Research Article

Geoarchaeology and Paleoenvironmental Context of the

Burntwood Creek Rockshelter, High Plains of Northwestern
Kansas, U.S.A.
Laura R. Murphy* and Rolfe D. Mandel
Kansas Geological Survey, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas

Correspondence The first systematic geoarchaeological study of a rockshelter in Kansas yielded

*Corresponding author; information about rockshelter formation, Holocene paleoenvironments, ar-
E-mail: murphy15@ku.edu
chaeological site formation processes, and prehistoric human habitation and
Received site use. The rockshelter was carved by groundwater sapping; colluvium, al-
27 October 2011 luvium, and roof-fall debris subsequently accumulated on its floor. An assem-
Accepted blage of Late Archaic (∼2000–4000 14 C years before present [yr B.P.]) cultural
26 January 2012 deposits (lithic material, bone, and charcoal) is preserved in a 2-m thick pack-
age of colluvium and alluvium in front of the shelter. Chipped stone analysis
Scientific editing by Jamie Woodward
indicates that Late Archaic occupants of the shelter were using mostly local
Published online in Wiley Online Library materials and resharpening their stone tools at the shelter. Stable carbon iso-
(wileyonlinelibrary.com). tope and phytolith analyses indicate that a mixed C3 and C4 plant community
existed in the study area and that it changed in composition through the late
doi 10.1002/gea.21412 Holocene. Based on the phytolith assemblage from an unlined fire pit at the
front of the shelter, Late Archaic people used local hackberry trees for fuel
and/or food.  C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

INTRODUCTION
The search for Paleoindian and Archaic archaeological
sites on the High Plains of western Kansas has focused
mostly on alluvial terraces in stream valleys (Mandel,
1992, 1995, 2006). One deeply stratified Early Paleoin-
dian site (Mandel, Holen, & Hofman, 2005) and a few
Late Archaic sites (Mandel, 2012) have been recorded,
but the pre-Ceramic archaeological record has remained
elusive (see Table I for the cultural chronology). The
paucity of recorded Paleoindian and Archaic sites on the
High Plains is attributed to lack of visibility due to deep
burial or to removal by stream erosion (Mandel, 1995,
2006; Mandel, Holen, & Hofman, 2005). In other words,
cultural deposits in open-air alluvial settings are prone
to the effects of geomorphic processes (Mandel, 2008;
Beeton & Mandel, 2011).
Rockshelters in western Kansas have great potential
for containing stratified cultural deposits, but have not
received much attention from archaeologists. In general,
rockshelters are important sedimentary and environmen-
tal archives (Woodward & Goldberg, 2001) that hold
records of local landscape evolution, site formation pro-
cesses, and paleoenvironments because they are sediment
traps protected from erosion, and archaeological mate-
rials are often sealed under roof-fall blocks (Goldberg &
Mandel, 2008). Also, autochthonous and allocthonous
sediment can fill and seal rockshelters and their archaeo-
logical deposits relatively quickly (Collins, 1991; Farrand,
2001a). Despite shorter lifespans compared to caves, eth-
noarchaeological research has demonstrated that rock-
shelters were long-term focal points of hunter-gatherer
activities such as tool maintenance, food processing, and
cooking (Binford, 1978; Gorecki, 1991; Walthall, 1998).
Hence, rockshelters can be singularly important archives
of prehistoric human ecology and culture history (e.g.,
Martin et al., 1993; Abbott, 1997; Kourumpas et al.,
2009).
North American rockshelters such as Rodgers Shel-
ter in west-central Missouri (Wood & McMillan, 1976),
Meadowcroft Shelter in Pennsylvania (Donahue &
Adovasio, 1990), and Bonneville Estates Rockshelter
in Nevada (Goebel, 2003) have yielded well-preserved
archaeological materials that typically represent multi-
ple and/or seasonal occupations. Many rockshelters and
caves have been investigated in the Black Hills of western
South Dakota (Over, 1936; Weston, 1982; Martin et al.,

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MURPHY AND MANDEL
Table I Cultural chronology for the Central Plains of North America.
Cultural Periods Ages, 14 C yr B.P.a
Ceramic
Late Archaic
Middle Archaic
Early Archaic
Paleoindian
a gravel (Frye & Leonard, 1952; Buchanan, 1984; Ludvig-
Ages are approximate (Hoard & Banks, 2006).
1993), a region where Cretaceous–Paleogene limestone
has undergone extensive dissolution. Comparatively lit-
tle, however, is known about rockshelters formed in the
Miocene–Pliocene Ogallala Formation of the High Plains.
Only a few rockshelters or caves have been studied on
the High Plains in Nebraska (Bell & Cape, 1936; Palmer
et al., 2010), Colorado (Wood, 1967; Tate, 1999), and Ok-
lahoma (Lintz & Zabawa, 1984). Prior to our study of the
Burntwood Creek Rockshelter, none of the 34 prehistoric
rockshelter and cave sites in Kansas (Kansas State Histor-
ical Society, 2008) has been studied in detail.
The Burntwood Creek Rockshelter formed in the cal-
crete escarpment of the Ogallala Formation on the west
side of Burntwood Creek valley in northwestern Kansas
(Figures 1, 2a,b). The rockshelter is within sight of a large
bone bed (site 14RW2) (Figure 2c), a Late Paleoindian
bison jump believed to be associated with the Allen tech-
nological complex that dates to ca. 9500–8500 14 C years
before present (yr B.P.) (Russell & Hofman, 2006). Initial
tests at the rockshelter revealed archaeological material
such as bone, charcoal, and chipped stone recovered from
three shallow 1 × 1 m test excavations (Stein, 2005) (Test
1–3 in Figure 3a). Thus, in an effort to find Paleoindian
cultural deposits in a stratified context, we launched a de-
tailed investigation of the Burntwood Creek Rockshelter
because it seemed likely the people responsible for the
Late Paleoindian bison kill inhabited the rockshelter.
Although archaeological testing in the shelter did not
record any definitive Paleoindian artifacts, stratified Late
Archaic cultural deposits occur in the fill at the front
of the rockshelter. Our investigation yielded information
about how the rockshelter formed and retreated through
time, the subsistence and lithic procurement strategies of
Late Archaic people who occupied the shelter, the site
formation processes that affected the cultural deposits,
and the environmental conditions during the period of
occupation.
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
The Burntwood Creek Rockshelter is located in
Rawlins County, Kansas, along Burntwood Creek
(39◦ 56 05.35 N, 101◦ 21 35.06 W), a low-order inter-
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 344–362
THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS
mittent S-N flowing stream in the Republican River
basin (Figure 1). The locality is within the High Plains
subprovince of the Great Plains physiographic province
200–2000
(Fenneman, 1931). The High Plains developed when
2000–4000
4000–6000
clastic sediments were shed from the Rocky Mountains
6000–9000 and transported eastward during the Miocene and
9000–11,600 earliest Pliocene, forming an extensive plain of sand and
son et al., 2009). The Ogallala Formation is comprised of
these coarse-grained sediments (Merriam, 1963). There
are many strongly indurated petrocalcic horizons in the
Ogallala Formation; the most distinct of these horizons is
the resistant “caprock” caliche that forms the surface of
the Ogallala (Reeves, 1976). The caprock is several me-
ters thick, preserving the plateau topography of the High
Plains. Springs occur along the High Plains escarpment
and where the Ogallala Formation, a major aquifer, is
exposed in the walls of stream valleys (Mandel, 2006).
In northwestern Kansas, the High Plains is mantled
by Quaternary loess, and where the loess is dissected
exposures of the underlying Ogallala caprock occur.
The climate of northwestern Kansas is semiarid and
characterized by hot summers and cold winters (Man-
del, 2006). Average summer and winter temperatures
are 18.7◦ C and 3.3◦ C, respectively, and the mean annual
precipitation is 52.8 cm (High Plains Regional Climate
Center, 2011).
The study area has a drought-resistant short-grass com-
munity of blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) and buffalo
grass (Buchloë dactyloides), and a mixed-grass prairie com-
munity of big bluestem (Andropogon gerardii) and little
bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium). Prickly pear (Oputina
sp.) and yucca (Yucca glauca) are also present (Wedel,
1986). Riparian trees include cottonwood (Populus del-
toides), black willow (Salix nigra), and hackberry (Celtis
occidentalis) (Küchler, 1974; Lauver et al. 1999; USDA
NRCS, 2010) (Figure 2c).
RECORDED SITES IN BURNTWOOD CREEK
VALLEY
Four archaeological sites have been recorded along
Burntwood Creek near the rockshelter: 14RW2, 14RW3,
14RW4, and 14RW5 (Figure 1a; Stein, 2005). Sites
14RW4 and 14RW5 have not yet been excavated, but
chipped stone scatters occur on the land surface at both
sites. Site 14RW2, the Late Paleoindian bison jump, is
a thick accumulation of Bison antiquus bones (Russell
& Hofman, 2006). A Late Paleoindian “Allen” projectile
point was found in the bone bed. Murphy and Man-
del (2007) reported radiocarbon ages of 8880 ± 25 and
9220 ± 25 yr. B.P. determined on charcoal associated
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THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS MURPHY AND MANDEL

