Lithos 73 (2004) 187 – 213

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Commingling and mixing of S-type peraluminous, ultrapotassic

and basaltic magmas in the Cayconi volcanic field,
Cordillera de Carabaya, SE Peru
Hamish A. Sandeman *, Alan H. Clark
Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada K7L 3N6

Received 12 December 2002; accepted 9 December 2003

Abstract

The Cayconi district of the Cordillera de Carabaya, SE Peru, exposes a remnant of an upper Oligocene – Lower Miocene
(22.2 – 24.4 Ma) volcanic field, comprising a diverse assemblage of S-type silicic and calc-alkaline basaltic to andesitic flows,
members of the Picotani Group of the Central Andean Inner Arc. Basaltic flows containing olivine, plagioclase, clinopyroxene,
ilmenite and glass, and glassy rhyolitic agglutinates with phenocrystic quartz, cordierite, plagioclase, sanidine, ilmenite and
apatite, respectively exhibit mineralogical and geochemical features characteristic of medium-K mafic and Lachlan S-type
silicic lavas. Cordierite-bearing dacitic agglomerates and lavas, however, are characterized by dispersed, melanocratic micro-
enclaves and phenocrysts set in a fine-grained quartzo-feldspathic matrix. They contain a bimodal mica population, comprising
phlogopite and biotite, as well as complexly zoned, sieve-textured plagioclase grains, sector-zoned cordierite, sanidine, quartz,
irregular patches of replaced olivine, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene and accessory phases including zircon, monazite,
ilmenite and chromite. The coexistence of minerals not in mutual equilibrium and the growth/dissolution textures exhibited by
plagioclase are features indicative of magmatic commingling and mixing. Trachytic-textured andesite flows interlayered with
olivine + plagioclase – glomerophyric, calc-alkaline basalts have a phenocrystic assemblage of resorbed orthopyroxene and
plagioclase and exhibit melanocratic groundmass patches of microphenocrystic phlogopite, Ca-rich sanidine, ilmenite and
aluminous spinel. The mineralogical and mineral chemical relationships in both the dacites and the trachytic-textured andesites
imply subvolcanic mixing between distinct ultrapotassic mafic melts, not represented by exposed rock types, and both the S-
type silicic and calc-alkaline mafic magmas. Such mixing relationships are commonly observed in the Oligo-Miocene rocks of
the Cordillera de Carabaya, suggesting that the S-type rocks in this area and, by extension, elsewhere derive their unusually high
K2O, Ba, Sr, Cr and Ni concentrations from commingling and mixing with diverse, mantle-derived potassic mafic magmas.
D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Peru; Inner arc; S-type magmas; Potassic mafic magmas; Commingling

* Corresponding author. Canada-Nunavut Geoscience Office,
Natural Resources Canada, 626 Tumiit Building, P.O. Box 2319,
Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada X0A 0H0.
E-mail address: hsandema@nrcan.gc.ca (H.A. Sandeman).
1. Introduction
The glaciated Cordillera Oriental (Eastern Cordil-
lera) of the southern Peruvian Andes exposes a
diverse assemblage of Oligocene-to-Miocene volcanic

0024-4937/$ - see front matter D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2003.12.005
188 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

and hypabyssal intrusive rocks, assigned to the Cru-
cero Supergroup and Intrusive Supersuite, respective-
ly (Sandeman et al., 1997a). The rocks of the
supergroup constitute the most recent major manifes-
tation of igneous activity in the ‘‘Inner Arc domain’’
(Clark et al., 1984; 1990a), a long-lived petrogenetic
province distinct in numerous respects from the con-
temporaneously active Main Arc of the Altiplano and
Cordillera Occidental (Western Cordillera). Thus,
whereas the Jurassic –recent Main Arc is characterized
by calc-alkaline, dominantly andesitic suites generat-
ed above an active subduction zone, the association of
peraluminous, upper crust-derived silicic rocks with
calc-alkaline-to-highly potassic mafic rocks in the
Inner Arc is not readily linked to subduction of the
Nazca plate beneath the South American margin
(Sandeman et al., 1995). The Picotani Group, the
subject of the present discussion, constitutes the lower
part of the Crucero Supergroup and is preserved as
four remanent centres, the Quenamari, Cayconi and
Picotani Fields and the Cerro Moromoroni or Antauta
complex, exposed in and adjacent to the intermontane
Macusani, Crucero, Ananea and Ancocala basins (Fig.
1). It is everywhere characterized by a diverse assem-
blage of peraluminous S-type silicic (SP suites: Syl-
vester, 1998; PSGS suites: Patiño-Douce, 1999) and
mantle-derived mafic rocks that widely exhibit field
and petrographic evidence of magma commingling
and/or mixing (vide Kontak et al., 1986; Sandeman
and Clark, 1993, 2003; Carlier et al., 1992, 1993,
1997; Kontak and Clark, 1997, 2002).
Controversy persists regarding the genesis of true
S-type granitic rocks (peraluminous S-type granites
or PSGS of Patiño-Douce, 1999), particularly the
extent to which their mineralogy and chemistry are
influenced by restite retention (cf. White and Chap-
pell, 1977; Wyborn et al., 1981; Clemens and Wall,
1984; Chappell and White, 2001), and the impor-

