a6
a
a3 a5 a3 a5
Z
1 1
a− + ≤ dx ≤ a − +
1 + a6 3 5 0 1+x
2 3 5
1 3 5 3 5
So if a = 10 , (a − a /3 + a /5) = a − 0.333 . . . a + 0.2a = 0.099669
Exercise 4. (b) is wrong, since it had chosen g = sin t, but g needed to be nonnegative.
4.6 Exercises - Historical introduction, A problem involving velocity, The derivative of a function, Examples of deriva-
tives, The algebra of derivatives. Exercise 1. f 0 = 1 − 2x, f 0 (0) = 1, f 0 (1/2) = 0, f 0 (1) = −1, f 0 (10) = −19
Exercise 2. f 0 = x2 + x − 2
(1) f 0 = 0, x = 1, −2
(2) f 0 (x) = −2, x = 0, −1
(3) f 0 = 10, x = −4, 3
Exercise 3. f 0 = 2x + 3
−1
Exercise 7. f 0 = (x2 +1)2 (2x) + 5x4 cos x + x5 (− sin x)
x−1−(x) −1
Exercise 8. f 0 = (x−1)2 = (x−1)2
43
−1
Exercise 9. f 0 = (2+cos x)2 (− sin x) = sin x
(2+cos x)2
Exercise 10.
Exercise 11.
Exercise 12.
Exercise 13.
(1)
f (t + h) − f (t) v0 h − 32th − 16h2
= = v0 + 32t − 16h
h h
f 0 (t) = v0 − 32t
v0
(2) t = 32
(3) −v0
v0 v0
(4) T = 16 , v0 = 16 for 1sec. v0 = 160 for 10sec. 16 for T sec.
00
(5) f = −32
(6) h = −20t2
dV
Exercise 14. V = s3 , dS = 3s2
Exercise 15.
dA
(1) dr = 2πr = C
dV
(2) dr = 4πr2 = A
Exercise 16. f 0 = 1
√
2 x
−1
Exercise 17. f 0 = √
(1+ x)2
1
√
2 x
−3 −5/2
Exercise 19. 2 x
1 −1/2 √
2x (1+x)− x
Exercise 22. f 0 = (1+x)2 = √ 1
2 x(1+x)2
√ √
(1+ x)−x 21 √1 1+ 21 x
Exercise 23. f 0 = √
(1+ x)2
x
= √ 2
(1+ x)
Exercise 24.
44
g = f1 f2
g0 f0 f0
g 0 = f10 f2 + f1 f20 = 1+ 2
g f1 f2
g = f1 f2 . . . fn fn+1
g 0 = (f1 f2 . . . fn )0 fn+1 + (f1 f2 . . . fn )fn+1
0
;
g0 (f1 f2 . . . fn )0 f0
= + n+1
g f1 f2 . . . fn fn+1
f 0
f 0
f0 f0
= 1 + 2 + · · · + n + n+1
f1 f2 fn fn+1
Exercise 25.
cos x 0 cos2 x − (− sin x) sin x
(tan x)0 = = = sec2 x
sin x cos2 x
cos x 0 − sin x sin x − cos x cos x
(cot x)0 = = = − csc2 x
sin x sin2 x
−1
(sec x)0 = (− sin x) = tan x sec x
cos2 x
−1
(csc x)0 = cos x = − cot x csc x
sin2 x
Exercise 35.
(2ax + b)(sin x + cos x) − (cos x − sin x)(ax2 + bx + c)
f0 = =
(sin x + cos x)2
(2ax + b)(sin x + cos x) − (cos x − sin x)(ax2 + bx + c)
=
(sin x + cos x)2
Exercise 36.
f 0 = a sin x + (ax + b) cos x + c cos x + (cx + d)(− sin x) = ax cos x + (b + c) cos x + (a − d) sin x − cx sin x
So then a = 1, d = 1, b = d, c = 0.
Exercise 37.