Figure 1 (a) Modified Google Earth image of the Burntwood Creek locality showing five recorded archaeological sites (imagery date: 16 March 2006).
The black dots represent locations of permanent data benchmarks set between 2006 and 2007. The inset map shows the location of the Burntwood
Creek Rockshelter in northwestern Kansas in relation to surrounding states. (b) Illustration showing the general rockshelter fills from A-A (a) and the
approximate location of Trenches 1 and 3A. The illustration is not to scale.

with bone in the “south gully,” or the southern extent 2005). One additional site, 14RW417, contains an iso-
of the bone bed (Figure 1a, Table II). Site 14RW3 con- lated Late Archaic or Early Ceramic projectile point.
tains many fragments of bison bone that represent a kill
or butchering site of unknown relationship to 14RW2.
Approximately 3 km to the north and east of
the Burntwood Creek Rockshelter are sites 14RW419,
MULTIPLE PROXIES
14RW420, and 14RW421, all of which are chipped stone Multiple lines of evidence are necessary to assess site
surface scatters of unknown cultural affiliation (see Stein, formation processes and reconstruct paleoenvironments

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MURPHY AND MANDEL
Figure 2 Photographs of the Burntwood Creek
Rockshelter and surrounding landscape. (a) View to the
west of the rockshelter from above. Note the pour-off
at the top of the shelter roof. (b) The Burntwood Creek
Rockshelter formed in the Ogallala formation. View is to
the northwest. (c) The surrounding landscape from the
top of the rockshelter, with a view of the Late
Paleoindian bison jump (14RW2) to the east.
in rockshelters because of the many potential sediment
sources, and the post-depositional processes that can al-
ter the record. In this study, we use pedologic and litho-
logic description, grain-size analysis (pipette and Ro-
Tap R
methods), optical cathodoluminescence (CL) and
epifluorescence (EF) microscopy, stable carbon isotopes,
and phytoliths. Traditional characterization of grain sizes
is important for determining sediment source and trans-
port, as well as depositional history (Hassan, 1978; Man-
del & Simmons, 1997; Woodward & Bailey, 2000; Far-
rand, 2001a,b; Kourumpas et al., 2009), but grain-size
analysis alone is not enough for a robust interpretation
of past environments (Mandel & Simmons, 1997).
Stable carbon isotope ratios determined on pedogenic
carbon (Boutton, 1996) paired with the extraction of
phytoliths, or “plant stones” (Piperno, 2006), from soils
and sediments has proved effective for paleoenvironmen-
tal reconstruction (Fredlund & Teiszen, 1997; Kelly et al.,
1998; Cyr et al., 2011). Changes in the relative propor-
tions of C3 versus C4 species inferred from the δ 13 C val-
ues on soil organic matter (SOM) can be compared to the
phytolith data, and inferences can be made about the in-
put of carbon from C3 trees and shrubs that are under-
represented in the phytolith record (Fredlund & Tieszen,
1997; Piperno, 2006). Specific phytolith differentiation
among the major grass subfamilies (e.g., Chloridoideae,
Panicoideae, Pooideae) allows a more-refined assessment
of the stable carbon isotope data. Because C4 warm/moist
panicoids and C4 warm/dry chloridoids can be differen-
tiated based on phytolith morphotypes, more precise pa-
leoenvironmental assessments can be made compared to
the broad trends in stable carbon isotope values alone.
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 344–362
THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS
CL and EF microscopy is used in sedimentary geol-
ogy to infer carbonate formation, paleohydrologic pro-
cesses, and post-depositional sediment overprinting (cf.
Meyers, 1974; Ten Have & Heijnen, 1985; Ludvigson,
1989; Bruckschen, Neuser, & Richter, 1992; Habermann,
Neuser, & Richter, 1998; McGarry & Baker 2000; Boggs &
Krinsley, 2006; Rainey & Jones, 2007). These techniques
can strengthen interpretation better than lithologic de-
scription and grain-size analysis alone. CL provides the
ability to analyze diagenesis of carbonate sedimentary
rocks, such that reducing phreatic environments will pro-
duce a bright orange image due to manganese previously
stable in solution (Boggs & Krinsley, 2006). With the EF
technique, organic acids that assimilate in the carbonate
matrix are brightly reflected, and organic acids that have
been subjected to digenesis will reflect with less inten-
sity (Rainey & Jones, 2007). The EF method is useful
for determining primary depositional fabrics of carbon-
ates that have been subjected to overprinting (Rainey &
Jones, 2007).
METHODS
In 2007, three backhoe trenches were excavated at the
Burntwood Creek Rockshelter (Figure 3a). In order to
prevent destruction of cultural resources, trenching was
carefully monitored by archaeologist Jack Hofman and
us. Cultural materials encountered during trenching were
recorded with a total station and collected. Trench 1 was
∼18 m long, 1.5 m wide, and 2.5 m deep (Figures 1b,
3b). Care was taken to leave a hearth feature and lithic
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THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS MURPHY AND MANDEL