Fig. 1. Location of the study area (Cordillera de Carabaya) in the southeastern Peruvian Andes. Shown in the inset are the broad morphotectonic
subdivisions of the Central Andes along with political boundaries. The regional map shows the location of the Cayconi Field in relationship to
other Oligocene-to-Pliocene units of the region including the glass-rich, S-type Revancha dyke (Sandeman and Clark, 2003).
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213
tance of commingling and mixing with mafic, man-
tle-derived melts (Kontak et al., 1986; Sandeman and
Clark, 1993; Sandeman, 1995; Stimac et al., 1995;
Elburg, 1996a,b; Carlier et al., 1997; Sandeman et
al., 1997a). This in part reflects the predominance of
coarse-grained phaneritic intrusive facies, in which
melt and commonly phenocryst compositions are not
preserved and crystallization history is disguised.
Moreover, many volcanic representatives are either
altered or pyroclastic, while the compositions of
microphenocrysts, which in many volcanic rocks
record the conditions of late-stage magmatic consol-
idation, have not been extensively recorded in S-type
suites.
In this contribution, we examine the composition-
ally diverse volcanic and hypabyssal rocks of the
Cayconi district, exposed in the Cordillera de Cara-
baya of southeastern Peru (Fig. 1). Although the field
relationships are ambiguous owing to extensive cover
by solifluction debris, there is abundant petrographic
and geochemical evidence for the commingling of S-
type (biotite + cordierite) silicic anatectic magmas
with mantle-derived basaltic and ultrapotassic melts.
Our observations imply that calc-alkaline basaltic and
ultrapotassic melts passed rapidly through the lower
crust with little interaction and ponded at mid-to-
shallow crustal levels, where they acted as heat
sources for the generation of the silicic magmas.
The potassic mafic melts subsequently commingled
and mixed with both the silicic S-type and calc-
alkaline basaltic melts in upper crustal magma cham-
bers immediately prior to extrusion and quenching of
the latter. The commingling is inferred to have in-
volved high proportions of S-type silicic and calc-
alkaline basaltic melts with smaller volumes of ultra-
potassic mafic magmas. The unambiguous record in
this region of the coexistence of mafic and silicic
PSGS magmas implies that potassic-to-ultrapotassic
mantle-derived melts not only acted as heat sources,
but that they also commonly mixed with silicic PSGS
melts. Hence, multistage mixing between these dis-
tinct magmas is directly responsible for the extreme
compositional and mineralogical complexity of the
late Oligocene to Early Miocene igneous suites of SE
Peru and, by inference, comparable suites worldwide.
These processes may therefore be a prevalent rather
than rare phenomenon in the production of PSGS or
Lachlan-type silicic suites in general.
189
2. Regional geological setting
The Cordillera de Carabaya and its environs are
underlain by a thick succession of Phanerozoic sedi-
mentary and volcano-sedimentary strata that host
numerous intrusive units varying in age and petrolog-
ical affinity, aspects of which have been discussed
elsewhere (Laubaucher, 1978; Kontak, 1985; Kontak
et al., 1990). This region has long constituted an
orogen – craton interface and has been a locus of
diversified igneous activity since at least the Permian
(Kontak, 1985). A thick (15 –20 km) sequence of
Ordovician-to-Lower Carboniferous arenites and
shales, assigned to the San José, Sandia and Ananea
Formations and the Ambo Group (Newell, 1949;
Laubaucher, 1978), are overlain by limestones and
cherty sandstones and shales of the Middle Carbonif-
erous-to-Lower Permian Tarma and Copacabana
Groups. Further Lower Permian strata (Clark et al.,
1990b), constituting the Mitu Group, unconformably
overlie the above sequences and are dominated by
cobble conglomerates and sandstones, with less com-
mon alkaline volcanic rocks and associated intrusive
units. Major granitoid plutons of Late Triassic –Early
Jurassic age (Kontak et al., 1990) intrude the above
sedimentary – volcanic sequence. Younger peralkaline
volcanic flows and intrusions of Jurassic age were
assigned to the Allincápac Group by Kontak et al.
(1990). Strata of late Mesozoic age are less common
in the Cordillera Oriental proper and are typically
interpreted to represent thin, northeastern lithofacies
equivalents of rocks comprising the thick sequences
preserved in the Altiplano and Putina basins. They
include the gypsiferous and calcareous red shales and
sandstones of the Cotacucho Group and the overlying
green-grey shales of the Vilquechico Formation
(Newell, 1949; Laubaucher, 1978).
The Cenozoic volcanic rocks discussed herein
record the reactivation of the Inner Arc in the late
Oligocene, at 26 F 0.5 Ma, coinciding precisely with
the birth of a 350-km-wide arc extending southwest-
wards to the plate boundary. Sandeman et al. (1995)
argue that this remarkable arc expansion resulted from
the development of a window in a subhorizontally
subducting slab, promoting melting of both litho-
sphere and asthenospheric mantle beneath crust not
yet thickened by the contraction attending the still-
active Quechuan orogeny.
190 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

3. Geology of the Cayconi volcanic field
The volcanic rocks of the Cayconi district (Fig. 2)
were first described by Laubaucher (1978), who noted
the peraluminous character of some rock units and
hence proposed an affinity with the extensively docu-
mented rhyolitic pyroclastic rocks exposed west of the
town of Macusani (see Fig. 1; Noble et al., 1984;
Pichavant et al., 1988a,b; Cheilletz et al., 1992). The
extrusive units of the Cayconi Field crop out between
7 and 17 km north – northwest of Crucero on the
southwest slopes of the Cordillera de Carabaya, un-
derlying several north –south ridges and valleys be-
tween Hacienda Cayconi and Cerro Pirhuacaca (Fig.
2). They include areally extensive units as well as
restricted lobate flows in, and adjacent to, paleo-
depressions. In general, mafic-to-intermediate lava
flows are confined to the eastern part of the field,
whereas rhyolitic lava flows underlie areas to the west
of Laguna Ticllacocha (Fig. 2), with dacitic-to-rhyo-
dacitic units predominating in the intervening area.
The volcanic rocks are underlain by grey-tan fossilif-

Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the Cayconi Field showing the distribution of units, their unconformable relationship with the underlying
country rocks (after Sandeman et al., 1996) and the locations of specimens discussed in the text.
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 191

erous limestones of the Tarma and Copacabana
Groups, red sandstones and coarse mollasoid con-
glomerates of the Mitu Group and interbedded red
sandstones, pebble conglomerates and dolomitic sand-
stones probably representing the Cotacucho Group
(Laubaucher, 1978; Sandeman et al., 1996). These
are disposed in a series of south-plunging open folds
disrupted by numerous high-angle faults. Both the
sedimentary strata and the overlying, undeformed
volcanic rocks are widely mantled by fluvio-glacial
deposits.
The field relationships and 40Ar – 39Ar step-heating
geochronological data for the Oligocene volcanic
rocks of the Cayconi Field, documented elsewhere
(Sandeman et al., 1996, 1997a), are herein outlined
along with salient petrological features (Table 1) in
order to provide a basis for the following detailed
petrographic observations.
3.1. The Suratira Formation
The Suratira Formation (Fig. 2) is a 22.4 F 0.9 (2r)
to 23.6 F 0.8 Ma, ca. 80-m-thick sequence of basalts
and subordinate andesites (Laubacher et al., 1988;
Sandeman et al., 1997a). These overlie Mesozoic and
Paleozoic strata with slight unconformity and are
interfingered with the dacitic lavas of the Jama Jama
and Pachachaca Formations (see below).
The Suratira Formation basaltic lavas (SF) com-
prise massive, commonly coarse-grained, vesicular to
amygdaloidal flows that locally exhibit weakly devel-
oped, 50-cm scale, spherical-to-ellipsoidal textures