(1)
(n + 1)xn (x − 1) − (1)(xn+1 − 1)
(1 + x + x2 + · · · + xn )0 = 1 + 2x + · · · + nxn−1 =
(x − 1)2
(n + 1)(xn+1 − xn ) − xn+1 + 1 nxn+1 − (n1 )xn + 1
= 2
=
(x − 1) (x − 1)2
nxn+2 − (n + 1)xn+1 + x
x(1 + 2x + · · · + nxn−1 ) = x + 2x2 + · · · + nxn =
(x − 1)2
(2)
(x + 2x2 + · · · + nxn )0 = (1 + 22 x1 + · · · + n2 xn−1 ) =
(n(n + 2)xn+1 − (n + 1)2 xn + 1)(x − 1)2 − 2(x − 1)(nxn+2 − (n + 1)xn+1 + x)
=
(x − 1)4
(n(n + 2)xn+2 − (n + 1)2 xn+1 + x)(x − 1) − 2(nxn+3 − (n + 1)xn+2 + x2 )
x + 2 2 x2 + · · · + n2 xn = =
(x − 1)3
n2 xn+3 + (−2n2 − 2n + 1)xn+2 + (n + 1)2 xn+1 − x2 − x
=
(x − 1)3
45
Exercise 39.
f (x + h) − f (x) (x + h)n − xn
=
h h
n
X n n−j j
(x + h)n = x h
j=0
j
Pn n n−j j
n
(x + h)n − xn j=1 j x h
X n
= = xn−j hj−1
h h j=1
j
(x + h)n − xn
n n−1
lim = x = nxn−1
h→0 h 1
4.9 Exercises - Geometric interpretation of the derivative as a slope, Other notations for derivatives. Exercise 6.
(1)
f = x2 + ax + b f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) x2 − x21 + a(x2 − x1 )
= 2
f (x1 ) = x21 + ax1 + b x2 − x1 x2 − x1
f (x2 ) = x22 + ax2 + b = x2 + x1 + a
(2)
f 0 = 2x + a
x2 + x1
m = x2 + x1 + a = 2x + a x =
2
f 0 (−1) = −2 =⇒ y = −2x − 2
For the other line,
f 0 (a) = 1 − 3a2
=⇒ y(−1) = 0 = (1 − 3a2 )(−1) + b =⇒ b = 1 − 3a2
Now f (a) = a(1 − a2 ) = a − a3 at this point. The line and the curve must meet at this point.
y(a) = (1 − 3a2 )a + (1 − 3a2 ) =
= a − 3a3 + 1 − 3a2 = a − a3
1 3
=⇒ −2a3 + 1 − 3a2 = 0 = a3 − + a2
2 2
The answer could probably be guessed at, but let’s review some tricks for solving cubics.
First, do a translation in the x direction to center the origin on the point of inflection. Find the point of inflection by taking
the second derivative.
1
f 00 = 6a + 3 =⇒ a = −
2
So
1
a=x−
2
1 3 3 1 2 1 3 1
=⇒ (x − ) + (x − ) − = x3 = x − = 0
2 2 2 2 4 4
46
Then recall this neat trigonometric fact:
cos 3x = cos 2x cos x − sin 2x sin x = 4 cos3 x − 3 cos x
3 cos 3x
=⇒ cos3 x = cos x − =0
4 4
Particularly for this problem, we have cos 3x = 1. So x = 0, 2π/3, 4π/3. cos x = 1, − 21 . Plugging cos x → x back into
what we have for a, a = −1, which we already have in the previous part, and a = 12 . So
1 3
f =
2 8
1 1
y(x) = x +
4 4
Exercise 9.
(
x2 if x ≤ c
f (x) =
ax + b if x > c
(
2x if x ≤ c
f 0 (x) =
a if x > c
a = 2c; b = −c2
Exercise 10.
(
1
|x| if |x| > c
f (x) = 2
a + bx if |x| ≤ c
Note that c ≮ 0 since |x| ≤ c, for the second condition.
1
− x 2
if x > c
0 1
f (x) = if x < c
x2
2bx if |x| ≤ c
1 3
So b = − 3
,a= .
2c 2c
Exercise 11.
(
0 cos x if x ≤ c
f =
a if a > c
√
1−√2 1−A
Exercise 12. f (x) = = 1+A
1+ 2
√ 1 −1/2 1 1 1
A= x A0 = a = x = ; A00 = − x−3/2 = − 3
2 2A 4 4A
−A0 (1 + A) − A0 (1 − A) −2A0 −1
f0 = = =√ √
(1 + A)2 (1 + A)2 x(1 + x)2
√
1 3 x+1
f 00 = 0 2 0
(A (1 + A) + A(2)(1 + A)A ) = 3/2 √
(A(1 + A2 ))2 2x (1 + x)3
−1 0 2
000 1 A2 A (A (1 + A)3 ) − (2AA0 (1 + A)3 + 3A2 (1 + A)2 A0 )(3 + 1
A)
f =
2 (A2 (1 + A)3 )2
1 √
−3 A + 4 + 5A 3 (1 + 4 x + 5x)
= = − √ √
4 A4 (1 + A4 ) 4 x(x + x)4
Exercise 13.