Figure 3 (a) Contour map of the Burntwood Creek Rockshelter modified from Stein (2005). The map shows Test Units 1–3 excavated by Stein (2005),
Trenches 1, 2, 3A, and 3B, and archaeological excavation units A–D. (b) A portion of the North wall in Trench 1 showing sedimentary Units I-VII. (c) Soil
profile (north wall) from Trench 3A showing soil horizons.

material intact within the walls of the Trench 1. Trench
2 was cut perpendicular to Trench 1, but collapsed. Deer
(Odocoileus sp.) bone fragments and lithic material were
recovered and recorded ∼1.5 m below the Trench 2 sur-
face prior to collapse. Trench 3A was 2 m long, 2 m wide,
and 1.56 m deep (Figures 1b, 3c). Trench 3B was 2 m long
and 2 m wide, and was terminated at a depth of 75 cm
when large blocks of roof-fall were encountered. Deeper
backhoe excavation was ceased because the groundwater
table was intercepted and unstable conditions created by
the inflow of water could have caused the trench to col-
lapse. Trench walls were cleaned with trowels to reveal
fresh sediment for sampling. Four 1 × 1 m archaeologi-
cal excavation units were established adjacent to Trench
1 where the backhoe exposed cultural materials in the
wall.
Three ∼30-cm-wide soil/sediment profiles were sam-
pled from the north wall of Trench 1 every 10 cm from
the land surface to a maximum depth of 220 cm (Fig-
ure 4). The samples were collected for stable isotope, phy-
tolith, and grain-size analyses. A fourth profile was sam-
pled for grain-size analysis from the west wall of Trench

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MURPHY AND MANDEL THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS

Table II Radiocarbon ages from Trenches 1 and 3A at the rockshelter (14RW418) and the “south gully” of the Late Paleoindian bison bone bed (14RW2).

Site Material Dating Depth Unit/ Calibrated

Number Location assayed Method (cm)a Soil δ13 C 14
C age yr. BP Lab. No. Age

14RW418 Trench 1 Charcoal AMS 100 IV −25.9 1930 ± 30 ISGS-A0859 1873 ± 30

14RW418 Trench 1 Bone AMS 200 IV −7.8 2230 ± 30 ISGS-A0867 2251 ± 59
14RW418 Trench 1 Feature 1 Charcoal AMS 70–74 V NR 2250 ± 20 UCI-41885 2278 ± 54
14RW418 Trench 1 Feature 1 Charcoal AMS 90 IV NR 2205 ± 20 UCI-41886 2226 ± 52
14RW418 Trench 1 Feature 2 Charcoal AMS 95–100 IV NR 2315 ± 20 UCI-41887 2336 ± 8
14RW418 Trench 1 Feature 2 Charcoal AMS 100–105 IV NR 2235 ± 20 UCI-41888 2252 ± 56
14RW418 Trench 1 Charcoal AMS 150–160 IV NR 2285 ± 30 UCI-41889 2317 ± 35

14RW418 Trench 3A SOM C 54–64 Soil 2 −22.1 710 ± 70 ISGS-6125 661 ± 45

14RW418 Trench 3A SOM C 93–103 Soil 3 −15.7 114.9 ± 0.5 ISGS-6199 138 ± 67
14RW418 Trench 3A SOM C 116–126 Soil 4 −20.4 102.4 ± 0.5 ISGS-6126 127 ± 79

14RW2 “South gully” Charcoal AMS 200 NR 8880 ± 25 UCI-41891 10,024 ± 60

14RW2 “South gully” Charcoal AMS 322 NR 9220 ± 25 UCI-41890 10,373 ± 60
a
Depths are presented as centimeters below surface.
SOM: soil organic matter; C: conventional dating; NR: not reported.

Figure 4 Trench 1 north wall profile showing sedimentary units, profiles, and AMS 14 C ages. Note that profile 4 was taken from the west wall of the
trench.

1 to a depth of 250 cm (Figure 5). A secondary carbon-
ate mass was sampled from the lower half of Profile 4.
Two thin sections from the top and bottom of the car-
bonate mass were polished, scanned under transmitted
light, analyzed with a petrographic microscope, and then
bombarded with electrons using optical CL and EF tech-
niques. In Trench 3A, soil samples were collected every
10 cm for stable isotope, phytolith, and grain-size analy-
ses. Trench 3B had a similar soil profile as Trench 3A, so
it was described but not sampled.
Sedimentary units in the trenches were identified on
the basis of lithologic characteristics. Roman numerals
designate the sedimentary units, beginning with Unit I
at the bottom of each section. Soils were described using
Munsell color charts and standard terminology presented
by Soil Survey Staff (1993) and Birkeland (1999).
Four 1 × 1 m archaeological test units were excavated
by hand adjacent to Trench 1 (Units A–D, Figure 1b) in
2007. Bone, charcoal, and chipped stone were mapped
with a total station and collected. Sediment from Units
A through D was passed through 1/4- and 1/8-inch (6.4
and 3.2 mm) screens, and all cultural materials were col-
lected, washed, cataloged, and curated at the Archaeolog-
ical Research Center, Biodiversity Institute, University of
Kansas. A total of 281 pieces of chipped stone were ana-
lyzed, which includes a sample of mapped lithic material

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THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS MURPHY AND MANDEL

Figure 5 Soil profile and sand distribution from the west end of Trench 1 (profile 4). A carbonate mass was sampled from ∼1.5 to 1.7 m below the modern
surface. (a) CL image of carbonate mass thin section. (b) Plain-polarized light (PPL) image showing grains with calcite coatings. (c) EF image showing
brightly lit (red) organic acids surrounding previously deposited grains. Calcite coatings around crystal grains are also brightly lit.