Table 1
Salient petrological and geochronological aspects of respective units of the Picotani Group of the Cayconi district
40
Unit name Rock type Ar – 39Ar Petrographic features Diagnostic whole-rock geochemical
age (Ma) parameters
Cerro Cancahuine Green, agglutinated 22.2 F 0.2a to Phenocrystic Sa, Pl, Composition compatible with low-P,
Formation rhyolite flows 22.4 F 0.3b Q, Cd, Bt, Ap, Il, Zr high-T, dehydration melting of a
and Mz in perlitic glass semipelitic, metasedimentary source
Suratira Calc-alkaline 21.65 F 0.76a to Phenocrystic Ol, Pl, Composition compatible with melting
Formation basalts 23.7 F 1.3b Cpx, and Il with minor of subduction-modified, sub-arc mantle
intersertal glass
Trachytic-textured ca. 22.0c Complexly zoned, marginally SiO2—58.5, K2O—3.16, P2O5—0.31
andesite resorbed Opx and Pl wt.%, Cr—397, Ni—40, Rb—191,
phenocrysts with Pl, Il and Ba—930, Sr—526, Th—15.8,
Ap microphenocrysts. U—16.5 ppm; commingled calc-alkaline
Micro-enclaves with Ph, Sa, mafic and ultrapotassic melts?
Pl and Sp
Pachachaca Dacitic 23.57 F 0.18a to Dispersed Ph and Bt with Cd, SiO2 f 65.0, K2O f 6.95,
Formation agglomerate 23.78 F 0.22a Q, Sa and Pl phenocrysts and P2O5 f 0.60 wt.%, Cr f 460,
Pl Chr, Ap, Sil, Il, Zr and Mz Ni f 45, Rb f 405, Ba f 2500,
microphenocrysts Sr f 620, Th f 18, U f 10 ppm;
commingled S-type silicic and
ultrapotassic melts?
Jama Jama Hematitized 23.5 F 0.3b to Dispersed, phenocrystic Cd, SiO2 f 64.0, K2O f 5.25,
Formation dacitic lavas 23.80 F 0.15a Pl, Q, Sa, Bt and Pl with P2O5 f 0.48 wt.%, Cr f 235,
Chr, Ap, Sil, Il, Zr and Ni f 25, Rb f 327, Ba f 1500,
Mz microphenocrysts. Sr f 290, Th f 16, U f 9.5 ppm;
Micro-enclaves with Ph, commingled S-type silicic and
Opx, Cpx, Ol and Chr ultrapotassic melts?
Ph—phlogopite; Sa—sanidine; Opx—orthopyroxene; Pl—plagioclase; Sp—spinel; Bt—biotite; Cd—cordierite; Cpx—clinopyroxene; Ol—
olivine; Chr—chromite; Q—quartz; Ap—apatite; Sil—sillimanite; Zr—zircon; Mz—monazite. All major elements in wt.% oxides and trace
elements in ppm.
a
Sandeman et al. (1997a).
b
Laubaucher et al. (1988).
c
Approximate age on the basis of stratigraphic setting.
192 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

that resemble pillow forms. They contain V 2 mm,
subhedral, partially serpentinized olivine phenocrysts
that typically form glomerocrysts with large ( V 3
mm), oscillatorily zoned, euhedral plagioclase grains
(Fig. 3A). Tiny, prismatic, orange-brown inclusions of
spinel occur in some olivine grains. Plagioclase also
occurs as oscillatorily zoned tabular grains in the
groundmass, associated with anhedral-to-subhedral
magnetite grains. Triangular patches of vesicular,
brownish intergranular glass occur throughout and
commonly contain acicular clinopyroxene and ilmen-
ite crystals.
The uppermost exposures of the Suratira Forma-
tion (Fig. 2), on the summit of the hill immediately
south of Hacienda Cayconi, comprise a thin (ca. 5 m)
horizon of orthopyroxene- and plagioclase-phyric,
trachytic-textured andesite (SFTA). Readily distin-
guished from the basaltic rocks because of its fine
grain size and mesocratic cast, the andesite exhibits
uncommon, large ( V 2 mm), rounded and resorbed
orthopyroxene (Fig. 3B) and strongly zoned plagio-
clase phenocrysts in a matrix of trachytic-textured
plagioclase, sanidine and ilmenite. The groundmass
locally incorporates melanocratic, fine-grained
patches (Fig. 3C) comprising abundant tiny laths of
colourless-to-dark brown pleochroic phlogopite,
patchily zoned plagioclase laths, sanidine and ilmenite
overgrown by spinel.
3.2. The Pachachaca Formation
The cordierite –biotite-bearing, dacitic agglomer-
ates comprising the 23.6 F 0.2 to 24.4 F 0.2 Ma
Pachachaca Formation (PF) are intercalated with sub-
aerial mafic lavas of the Suratira Formation and
dacitic lavas of the Jama Jama Formation, but are
older than the rhyolitic agglutinates assigned to the
Cerro Cancahuine Formation (see below: Sandeman
et al., 1997a). The Pachachaca Formation is charac-
terized by irregularly distributed subangular, V 50-cm
bombs of dacite, surrounded by a dacitic matrix of
similar composition. The phenocrystic mineral asso-
ciation is apparently not in mutual equilibrium and
includes a bimodal mica population (Sandeman et al.,
1997a). One of the most striking petrographic char-
acteristics of this unit is the occurrence of numerous,
irregularly dispersed, slightly more melanocratic
lenses containing a higher modal proportion of phlog-
opite than the surrounding matrix. Subhedral serpen-
tinous pseudomorphs after anhydrous ferromagnesian
mineral phases are also common. The patches are
interpreted as remanent, dispersed micro-enclaves of a
phlogopite-bearing potassic mafic melt within a dom-
inantly silicic host magma.
Phenocrystic plagioclase ( V 4 mm) comprises sub-
hedral grains as well as anhedral crystal fragments. It
is typically strongly zoned, with marked optical dis-
continuities between oscillatorily zoned cores and
rims. Many plagioclase grains exhibit sieve-textured
margins and, less commonly, pervasive fine sieve
textures. Cordierite typically occurs as subhedral-to-
rounded, moderately-to-strongly pinitized phenocrysts
( V 7 mm) that characteristically exhibit pseudo-hex-
agonal twinning. Biotite grains are typically stubby,
dark-brown or black ( V 3 mm) and are incipiently
altered to intergrowths of Fe-rich biotite, ilmenite,