47
P = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d
P 00 (0) = 2b = 10 =⇒ b = 5
P 0 = 3ax2 + 2bx + c
P 0 (0) = c = −1 P (0) = d = −2
P 00 = 6ax + 2b
P (1) = a + 5 + −1 + −2 = a + 2 = −2 =⇒ a = −4
Exercise 14.
f0 f0 g0 1
f g = 2, = 2 = 4 = 2f = , g = 4
g0 g g 2
(1)
f 0 g − g0 f f0 g0 f 1 15
h0 = 2
= − = 4 − 2( ) =
g g g g 8 4
(2)
k 0 = f 0 g + f g 0 = 4g 2 + f 2g = 64 + 4 = 68
(3)
g 0 (x) limx→0 g 0 (x) 1
lim = =
x→0 f 0 (x) 0
limx→0 f (x) 2
Exercise 15.
Exercise 16.
(1)
(f (x + h) + g(x + h))2 − (f (x) + g(x))2 (F + G)2 − (f + g)2
D∗ (f + g) = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
2F G − 2f g
= D∗ f + D∗ g + lim
h→0 h
2F G − 2f g (2(F G) − 2f G)(F + f ) (2f G − 2f g)(G + g)
lim = lim + =
h→0 h h→0 (F + f )h (g + G)h
2g F2 − f2 2f G2 − g 2
= lim lim + lim lim =
h→0 F + h h→0 h h→0 G + g h→0 h
g f
= D∗ f + D∗ g
f g
48
(f (x + h) − g(x + h))2 − (f (x) − g(x))2
D∗ (f − g) = lim =
h→0 h
(F − G)2 − (f − g)2
= lim =
h→0 h
2F G − 2f g
= D∗ f + D∗ g + − lim
h→0 h
∗ ∗ g ∗ f ∗
=D f +D g− D f + D g
f g
((f g)(x + h))2 − ((f g)(x))2
D∗ (f g) = lim =
h→0 h
(f 2 (x + h))(g 2 (x + h)) − f 2 (x)g 2 (x + h) + (g 2 (x + h) − g 2 (x))f 2 (x)
= lim =
h→0 h
= g2 D∗ f + f 2 D∗ g
f 2 (x+h) f 2 (x) f 2 (x+h)−f 2 (x) f 2 (x) f 2 (x)
g 2 (x+h) − g 2 (x) g 2 (x+h) + g 2 (x+h) − g 2 (x)
D∗ (f /g) = lim = lim =
h→0 h h→0 h
∗
D f f2
= 2
+ 4 (−D∗ g) when g(x) 6= 0
g g
(2)
(3)
4.12 Exercises - The chain rule for differentiating composite functions, Applications of the chain rule. Related rates
and implicit differentiation. Exercise 1. −2 sin 2x − 2 cos x
Exercise 2. √ x
1+x2
Exercise 4.
f 0 = cos (cos2 x)(−2 cos x sin x) cos (sin2 x) + sin (cos2 x) sin (sin2 x)(2 sin x cos x) =
= − sin 2x(cos (cos 2x))
Exercise 5.
f 0 = n sinn−1 x cos x cos nx + −n sin nx sinn x
Exercise 6.
f 0 = cos (sin (sin x))(cos (sin x))(cos x)
Exercise 7.
2 sin x cos x sin x2 − 2x cos x2 sin2 x sin 2x sin x2 − 2x sin2 x cos x2
f0 = 2 2 =
sin x sin2 x2
Exercise 8. f 0 = 1
2 sec2 x
2 + 1
2 csc2 x
2
Exercise 11. f 0 = 4
(4−x2 )3/2
Exercise 12.
−2/3 −2/3
1 + x3 3x2 (2) 2x2 1 + x3
1
f0 = =
3 1 − x3 (1 − x3 )2 (1 − x3 )2 1 − x3
Exercise 13. This exercise is important. It shows a neat integration trick.
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