(n = 265) associated with Feature 2 in Unit B. Feature 2
exhibited the highest density of chipped stone at the site.
The remaining sample (n = 16) includes the recorded ar-
tifacts encountered during trenching (n = 8) and those
from Feature 1 (n = 8).
Five charcoal samples from Trench 1 were dated at
the University of California-Irvine (UCI), W.M. Keck
Carbon Cycle AMS Laboratory. Also, the Illinois State
Geological Survey (ISGS) dated one charcoal sample and
one bone sample from Trench 1, and three soil samples
from Trench 3A were assayed by conventional radiocar-
bon dating of SOM. The radiocarbon ages are presented
in uncalibrated 14 C yr B.P. in the text, and uncalibrated
and calibrated 14 C yr B.P. in Table II.
The pipette method was used to determine texture on
particle sizes less than 2000 μm (USDA NRCS, 2004). The
particle size fractions are as follows: 2000–50 μm (total
sand), 50–2 μm (total silt), and <2 μm (total clay). Sam-
ples consisting of ∼90% sand were analyzed separately
from the pipette procedure with a Ro-Tap R
sieve shaker.
The sand fractions are as follows: 63–88 μm (very fine
sand), 88–250 μm (fine sand), 250–707 μm (medium
sand), 707–1410 μm (coarse sand), and 1410–2000 μm
(very coarse sand). Soil Survey Staff (1993) terminology
was used to describe the resulting texture.
Seventy-five samples from four profiles were pre-
treated (decalcified) for stable carbon isotope analysis at
the Kansas Geological Survey. Raw δ 13 C values were ob-
tained via high-temperature combustion with a Costech
ECS4010 elemental combustion system in conjunction
with a ThermoFinnigan MAT253 isotope ratio mass spec-
trometer at the Keck Paleoenvironmental & Environ-
mental Stable Isotope Laboratory (KPESIL), University
of Kansas. International standards were used to calibrate
δ 13 C values. A precalibrated internal standard (DORM-
2 dogfish muscle; National Research Council of Canada)
was used in the δ 13 C calibration curve, as well as for
percent carbon (%C) determination. The precision of re-
ported δ 13 C values is based on a linear correction of ob-
served values versus expected values of the standards.
Typical standard calibration curves yield an R2 of 0.9994
or greater.
Sixteen soil and sediment samples from Trenches
1 and 3A were processed for phytoliths following

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MURPHY AND MANDEL
methods outlined by Piperno (2006). Two lycopodium
spore tablets, each containing 18,585 spores, were added
to each sample to calculate phytolith concentration (phy-
toliths per gram of pretreated sediment) (Cyr et al., 2011).
Plant species nomenclature follows the PLANTS Database
(USDA, 2010). Grass phytoliths are presented by three
dominant subfamilies: Pooideae, Panicoideae, and Chlori-
doideae (Brown, 1984; Fredlund and Teiszen, 1994). Di-
cots, elongate cells, and phytolith concentrations also are
included in the results following methods of Twiss, Suess,
& Smith (1969) and Brown (1984).
RESULTS
Front of the Burntwood Creek Rockshelter
Lithology
Seven major sedimentary units were identified at the
front of the rockshelter in Trench 1 (Figure 4). Unit I
consists of stratified parallel and cross-bedded sands (Fig-
ure 5, Table III). Cross-strata dip ∼25◦ from the back
of the shelter to the east. A discontinuous 20-cm-thick
layer of calcium carbonate is present 1.1–1.3 m below
the top of Unit I (Figure 5). This carbonate unit in-
corporates silicate sands from above and below. Petro-
graphic CL imaging indicated manganese-activated CL in
the calcite (Figure 5a). EF petrography of the carbonate
showed significant heterogeneity in emitted light inten-
sity, indicating variability in the purity of the carbonate
mass (Figure 5c). Brightly lit organic acids in pore flu-
ids surround large crystal grains, and thin calcite coat-
ings surround many clasts (Figure 5b). Units II, III, V,
and VII contained unsorted, nonimbricated fine gravel to
cobble-sized weathered clasts of Ogallala Group sedimen-
tary rocks (Table IV). Unit IV is a well-sorted silt loam
deposit that thickens to the east. Grain-size data from the
thickest section of Unit IV exhibit three upward-fining se-
quences indicated by increases in clay and silt accompa-
nied by decreases in sand (Table IV).
Stable isotopes
The δ 13 C values from Profiles 1 and 2 in Trench 1 (Fig-
ure 6) generally reflect a typical C3 plant community.
The δ 13 C values are 1–2‰ higher from the base to the
top of both profiles, indicating a general increase in the
proportion of C4 plants. However, the δ 13 C values tend
to vary, trending toward more negative δ 13 C values in
Unit V, the unit containing an unlined fire pit or hearth
feature. The C content is high in the surface soil and de-
creases abruptly with depth (Figure 6).
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 344–362
THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS
The δ 13 C values from Profile 3 in Trench 1 vary
throughout the profile. The maximum and minimum val-
ues are offset by ∼3‰ (Figure 7). In general, δ 13 C values
average –20‰. The peak C value of 0.6% is at the top of
the profile and C content generally decreases with depth.
Phytoliths
The phytolith data for Profile 1 have three trends (Fig-
ure 8). First, C3 pooids dominate in Unit I, coinciding
with low δ 13 C values. Second, Units II and III exhibit a
large increase in C4 chloridoids, indicating increased arid-
ity that is not well represented in the δ 13 C data. Third,
hackberry fruit (9%) and leaf phytoliths (20%) appear in
Units IV and V. More broken phytoliths and unidentified
short cells occur in Units I and II compared to the other
units in Trench 1.
In Profile 3, phytoliths were extracted from the bottom
and top of Unit V only (Figure 7). The bottom sample
(185–195 cm) produced a grass assemblage consisting of
a relatively equal number of pooids and chloridoids with
few panicoids. At 40–50 cm, C4 chloridoids are dominant.
The phytolith assemblage from 185 to 195 cm corrobo-
rates δ 13 C values, but the phytoliths from 40 to 50 cm
do not closely correlate with δ 13 C values. Dicot cells are
more abundant in the bottom sample than the top.
Archaeology
We recorded two unlined hearth features (Features 1 and
2) in archaeological units A and B adjacent to Trench 1
(Figures 1b, 3a). Feature 1 in Unit V contained burned
hackberry seeds, charcoal, chipped stone, and bone frag-
ments. Feature 2 in Unit IV contained chipped stone, bi-
son elements, and deer- and bison-sized bone, including
one right bison maxilla with the full tooth row (P2-M3).
Two retouched flakes, one of which was burned, were
found directly under the third molar (M3). Five layers
of charcoal exposed 1.0–1.3 m below the land surface
were separated by thin layers of silt and contained large
amounts of chipped stone and burned deer and bison
bone fragments. One layer of charcoal in the north wall at
a depth of 1.5 m was not associated with cultural material
(Figure 4).
Six lithic types were identified from the total sample
analyzed (n = 281): fossilized wood (40.6%), Niobrara
jasper (28.8%), quartz (10.3%), quartzite (8.2%) opal-
ized Ogallala caliche (5.7%), and Hartville chert (4.3%).
The material of six specimens (2.1%) could not be iden-
tified (Table V). Nearly 95% of the sample is debitage,
and the remaining ∼5% consists of tools, utilized flakes,
preforms, or tested Ogallala cobbles (Table V).
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Table III Soil description for profile 4 in Trench 1 (front of the shelter).