Fig. 3. Photomicrographs of salient petrographic aspects of the volcanic rocks of the Cayconi Field. (A) A basaltic flow of the Suratira
Formation with subhedral, moderately serpentinized olivine phenocrysts (Ol) forming glomerocrysts with large ( V 3 mm), oscillatory zoned,
euhedral plagioclase grains (Pl). (B) A backscattered electron image of an orthopyroxene phenocryst from a specimen of the trachytic-textured
andesite of the Suratira Formation. Note the zoning from ‘‘dull’’ Mg-rich core to ‘‘bright,’’ Fe-rich mantle subsequently overgrown by an Mg-
rich rim. The grain also exhibits a resorbed margin implying that it underwent late-stage dissolution prior to quenching. (C) A series of irregular,
melanocratic patches interpreted as micro-enclaves in a specimen of the trachytic-textured andesite of the Suratira Formation. These contain
abundant tiny laths of colourless-to-dark brown pleochroic phlogopite (Phl), ‘‘patchily zoned’’ plagioclase laths, potassium feldspar and ilmenite
locally overgrown by spinel. Note the adjacent orthopyroxene phenocrysts (Opx) and the trachytic-textured, plagioclase-rich matrix. (D)
Photomicrograph of a specimen of the Pachachaca Formation showing incipiently altered, stubby, dark-brown to black biotite (Bt) grains
contrasted with elongate prismatic, colourless to pale-brown phlogopite phenocrysts (Phl). These coexist in close proximity with rounded quartz
(Q) grains and plagioclase grains (Pl). (E) Serpentinized and hematitized, dispersed micro-enclaves (Enc) and crystal aggregates of the Jama
Jama Formation comprising olivine (Ol), clinopyroxene (Cpx), orthopyroxene (Opx) and rare phlogopite coexisting with rounded quartz (Q)
and plagioclase (Pl) grain fragments. (F) A close up of the micro-enclave in photomicrograph 3E, comprising remanent, dispersed grains of
variably altered olivine (Ol), orthopyroxene (Opx) and locally clinopyroxene set in a fine-grained, flow-aligned, quartzofeldspathic matrix. (G)
Photomicrograph of a specimen of the Cerro Cancahuine Formation showing phenocrystic sanidine (K) with a sodic plagioclase core (Pl) and
variably pinitized, subhedral, sector twinned cordierite (Cd) enclosed in a perlitic glassy matrix (G).
H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 193
194 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

magnetite and apatite (Fig. 3D). In contrast, the
phlogopite phenocrysts (Fig. 3D) are generally elon-
gate-prismatic in form ( V 2 mm), although they
typically exhibit minor resorption and rounding of
their margins. These are colourless to pale brown and
exhibit a distinctly darker brown colour in their
margins. Quartz occurs as large, rounded and resorbed
grains ( V 5 mm), many of which are characterized by
conchoidal fractures decorated by abundant glass
inclusions. Sanidine forms large ( V 5 mm) subhe-
dral-to-euhedral phenocrysts that host numerous
inclusions of mica, plagioclase and sillimanite nee-
dles. The groundmass consists of fine-grained-to-mi-
crocrystalline intergrowths of quartz and potassium
feldspar, probably representing devitrified glass.
3.3. The Jama Jama Formation
Haematitised, cordierite –biotite-bearing lava flows
of the 23.8 F 0.2 Ma Jama Jama Formation (JJF: Fig.
2) are intercalated with flows of the Pachachaca
Formation (Sandeman et al., 1997a). Like the latter,
they contain dispersed micro-enclaves and a disparate,
nonequilibrium mineral association. Two types of
mica are present, but their strongly altered condition
prevents unambiguous characterization. The dispersed
micro-enclaves of the Jama Jama Formation (Fig. 3E),
however, are distinct from those of the Pachachaca
Formation and comprise olivine, clinopyroxene, or-
thopyroxene and rarely phlogopite and chromite, the
three former of which are variably altered to hydrous
ferromagnesian phases such as serpentine and idding-
site (Fig. 3E and F). Both phlogopite and biotite,
however, are invariably replaced by a fine intergrowth
of Fe-rich biotite, magnetite/haematite, ilmenite and
apatite. Rocks of the Jama Jama Formation contain
abundant phenocrystic plagioclase comprising both
subhedral crystals as well as crystal fragments. These
are typically characterized by strong oscillatory zon-
ing, but have distinct optical discontinuities that
crosscut the zoning. In cathodoluminescence images,
many of these plagioclase grains exhibit irregular
cores having greenish-yellow response typical of
either Mn+ 2 or, more commonly, Fe+ 2, whereas the
rims of the grains exhibit a deep-red response char-
acteristic of Fe+ 3 (Mariano, personal communication).
Sanidine occurs as large ( V 8 mm), subhedral phe-
nocrysts dispersed throughout and hosts numerous
inclusions of plagioclase and biotite. Cordierite forms
large rounded subhedral crystals exhibiting pseudo-
hexagonal twinning, and quartz forms large rounded
and resorbed crystals that are typically highly frac-
tured and hosts inclusions of variably devitrified glass.
Accessory phases include dispersed prismatic zircon,
monazite, chromite, hercynitic spinel and abundant
subhedral apatite.