Depth Soil Munsell Lower

(cm) Horizon Color Texture Structure Roots Pores Concentrations Consistency Boundary Other

Profile 4 D, M
0–20 A 10YR 5/2, 4/2 VGR SL 1fsbk– 1fgr mv1, 1, & 3; c2 cv1 & 1; m, TU FR CS Common krotovina 3–5 cm in
diameter
20–35 Bk 10YR 6/3, 5/3 GR SL v1fsbk cv1 & 1; f2 & 3 c, TU m1 & 2 K fi; cv1 K T FR GS
35–40 BCk 10YR 6/3 5/3 GR LS v1sbk cv1 & 1 cv1 & 1 m1 & 2 K fi; cv1 K T FR GS
40–60 Ck1 10YR 6/4, 5/4 FGR LS m–sg cv1 & 1 cv1 & 1 cv1 K T; c1D 5Y 5/4 mo FR AW Stratified
60–73 Ck2 2.5Y 6/4, 5/4 CB LS m–sg cv1 & f; f2 & 3 cv1 & 1 fv1 K T; c1D 5Y 5/4, 2.5Y FR AW
THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS

6/6 & 6/8 mo

73–88 Ck3 10YR 6/4, 5/4 GR S m–sg fv1 & 1 cv1 & 1; c, TU f1 & 2 K T FR AS Few lenses of siliceous gravel
88–99 C1 10YR 6/4, 5/4 FGR S m–sg fv1 & 1 cv1 & 1 c1D 5Y 5/4 mo FR AS Stratified, interbedded with fine
siliceous gravel
99–109 C2 10YR 6/6, 5/6 S m–sg fv1 & 1 cv1, f1 FR AS
109–140 C3 10YR 6/4, 5/4 GR S m–sg fv1 & 1 cv1, f1 c1F 10YR 5/6 & 5Y 6/6 FR AW
140–154 C4 2.5Y 5/4, 5/3 S m–sg fv1 fv1 & 1 FR AW Stratified
154–168 C5 2.5Y 7/3, 6/3 CB FS m fv1 FI AI 70% Carbonate by volume
168–185 C6 2.5Y 5/4, 6/6 FS m–sg fv1 & 1 c1D 2.5Y 6/6 mo FI AS Stratified; cross-bedded
185–205 C7 5Y 6/3, 5/3 S m – f1 & 2 FI AS
205–250 C8 10YR 6/4, 5/4 S m–sg – f1 & 2 c1F 2.5Y 5/4 & 6/4 mo FR –

D: dry color; M: moist color; CB: cobbly; VGR: very gravelly; GR: gravel; FGR: fine gravel; S: sand; FS: fine sand; SL: sandy loam; LS: loamy sand. Degree of expression: v1: very weak; 1: weak; Size: f: fine; m:
medium; c: coarse; Structure: gr: granular; sbk: subangular blocky; m: massive; sg: single grain.
Frequency: vf: very few; f: few; c: common; m: many; Size: v1: very fine; 1: fine; 2: medium; 3: coarse; TU: tubular (worm burrows).
Contrast: F: faint; D: distinct; Type: K: calcium carbonate; T: threads; fi: films; mo: mottles.
FR: friable; FI: firm.
Distinctness: A: abrupt; C: clear; G: gradual; Topography: S: smooth, W: wavy.

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MURPHY AND MANDEL
 MURPHY AND MANDEL

Table IV Soil description for profiles 1, 2, and 3 in Trench 1 (front of the shelter).

Depth Soil Munsell Lower

(cm) Unit Horizon Color Texture Structure Roots Pores Concentrations Consistency Boundary Other

Profile 1 Profile 2 D, M
0–40 0–40 VII A 10YR 4/2, 3/2 GR SL 1fgr mv1 & 1 cv1 & 1; m, TU – FR AW
40–45 40–48 VI Bw 2.5Y 3/5, 4/3 FGR SiL 1fsbk cv1 & 1 cv1 & 1; m, TU f1F 10YR 5/6 mo; c FR AW Laminated in lower 5 cm, parts

Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 344–362

10YR 5/6 oc pf along bedding planes
55–73 48–64 V C1 2.5Y 6/3, 5/3 SL m cv1 m, TU f1F 2.5Y 6/6 mo FI AW Common flecks of very fine
charcoal, cultural deposits in
upper 5 cm

Copyright 
73–98 64–84 IV C2 2.5YR 5/3, 4/3 FGR SiL m – cv1 f1P 7.5YR 3/3 & FI AW Few cobbles (Ogallala) tapering
c1D 2.5Y 6/6 mo to the east
98–110 84–99 III C3 2.5Y 5/3, 4/3 CB SL m fv1 cv1 & 1; f, TU f1F 5YR 4/4 mo FI AW
110–190 99–166 II C4 7.5YR 6/4, 5/4 FGR SL m f1 f2 & 3 f1F 5YR 4/4 mo FR AW
190–220 166–186 I C5 2.5Y 5/3, 4/3 FGR SL m–sg fv1 & 1 c2 & 3 f1F 2.5YR 4/4 mo L –
Profile 3
0–150 IV C1 2.5YR 5/3, 4/3 FGR L-SiL Stratified

C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

150–165 IV C2 2.5YR 5/3, 4/3 CB SiL
165–215 IV C3 2.5YR 5/3, 4/3 SiL Stratified

D:dry color; M: moist color; CB: cobbly; GR: gravel; FGR: fine gravel; SL: sandy loam; L: loam; SiL: silt loam.
Degree of expression: 1: weak; Size: f: fine, Structure: gr: granular; sbk: subangular blocky; m: massive; sg: single grain.
Frequency: f: few; c: common; m: many; Size: v1: very fine; 1: fine; 2: medium; 3: coarse; TU: tubular (worm burrows).
Contrast: F: faint; D: distinct; P: prominent; Type: mo: mottles; oc: organic coats; pf: ped faces.
FR: friable; FI: firm; L: loose.
Distinctness: A: abrupt; Topography: W: wavy.

353
THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS
THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS MURPHY AND MANDEL

Figure 6 Sedimentary units, soil horizons, %C, δ13 C values, and radiocarbon ages from profiles 1 and 2 in Trench 1 at the front of the shelter.

Figure 7 Sedimentary units, soil horizons, grain-size distribution, %C, δ13 C, radiocarbon ages, and phytoliths from profile 3 in Trench 1 at the front of the
shelter.

Radiocarbon chronology yielded an AMS 14 C age of 2220 ± 30 yr B.P. Charcoal in

Unit IV (east end of trench) yielded an AMS 14 C age of
Seven radiocarbon ages determined on samples from the
1930 ± 30 yr B.P. Radiocarbon ages determined on the
front of the rockshelter are presented in Table II. Colla-
five stratified charcoal samples range from 2205 ± 20 to
gen from a bison bone 2 m below the surface in Unit IV
2315 ± 20 14 C yr B.P.

354 Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 344–362 Copyright 

C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
MURPHY AND MANDEL THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS

Figure 8 Phytolith assemblage recovered from profile 1 in Trench 1 at the front of the shelter. Note the Late Archaic horizon that contains an increase in
Celtis occidentalis leaf and fruit phytoliths.

Table V Lithic analysis from 281 specimens recovered from feature 2 in buried soils with loamy sand to loam texture were ex-
Trench 1 (front of the shelter). posed in Trench 3A (Figures 3c, 9). Soil 2 is a buried A–C
Mean Standard profile from 54 to 93 cm below the land surface. Soil 3
Lithic Material Type Number Percent wt (g) Deviation is represented by a Bwb2 horizon from 93 to 116 cm be-
Fossilized Wood 114 40.6 .73 2.34
low the land surface. The A horizon of Soil 3 was com-
Niobrara Jasper 81 28.8 .81 2.27 pletely eroded, exposing the Bw horizon before burial.
Quartz (local) 29 10.3 .33 .43 Soil 4 begins at 116 cm below surface and terminates on a
Quartzite, unspecified 23 8.2 1.66 4.38 large block of roof-fall. Surface exposure, modern anthro-
Opalized Ogallala Caliche 16 5.7 20.88 55.20 pogenic activity, and concomitant melanization accounts
Hartville Chert 12 4.3 1.03 3.53 for the high C content of Soils 3 and 4 (Figure 9).
Unknown 6 2.1 1.78 3.53
Artifact Types
Cores/Tested Cobbles 2 0.7
Radiocarbon chronology
Cortex (Presence) 11 3.9
Tools/Utilized Flakes 13 4.6 Even though no artifacts or cultural features were found
Debitage 266 94.6 in either of Trenches 3A or 3B, flecks of charcoal from
Burned Specimens 14 4.6
modern hearths (Figure 3a) were abundant throughout
the Trench 3A profile. Also, Soils 3 and 4 were very fri-
able and showed evidence of bioturbation. SOM from the
Back of the Burntwood Creek Rockshelter upper 10 cm of Soils 2, 3, and 4 yielded conventional 14 C
ages of 710 ± 70, 114.9 ± 0.5, and 102.4 ± 0.5 yr B.P.,
Lithology respectively (Table I).
Trenches 3A and 3B (Figures 1b, 3a) contain colluvial de-
posits with many angular siliceous gravels and cobbles of
Stable isotopes
Ogallala Group sedimentary rocks throughout both pro-
files (Table VI). These deposits have been modified by soil The δ 13 C values from Trench 3A are higher than the ones
development. A modern surface soil (Soil 1) and three from Trench 1 by ∼3‰. There are three trends in Trench

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THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS MURPHY AND MANDEL

3A from the bottom of the profile to the top (Figure 9).

Common krotovina 6–8 cm diameter

First, the δ 13 C values in Soils 3 and 4 average –18.5‰,

filled with A horizon material

and the C content is high. Second, there is an offset of

Common hackberry seeds

approximately 4‰ toward more negative δ 13 C values at
the boundary between Soils 2 and 3. Through Soil 2, δ 13 C
Other

values remain around –22‰, and C content decreases up

the profile. Finally, the δ 13 C values shift to an average of
–18‰ in the modern surface soil (Soil 1).

Phytoliths
Boundary

The phytolith assemblage from Trench 3A (Figure 9) cor-

Lower

AW

Degree of expression: v1: very weak; 1: weak; Size: f: fine, m: medium; c: coarse; Structure: gr: granular; sbk: subangular blocky; m: massive; sg: single grain.
CW

AS

AS
GS
GS

roborates the δ 13 C values. At the bottom of the profile, a

–

mixed C3 and C4 grass assemblage is represented in Soils

3 and 4. Chloridoids increase and panicoids and pooids
Consistency

decrease in Soil 2. Beginning in Soil 3, spinulose sphere,

VFR

polyhedral, and jigsaw-puzzle cells, indicating woody and

FR

FR
FR

FR
FR

FR

other dicots, increase up the profile, and trichomes and

bulliforms appear in Soil 2, indicating an increase in soil
moisture. Also, pooids are well represented throughout
cv1 & 1; m, TU
cv1 & 1; m, TU

cv1 & 1; c, TU

cv1 & 1; c, TU

the sequence.
Pores

cv1 & 1
cv1 & 1
m, TU

Frequency: f: few; c: common; m: many; Size: v1: very fine; 1: fine; 2: medium; 3: coarse; TU: tubular (worm burrows).

DISCUSSION
Site Formation
cv1, f2, f3
m1 & v1

cv1 & f2
Roots

cv1 & 1
fv1 & 1

Although Burntwood Creek may have played a role in

the original carving of the Burntwood Creek Rockshelter,
–
–

D: dry color; M: moist color; GR: gravel; FGR: fine gravel; SL: sandy loam; L: loam; LS: loamy sand.

it is clear from the sedimentological record that differen-

1m-c to 1fsbk

tial erosion by way of groundwater sapping affected the

Structure

evolution of the shelter. Groundwater or spring sapping

m–sg
1fsbk

v1fgr

occurs where groundwater outflow undermines slopes or

1fgr

1fgr

1fgr

weakens the basal support for cliffs (Baker, 1990). There

Distinctness: A: Abrupt; C: clear; G: gradual; Topography: S: smooth; W: wavy.

are two lines of evidence that support this interpretation.