Table 2
Representative electron microprobe analyses of potassium feldspar from rocks of the Cayconi district
MAC151 MAC151 MAC151 MAC155 MAC155 MAC155 MAC157 MAC157 MAC157
Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph MPh Ph
PF PF PF JJF JJF JJF CCF CCF CCF
DA DA DA D D D R R R
SiO2 (%) 65.51 65.35 64.86 66.18 65.60 65.60 64.16 65.87 65.88
TiO2 0.13 0.15 0.15 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.10 0.15 0.08
Al2O3 18.84 18.88 18.60 18.78 18.75 19.09 21.09 19.42 19.05
FeO 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.19 0.29 0.00
CaO 0.15 0.29 0.42 0.48 0.32 0.44 0.09 0.12 0.00
Na2O 2.86 2.48 2.92 2.81 2.80 3.24 2.87 4.76 4.28
K2O 12.74 12.75 12.26 12.10 12.60 11.53 11.59 9.87 10.63
Total 100.23 100.00 99.21 100.35 100.18 99.90 100.09 100.48 99.92

An 0.7 1.5 2.1 2.4 1.6 2.2 0.5 0.6 0.0

Ab 25.3 22.5 26.0 25.5 24.9 29.3 27.2 42.0 38.0
Or 74.0 76.1 71.9 72.1 73.6 68.5 72.3 57.4 62.0
PF—Pachachaca Formation; JJF—Jama Jama Formation; CCF—Cerro Cancahuine Formation; Ph—phenocryst; MPh—microphenocryst;
DA—dacitic agglomerate; D—dacite; R—rhyolite; An—proportion anorthite; Ab—proportion albite; Or—proportion orthoclase.
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 195

Table 3
Representative electron microprobe analyses of plagioclase for lithostratigraphic units of the Cayconi district
MAC149 MAC150 MAC154 MAC148 MAC148 MAC148 MAC151 MAC151 MAC153 MAC153 MAC157 MAC156 MAC156
SF SF SF SFTA SFTA SFTA PF PF JJF JJF CCF CCF CCF
Ph Ph Ph MPh Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph Ph
core core core body body body rim body rim core core rim core
B B B TA TA TA DA DA D D R R R
SiO2 51.25 50.99 50.83 53.38 52.34 54.82 61.85 62.58 61.69 55.74 59.26 64.12 62.44
(%)
TiO2 0.07 0.21 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 0.00 0.00
Al2O3 32.00 30.78 31.30 28.94 30.27 28.45 24.44 24.07 24.53 28.71 25.68 22.73 23.88
FeO 0.23 0.20 0.35 0.39 0.00 0.00 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02
CaO 13.91 13.46 13.79 12.27 12.33 10.35 5.64 5.11 5.52 10.20 7.15 3.83 4.95
Na2O 3.17 3.76 3.46 4.33 4.38 5.58 7.48 7.88 7.45 5.34 7.20 8.33 7.84
K2O 0.27 0.26 0.20 0.28 0.45 0.66 0.80 0.74 1.40 0.54 0.52 0.99 0.77
Total 100.90 99.66 99.93 99.77 99.77 99.86 100.50 100.38 100.59 100.53 100.01 100.03 99.91

An 69.66 65.42 67.97 60.03 59.30 48.74 28.02 25.23 26.71 49.74 34.38 19.07 24.68
Ab 28.73 33.07 30.86 38.34 38.12 47.55 67.25 70.41 65.23 47.12 62.64 75.04 70.74
Or 1.61 1.50 1.17 1.63 2.58 3.70 4.73 4.35 8.07 3.14 2.98 5.89 4.58
SF—Suratira Formation; JJF—Jama Jama Formation; PF—Pachachaca Formation; SFTA—Suratira Formation trachytic andesite; CCF—Cerro
Cancahuine Formation; Ph—phenocryst; MPh—microphenocryst; rim—grain rim; core—grain core; B—basalt; TA—trachytic andesite; DA—
dacitic agglomerate; D—dacite; R—rhyolite; An—proportion anorthite; Ab—proportion albite; Or—proportion orthoclase.

Table 4
Selected electron microprobe of cordierite grains from the Jama Jama and Cerro Cancahuine Formations
MAC153 MAC153 MAC157 MAC157 MAC157 MAC156 MAC156 MAC156
JJF JJF CCF CCF CCF CCF CCF CCF
D D R R R R R R
SiO2 (%) 48.77 48.25 47.02 47.81 46.55 47.67 46.15 46.04
TiO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.00 0.04
Al2O3 33.57 33.09 33.82 33.37 33.17 33.42 32.13 33.10
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.03 0.01 0.05 0.01
FeO 9.22 8.46 7.24 6.41 10.83 6.76 12.45 8.00
MnO 0.34 0.52 0.02 0.04 0.11 0.07 0.24 0.16
MgO 8.05 7.83 9.05 9.69 6.85 9.37 5.62 8.53
CaO 0.00 0.08 0.08 0.03 0.06 0.03 0.09 0.08
Na2O 0.22 0.19 0.10 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.07 0.08
K2O 0.42 0.57 0.14 0.09 0.15 0.15 0.50 0.29
F na na 0.07 0.11 0.10 0.09 0.16 0.17
Cl na na 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.00 0.01
NiO na na 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
RbO na na 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
SrO na na 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
BaO na na 0.00 0.06 0.02 0.00 0.29 0.33
ZnO na na 0.04 0.00 0.05 0.03 0.08 0.08
V2O3 na na 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.07
P2O5 na na 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.13 0.03
Mg# 46.6 48.1 69.0 72.9 53.0 71.2 44.6 65.5
Total 100.59 98.99 97.68 97.78 98.02 97.70 97.94 97.04
JJF—Jama Jama Formation; CCF—Cerro Cancahuine Formation; D—dacite; R—rhyolite; Mg#—100  MgO/FeO + MgO.
196 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

Fig. 4. Feldspar compositions in Ab – Or – An space from representative rocks of the Cayconi district. (A) Sanidine and plagioclase compositions
for rocks of the Pachachaca (PF), Jama Jama (JJF) and Cerro Cancahuine (CCF) Formations. (B) Plagioclase and potassium feldspar
compositions for rocks of the Suratira Formation basalts (SF) and for the Suratira Formation trachytic-textured andesite (SFTA). Open symbols
are plagioclase microphenocrysts.

Fig. 5. (A) Electron microprobe traverse across a large plagioclase phenocryst in the trachytic andesite of the Suratira Formation (sample
MAC148). Note the rapid increase in An value near the margins of the grain and its subsequent decrease. This corresponds to an optical
discontinuity (OD) and a change in the extinction of the margin of the grain (near point B). (B) Electron microprobe traverse across a plagioclase
phenocryst in specimen MAC151 of the Pachachaca Formation. Note the sudden increase in An value (from ca. An25 to An45) across the optical
discontinuity. GIT refers to glass inclusion trails at the margin of the grain.
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 197

3.4. The Cerro Cancahuine Formation

This youngest unit of the Cayconi Field (22.2 F 0.2

Ma) comprises a sequence of pale-green, agglutini-
tized, cordierite –biotite rhyolitic flows of the Cerro
Cancahuine Formation (CCF: Sandeman et al., 1997a).
This formation, not exposed east of Laguna Ticllacocha
(Fig. 2), underlies the peaks of Cerros Pirhuacaca,
Cancahuine and Ancara and dominates the western
part of the Cayconi Field. It directly overlies the Jama
Jama Formation (see below), but is apparently not
intercalated with other volcanic units of the district.
These flows contain ca. 34 vol.% phenocrysts com-
prising: euhedral, simple twinned sanidine ( V 1 mm)
commonly overgrowing sodic plagioclase cores; vari-
ably pinitized, subhedral, sector twinned cordierite
( V 1 mm); euhedral bipyramidal quartz ( V 0.8 mm);
plagioclase exhibiting albite twinning is commonly
mantled by sanidine; and rare, platy biotite ( V 1
mm), enclosed in ca. 66 vol.% perlitic glassy matrix
(Fig. 3G). Accessory phases include abundant subhe-
dral microphenocrysts of apatite and ilmenite and less
abundant sillimanite, zircon and monazite.

4. Geochemistry

4.1. Analytical methods

4.1.1. Mineral analyses

Mineral and groundmass glass compositions
(Tables 2 –7) were obtained at both Queen’s Univer-
sity, Kingston, and at the Geological Survey of
Canada (GSC), Ottawa. The former were determined
by energy-dispersive (EDS) electron microprobe anal-
ysis using an ARL-SEQM probe, on-line with a Tracor
Northern computer system. Operating parameters in-
cluded an accelerating potential of 15 keV, a beam
current of 75 nA and count times of 200 s with a beam
diameter of ca. 1 Am. Fluorine was determined by
wavelength-dispersive (WDS) analysis using an Ovo-
nyx, multilayered synthetic crystal, a 15 keV acceler-
ating voltage and a beam current of 300 nA. Owing to
the presence of an Fe L a line in the lower-back-
ground region, a 20-s peak count was preceded and
then followed by a 20-s upper-background measure-
ment, a protocol carried out at least four times per
grain. Multiple analyses of the same grain were
Fig. 6. (A) Plot of Aliv vs. FeOT/FeOT + MgO (after Clarke, 1981)
and (B) TiO2 vs. FeOT/FeOT + MgO for micas from three
formations of the Cayconi district. Note that the micas from the
Cayconi district are generally distinct from those of biotite + cor-
dierite + garnet-bearing granitoids from the Lachlan Fold Belt of SE
Australia (diagonal ruled field: Wyborn et al., 1981; Clemens and
Wall, 1984; Elburg, 1996a,b) and from hornblende + biotite-bearing,
I-type calc-alkaline granitoids (dashed field: Dodge and Moore,
1968; de Albuquerque, 1973). Also plotted are biotites from the
commingled Minastira pluton of SE Peru (open diamonds: Kontak
and Clark, 1997), the cordierite rhyolites of the Morococala Field of
Bolivia (five-pointed stars: Morgan et al., 1998) and biotite from the
glass-rich Revancha dyke (horizontal ruled field: Sandeman and
Clark, 2003). Note the wide range in Aliv values for micas from the
rocks of the Cayconi district, in particular for the biotite from the
Pachachaca Formation, and the phlogopite from the Jama Jama
Formation. Three distinct populations of phlogopite are identified
on the basis of their differing TiO2 and FeOT/FeOT + MgO. Also
shown are fields for phlogopite from the Puno minettes (vertical
ruled field : Carlier et al., 1997) and those from the Cerro Callatira
flow (stippled field: Carlier and Lorand, 2003).
198 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

performed in order to obtain acceptable (within error)
statistical values for the F peak/background ratios for
each grain. In order to limit volatilization of light
elements, a ca. 15-Am-wide beam was used during
both EDS and WDS analysis of hydrous and alkali
metal-bearing mineral phases and glasses. We recog-
nize, however, that these light elements may be
mobile under high current electron beams (Morgan
and London, 1996) and therefore these data can be
treated as qualitative only. Data reduction for the EDS
analyses was performed using the matrix corrections
of Bence and Albee (1968) and applying the alpha
factors of Albee and Ray (1970). ZAF corrections
were applied to the F peak/background ratios and
these were then integrated with the EDS data, and the
12 element analyses were recalculated using ZAF.
A standard reference glass (NBS-470) was used to
establish operating parameters for all analyses. For the
analysis of all phases, comparable mineral standards
(e.g. Dorfgastein albite, Springwater olivine and a
range of internal reference materials) were used as
secondary checks. Analytical results were within 10%
of the accepted values. For the analyses of ground-
mass glass, the natural peraluminous glass, JV-1
(Pichavant et al., 1987), was used as a secondary
check. Fluorine and chlorine secondary standards
included Durango apatite, a synthetic scapolite and a
natural biotite. Relative errors were F 15% for fluo-
rine analyses and F 10% for chlorine.
The compositions of oxides, orthopyroxene, biotite
and plagioclase microphenocrysts were determined by
wavelength dispersive analysis using a Cameca SX-50
electron microprobe equipped with four wavelength-
dispersive spectrometers at the Geological Survey of
Canada. The raw counts were corrected to elemental
concentrations using the Cameca PAP program (Pou-
chou and Pichoir, 1985). Standards used were a
mixture of natural and synthetic metals, oxides and
simple silicates. Counting time on both the peaks and
background was 10 s.
4.1.2. Whole-rock analyses
Ten specimens of the respective units exposed in the
Cayconi district were crushed, pulverized in both
tungsten carbide and chrome steel swing mills and
analyzed for major, trace and rare earth elements (Table
8). Nine of these samples were analyzed twice. For the
first sequence of analyses, the major elements and Cr