Texture

First, the eastward-sloping geometry of well-sorted sandy

GR SL

GR SL
GR SL
GR LS

FGR L
GR L
GR L

sediment (Unit I) suggests spring discharge from the back

of the shelter transported the sands out of the friable,
Table VI Soil description for Trench 3A (back of the shelter).

clastic Ogallala Formation, toward the front of the shel-

7.5YR 4/3, 3/3
7.5YR 5/2, 4/2
10YR 5/2, 4/2

10YR 5/3, 4/3

10YR 5/2, 4/2
10YR 5/2, 4/2
2.5Y 6/3, 5/3

ter (Figure 4). Sediment comprising Unit I dips 25◦ to the

Munsell
Color

east and was deposited on the floor of the shelter in sev-

D, M

eral spring outflow events as indicated by grain-size data

(Figure 5).
Second, CL images of the secondary carbonate mass
Horizon

Bwb2
ACb1
Ab1

Ab3
Soil

Bw

show evidence for processes involving phreatic ground-

A

water, derived from springs in the Ogallala Group. We in-

terpret the orange color visible in thin sections under CL
VFR: very friable; FR: friable.
Trench 3B

as an indication that Mn2+ was dissolved in such ground-

54–75+
17–32
32–54

waters (Figure 5a) (cf. Ten Have & Heijnen, 1985; Boggs
& Krinsley, 2006). Furthermore, the calcite coatings (cf.
Stoops, 2003) around silicate grains likely resulted from
Trench 3A

the dissolution of primary calcite crystals and the subse-

116–156
93–116
14–31

31–54
54–75
75–93
Depth

quent reprecipitation of secondary calcite from discharg-

0–14
(cm)