Table 5
Representative electron microprobe analyses of phlogopite and biotite from rocks of the Cayconi district
MAC151 MAC151 MAC155 MAC155 MAC148 MAC148 MAC151 MAC151 MAC156 MAC156 MAC157
PhP PhP PhP PhP PhM PhM BtP BtP BtP BtP BtP
PF PF JJF JJF SFTA SFTA PF PF CCF CCF CCF
DA DA D D TA TA DA DA R R R
SiO2 (%) 39.73 39.87 41.78 40.43 44.68 45.76 33.87 32.96 33.63 33.01 33.07
TiO2 1.52 1.54 4.47 4.83 2.45 2.29 4.41 3.40 3.49 3.53 3.88
Al2O3 14.49 14.52 11.61 12.43 9.84 9.77 16.27 16.56 19.07 18.95 18.84
Cr2O3 2.37 2.46 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.06 0.01
FeOT 3.98 3.65 6.94 8.92 8.51 9.33 18.48 20.91 22.36 25.11 23.20
MnO 0.00 0.00 0.17 0.00 0.11 0.00 0.09 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00
MgO 23.03 23.29 20.19 19.31 20.56 20.14 10.26 10.01 6.35 5.10 5.39
CaO 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.10 0.71 0.18 0.17 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08
Na2O 0.00 0.00 0.33 0.17 0.69 0.54 0.31 0.37 0.61 0.71 0.46
K2O 10.39 10.16 9.74 10.11 9.21 9.13 8.38 8.98 8.03 8.14 7.64
Cl 0.04 0.04 na na na na 0.14 0.21 0.00 0.00 0.03
F 1.19 1.19 na na na na 1.33 0.00 1.35 1.88 2.28
Total 96.22 96.20 95.42 96.30 96.76 97.24 94.26 93.95 94.90 96.94 94.97

F/F + M 0.088 0.081 0.162 0.206 0.188 0.206 0.503 0.540 0.664 0.734 0.707
Aliv 1.032 1.030 0.924 1.003 0.771 0.722 1.176 1.261 1.199 1.217 1.180
Key: PF—Pachachaca Formation; JJF—Jama Jama Formation; SFTA—Suratira Formation trachytic andesite; CCF—Cerro Cancahuine
Formation; PhP—phlogopite phenocryst; PhM—phlogopite microphenocryst; BtP—biotite phenocryst; DA—dacitic agglomerate; D—dacite;
TA—trachytic andesite; R—rhyolite; FeOT—total iron as FeO; na—not analyzed; F/F + M—molecular FeOT/FeOT + MgO.
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 199

were determined by X-ray fluorescence spectrophoto-

metric analysis (XRF) of fused glass discs at Queen’s
University, Kingston, using the powders ground in the
tungsten carbide mill. The elements F, B and Li were
determined at XRAL Laboratories, Don Mills, Ontario,
Canada by specific-ion electrode analysis, direct-cou-
pled plasma emission spectrometry and atomic absorp-
tion spectrophotometry, respectively. Most trace
elements were determined by XRF analysis of pressed,
tungsten carbide milled, rock-powder discs at Queen’s
University, but the rare earth elements, Co, Sc, W, Ta,
Hf, U, Th, As and Cs, were determined by instrumental
neutron activation analysis (INAA) at the Royal Mil-
itary College, Kingston, Ontario, using the chrome Fig. 8. Pyroxene quadrilateral showing the compositions of
clinopyroxene from basaltic flows of the Suratira Formation and
steel milled powders. Elemental concentrations mea-
micro-enclaves of the Jama Jama Formation, compared to orthopyr-
sured by INAA were calculated as outlined in Sande- oxene compositions from the Jama Jama Formation and the trachytic-
man et al. (1997b). The second set of analyses was textured andesite from the Suratira Formation. Shown for comparison
obtained on tungsten carbide milled rock powders at are fields for clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene from the Puno
the Geological Survey of Canada following the proce- minettes (vertical ruled field: Carlier et al., 1997), clinopyroxene from
lamproites (inclined ruled field: Mitchell and Bergman, 1991),
dures of Sandeman et al. (1999).
clinopyroxene from minettes (dashed field: Rock, 1981) and
orthopyroxene from lamproites (horizontally ruled field: Venturelli
4.2. Mineral chemistry et al., 1988; Mitchell and Bergman, 1991). Analyses of pyroxenes
from the Cerro Callatira phlogopite lamproite (Carlier and Lorand,
4.2.1. Sanidine 2003) are shown for comparison (open five-pointed stars: CAL).
Feldspar compositions are plotted (Fig. 4A and B)
for the various rock types of the Cayconi district and
representative analyses are given in Tables 2 and 3. by that in the Pachachaca Formation. The alkali
Overall, sanidine from the Pachachaca, Jama Jama feldspar in the Cerro Cancahuine Formation exhibits
and Cerro Cancahuine Formations ranges from Or58 a wide range of composition, from Or58 to Or73, with
to Or76. Alkali feldspar in the Pachachaca and Jama V 2 wt.% CaO. Feldspar microphenocrysts from the
Jama Formations exhibits a restricted range, Or69 – ‘‘patches’’ in the trachytic-textured andesite of the
Or76, confined to a tight cluster on the Ab – An –Or Suratira Formation exhibit variable and unusual com-
diagram, but slightly higher K2O contents are shown positions spanning the Ab –Or – An diagram from K-

Fig. 7. Al2O3 vs. FeOT and Al2O3 vs. TiO2 plots for micas from rocks of the Cayconi district (symbols as in Fig. 6). Also shown are phlogopite
from the Puno minettes (open triangles: Carlier et al., 1997) and the Cerro Callatira phlogopite lamproite (open stars: Carlier and Lorand, 2003).
Filled stars are phlogopite from Puno minette sample PU-22. Horizontally ruled field is that for biotite from the glassy, S-type Revancha dyke
(Sandeman and Clark, 2003).
200 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