ing groundwaters (Figure 5b). Domains of less-intense

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MURPHY AND MANDEL
Figure 9 Soil horizons, %C, δ13 C, and the recovered phytolith assemblage from Trench 3A at the back of the shelter.
light-red color in the EF image (Figure 5c), however, in-
dicate that an earlier precursor fabric was recrystallized
in situ within the mass (see McGarry & Baker, 2000).
Therefore, petrographic observations indicate a minimum
of two stages of development of secondary carbonate. A
comparative chemostratigraphic and petrographic study
of the Ogallala Group could reinforce our interpretation.
The sandy sediment comprising Unit I, all deposited
by spring discharge, was mantled by colluvium extend-
ing east from the paleodrip-line of the shelter (Units II
and III in Figure 4). Based on the ∼25◦ dip to the east
of Units II and III, the fine gravel to cobbly sandy loam
texture, and the brown to olive brown colors that match
the shelter walls, we infer that the sediment was derived
from the weathered walls of the rockshelter below the
roof-forming caprock.
The remainder of the depositional sequence at the front
of the shelter (Units IV–VII) is interpreted as either allu-
vium or colluvium. At the distal (streamward) end of the
shelter, a greater degree of sediment sorting and the pres-
ence of horizontal bedding in silt loam deposits suggest
that Unit IV is mostly alluvium from Burntwood Creek.
We infer from the multiple fining-upward sequences that
the creek flooded frequently and thereby deposited allu-
vium at the front of the shelter. Units V and VII are in-
terpreted as colluvial deposits on the basis of geometry,
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 344–362
THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS
texture, and grain sorting (Table IV). The eastward slop-
ing geometries and sandy loam to gravelly sandy loam
textures of the units suggest delivery of sediment from
the roof and walls of the shelter over time. The poor sort-
ing of Unit VI strongly suggest that it is colluvium, rather
than alluvium; laminated silt loam sediment in the lower
5 cm of Unit VI, however, probably indicates deposition
by pour-off from the roof of the shelter during episodes
of heavy rainfall (Figure 2a). Significant collapse of the
rockshelter roof likely took place prior to 2315 ± 20 14 C
yr B.P. and Late Archaic occupation since the dated cul-
tural deposits mantle a large block of roof-fall exposed
in the north wall of Trench 1 (Figure 4). Thus, Late
Archaic people constructed hearth features and worked
stone tools in the open-air at the distal end of the shel-
ter, activities consistent with ethnographic rockshelter re-
search of Binford (1978), Gorecki (1991), and Walthall
(1998).
It is difficult to determine when the back of the rock-
shelter was exposed to open-air as it is today. The radio-
carbon ages on SOM from the back of the shelter are
problematic because recent charcoal from historic and
modern campfires is present there. Soil mixing through
bioturbation clearly moved this recent charcoal down the
soil profile. An unconformity between Soils 3 and 4 may
indicate erosion by pour-off from the roof or by spring
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THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS
flow. If the unconformity is a result of roof pour-off, this
suggests the roof collapsed sometime between 2400 and
1000 yr. B.P., leaving the back of the shelter exposed to
the open-air. This relative chronology is likely given the
time-transgressive retreat of the rockshelter roof during
its relatively short lifespan (cf. Laville, Rigaud, & Sackett,
1980; Goldberg & Mandel, 2008).
Archaeology
The Burntwood Creek Rockshelter was repeatedly occu-
pied during the late Holocene. We associate the stratified
cultural deposits with Late Archaic people on the basis of
seven 14 C ages (1930 ± 30 yr B.P. to 2315 ± 20 14 C yr
B.P.), which fall solidly within the accepted age range for
Late Archaic (Table I). Furthermore, ceramics are absent
in the deposits. The unlined hearth features in associa-
tion with faunal and chipped stone assemblages repre-
sent small, multiple campsites. The lithic sample studied
from Features 1 and 2, consisting mostly of small pieces
of debitage and shatter suggests the area just outside the
rockshelter overhang was used for resharpening or re-
touching stone tools. The sample appears to be represen-
tative of the material types and manufacture stage in the
three adjacent excavation units. Most of the lithic mate-
rial (∼65%) would have been available from the local en-
vironment. For example, the Ogallala Formation would
have yielded silicified wood, opalized caliche, quartz, and
quartzite clasts. The high percentage of debitage and the
low percentage of primary cortical flakes, however, make
it unlikely that local materials were initially worked on-
site. The small percentages of Niobrara Jasper (Kansas
source ∼50 km away) and Hartville Chert (Hartville Up-
lift, Wyoming, ∼400 km away) indicate some movement
and/or trade throughout the region.
The presence of hackberry leaf and fruit phytoliths in
the front and back fills of the shelter indicates hackberry
trees were nearby, depositing leaves on the land surface
as they do today. However, given the concentration of
hackberry phytoliths and seeds within Feature 1, hack-
berry probably was used by the Late Archaic people for
fuel or food as has been indicated from the archaeob-
otanical record of several Late Archaic and Early Ceramic
sites in the Central Plains (Adair, 2003; Scarry, 2003). Al-
though hackberry fruits are relatively poor sources of pro-
tein, fat, and carbohydrates (Scarry, 2003), they would
have been one of only a few sources of fleshy fruits, along
with yucca. Furthermore, hackberry fruits are available
during the fall and winter (Scarry, 2003), implying a fall
or winter occupation of the shelter if the fruits were be-
ing consumed when ripe rather than being burned at any
given time.
358 Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 344–362 Copyright 
MURPHY AND MANDEL
Paleoenvironment
In both the front and back of the shelter, the δ 13 C values
on soil represent C3 or a mixed C3 and C4 plant com-
munity, suggesting no major climate shifts in the late
Holocene. There is, however, a 3‰ offset between the
front and back of the shelter, indicating that the propor-
tions of C3 and C4 plants were different. We attribute the
lower δ 13 C values and phytolith composition at the front
of the shelter in Unit IV to Late Archaic hearth activities.
In general, the phytolith analysis yielded a diverse and
well-preserved assemblage of C3 and C4 grasses and C3
dicots such as hackberry (C. occidentalis) that were repre-
sentative of the local environment. However, in Trench
1 many broken phytoliths were recorded in Units I and
II. Based on their degree of wear, and the greater propor-
tion of C3 pooids, the dominant grass subfamily during
the Miocene–Pliocene (Strömberg, 2002), to C4 chlori-
doids, it is likely that those phytoliths were derived di-
rectly from the Ogallala Formation during groundwater
sapping and erosion of the shelter walls. It is not likely
other sediment sources contributed to Units I and II; thus,
they are ancient phytoliths that were liberated from the
Ogallala Formation. Also, two samples from the Unit IV
alluvium in Profile 3 in Trench 1 have low phytolith con-
centrations and are poorly preserved due to alluvial trans-
port in Burntwood Creek. Redeposition of these phy-
toliths makes paleoenvironmental interpretation difficult.
Nonetheless, the phytoliths from the alluvium likely re-
flect the plant community within the Burntwood Creek
basin.
The grasses of the C4 Chloridoideae were the most
abundant of the three subfamilies in both trenches, but
the abundance of chloridoids in both profiles is incon-
sistent with δ 13 C values most likely due to modern and
ancient anthropogenic carbon input around activity ar-
eas, or detrital carbon from multiple sediment sources.
It is possible that chloridoids are a better indicator of
aridity than stable carbon isotopes, or that they produce
more phytoliths than the other subfamilies—two hy-
potheses that remain untested. Nevertheless, chloridoids
were growing on and around the rockshelter and their
phytoliths were transported into the rockshelter through
colluvial and alluvial processes, but chloridoids at the
site also deposited the phytoliths. The C3 Pooideae docu-
mented at depth (Units I and II) in Trench 1 and through-
out the profile in Trench 3A is consistent with lower δ 13 C
values. The δ 13 C values from the surface soil and three
buried soils in Trench 3A indicate an increase in moisture
before a gradual drying at the back of the shelter. The
C4 Panicoideae are not well represented at the rockshel-
ter; their highest numbers are ∼15% of the phytoliths re-
covered from Soils 1 and 4 in Trench 3A. Long-shanked
C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
MURPHY AND MANDEL
lobate panicoid phytoliths are easily broken during rede-
position and can be mistaken for the saddle shapes of
chloridoid phytoliths in two-dimensional analysis (Sud-
bury, 2011). However, during analysis, phytoliths were
rotated to examine their three-dimensional shape.
CONCLUSIONS
The Burntwood Creek Rockshelter formed in the Ogal-
lala Formation in part through the process of ground-
water sapping and spring action. The roof subsequently
retreated as it periodically collapsed over the last ∼2500
years. As the rockshelter evolved, alluvium from Burnt-
wood Creek, colluvium, and large blocks of roof-fall man-
tled sandy spring deposits on its floor. These processes
worked to both preserve and destroy the archaeological
record at the rockshelter.
The riparian environment near the rockshelter in-
cludes two sources of water: a spring emanating from the
Ogallala Formation and Burntwood Creek. Both sources
would have been attractive to humans moving through
the High Plains. We conclude from paleoenvironmental
analyses that a mixed C3 and C4 plant community thrived
within and around the rockshelter and changed in com-
position during the late Holocene. The differences in plant
community composition between the soil at the front and
back of the shelter are likely a result of differences in wa-
ter availability and exposure to sunlight as the rockshelter
roof retreated. Differences in plant community composi-
tion between the sedimentary units at the front of the
shelter are likely a result of changes in sediment source.
Also, the hearth activities of Late Archaic people affected
stable carbon isotope values and the composition of phy-
tolith assemblages.
Excellent phytolith preservation (i.e., no dissolution
pits and few broken phytoliths) suggests that with the
exception of Units I and II in Trench 1, and the alluvium
from Burntwood Creek (Unit IV), redeposition was lim-
ited. The phytoliths from units I and II likely represent
grasses of Miocene–Pliocene age, and phytoliths from the
alluvium represent snapshots of basin-wide grasses from
the late Holocene. Also, C4 chloridoid phytoliths recov-
ered in the laminated portion of Unit VI in Trench 1 may
have come from the pour-off at the top of the shelter.
The Burntwood Creek Rockshelter provided a short-
term camping locality for Late Archaic people. They left
behind a mostly debitage (tertiary flakes) chipped stone
assemblage along with a small amount of deer and bi-
son remains. Thus, the people who used the rockshelter
may have been responsible for the chipped stone surface
assemblages at the other recorded sites in the valley. A
comparison of the chipped stone assemblages at each site
Geoarchaeology: An International Journal 27 (2012) 344–362
THE BURNTWOOD CREEK ROCKSHELTER RECORD, NW KANSAS
will aid in resolving the question of cultural affiliation. At
this time, there is no evidence for Late Archaic activities
at the bison jump at 14RW2 or the bone bed at 14RW3,
although we do know that Late Archaic people were par-
ticipating in large bison kills on the High Plains (Todd
et al., 2001). Also, we do not have evidence that the rock-
shelter was used while the Late Paleoindian bison jump
at 14RW2 was used. If a Late Paleoindian component did
exist at the shelter, the sediments that would have con-
tained those specific cultural deposits probably were re-
moved by stream erosion during the middle Holocene, a
process that occurred in most low-order streams across
the Central Plains (Mandel, 1995, 2006). Thus, there is
low potential for finding deposits at the rockshelter that
predate the late Holocene.
We graciously thank Dean and Theresa Knapp for allowing ac-
cess to the Burntwood Creek Rockshelter. Jack Hofman (Uni-
versity of Kansas) assisted us in the field and was involved with
the lithic analysis. Mark Volmut (University of Kansas) helped
us in the field and provided assistance with bone identifica-
tion. Steve Bozarth (University of Kansas) assisted with phy-
tolith identification. Greg Ludvigson (Kansas Geological Survey)
aided in thin-section petrology. We thank Daphne Fautin (Uni-
versity of Kansas), Jon Smith (Kansas Geological Survey), Robert
M. Joeckel (University of Nebraska), and Paul Goldberg (Boston
University) for helpful suggestions in the early stages of the
manuscript. Finally, we thank Joe Artz and two anonymous ref-
erees for their valuable comments and suggestions. Our research
was supported by the University of Kansas Odyssey Archaeolog-
ical Research Fund and by a Carroll D. Clark Research Award
from the Department of Anthropology, University of Kansas.
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