rich plagioclase to calcic and sodic potassium feldspar
(Fig. 4B).
4.2.2. Plagioclase
Plagioclase phenocrysts from the basaltic lava
flows of the Suratira Formation have a restricted
compositional range, An62 – An71 (Fig 4B; Table 3),
generally comparable to that shown by the micro-
phenocrysts in the same samples (An58 – An72). In
contrast, phenocrysts from the trachytic-textured an-
desite range from An49 to An65 and the associated
microphenocrysts from An10 to An60. An electron
microprobe traverse across a large (ca. 2 mm) pheno-
cryst in sample MAC148 is shown in Fig. 5A. This
incorporates an oscillatorily zoned core (average
An58), but exhibits saddle-shaped curves at the rims
of the grain, climbing to An63, but then returning
abruptly to An52. These features imply that the magma
was mildly enriched in Ca, probably a result of mixing
with a slightly more Ca-rich melt during the later
stages of plagioclase phenocryst crystallization.
Plagioclase grains from the Jama Jama and Pacha-
chaca Formations have similar ranges in composition,
An23 – An50 and An22 – An47, respectively (Fig. 4A;
Table 3). The variations within grains are comparable
in both units, although some grains are characterized by
optical discontinuities that bracket marked changes in
plagioclase composition on either side of the disconti-
nuity. In Fig. 5B, we illustrate a short traverse across
such an optical discontinuity in a plagioclase phe-
nocryst from sample MAC151 of the Pachachaca
Formation. The core of the grain has the composition
An22 – 30, whereas that outside of the optical disconti-
nuity is markedly enriched in CaO, An45 – 47. Plagio-
clase grains from the Cerro Cancahuine Formation are
simple in comparison, with a restricted compositional
range, An17 – An34 (Fig. 4A; Table 3). This includes
albite-twinned cores with sanidine overgrowths, as
well as isolated grains in the matrix and inclusions in
other phases.
4.2.3. Cordierite
Phenocrystic cordierite, present in only the Cerro
Cancahuine and Jama Jama Formations (Table 4),
overlaps in composition for the two units and defines
overall a broad range of compositions having Mg #’s
[100  molecular MgO/(MgO + FeOT)] ranging from
39.8 to 73.0. The compositions lie near ideal cordierite

Table 6
Representative electron microprobe analyses of olivine, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene from rocks of the Cayconi district
MAC149 MAC150 MAC154 MAC155 MAC155 MAC149 MAC150 MAC154 MAC153 MAC155 MAC148 MAC148
SF SF SF JJF JJF SF SF SF JJF JJF SFTA SFTA
Ol Ol Ol Ol Ol Cpx Cpx Cpx Cpx Opx Opx Opx
B B B D D B B B D D TA TA
SiO2 (%) 38.54 38.49 38.92 40.54 40.77 50.38 48.09 49.15 51.06 52.32 53.74 51.64
TiO2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 1.68 2.91 2.61 0.65 0.37 0.16 0.26
Al2O3 0.00 0.00 0.30 0.00 0.00 2.29 2.92 3.55 4.03 1.24 3.28 2.79
Cr2O3 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.09 0.00 0.18 0.41 0.00
FeO 19.98 18.64 16.30 13.02 10.03 12.02 15.13 11.59 7.93 23.52 13.09 22.56
MnO 0.21 0.25 0.15 0.13 0.14 0.36 0.28 0.24 0.27 0.46 0.26 0.43
MgO 40.28 41.55 42.83 46.11 48.78 13.13 11.40 13.06 14.17 21.19 27.27 20.93
CaO 0.31 0.23 0.18 0.19 0.13 18.80 19.76 20.07 22.31 0.87 0.86 0.41
Na2O 0.00 0.17 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.36 0.41 0.25 0.30 0.00 0.00
K2O 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.01
Total 99.32 99.38 99.04 100.01 99.92 99.11 100.94 100.87 100.67 100.39 99.08 99.02

En 39.33 33.44 38.42 40.89 60.52 77.40 61.77

Fs 20.20 24.90 19.13 12.84 37.69 20.85 37.36
Wo 40.48 41.66 42.44 46.27 1.79 1.76 0.87
Mg# 78.2 79.9 82.4 86.3 89.7 66.1 57.3 66.8 76.1 61.6 78.8 62.3
SF—Suratira Formation; JJF—Jama Jama Formation; SFTA—Suratira Formation trachytic andesite; Ol—olivine phenocryst; Cpx—
clinopyroxene phenocryst; Opx—orthopyroxene phenocryst; B—basalt; D—dacite; TA—trachytic andesite; Fo—forsterite number; En—
proportion enstatite; Fs—proportion ferrosilite; Wo—proportion wollastonite.
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 201

in Al2O3 – SiO2 – FeO + MgO space (wt.%) and are
similar to those of igneous cordierites from S-type
suites worldwide (Clemens and Wall, 1984; Stimac et
al., 1995; Morgan et al., 1998; Sandeman and Clark,
2003).
4.2.4. Biotite and phlogopite
At first glance, analyses of micas from rocks of the
Cayconi district reveal a bimodal population (Fig. 6A;
Table 5), consisting of biotite [FeOT/(FeOT + MgO) =
0.30 – 0.75; Cr2O3 = 0.00 – 0.20 wt.%, TiO2 = 3.35 –
4.37 wt.%] and phlogopite [FeOT/(FeOT + MgO) V
0.30; Cr2O3 = 0.00 – 2.54 wt.%; TiO2 = 1.32 – 4.83
wt.%]. Both varieties of mica are found in rocks of
the Pachachaca and Jama Jama Formations, but only
biotite occurs in the Cerro Cancahuine Formation and
only phlogopite in the trachytic-textured andesite of
the Suratira Formation. The biotite grains are gener-
ally comparable in composition to those found in S-
type silicic volcanic and intrusive rocks of the Pico-
tani Group (Fig. 6A and B: Kontak, 1985; Sandeman,
1995; Kontak and Clark, 1997; Sandeman and Clark,
2003), although those of the Jama Jama and Pacha-
chaca Formations are characterized by highly variable
Aliv contents, similar to those from the commingled
Minastira Pluton (Kontak and Clark, 1997). The
phlogopites, however, comprise three distinct compo-
sitional types (Figs. 6B and 7; Table 5). The first,
found in rocks of the Pachachaca Formation, are
highly magnesian [FeOT/(FeOT + MgO) = 0.08 –0.10]
and exhibit high Cr2O3 (1.86 –2.54 wt.%), moderate
Aliv and Al2O3 but low TiO2 (1.32 – 1.68 wt.%). The
second group, occurring in the Jama Jama Formation,
is less magnesian [FeOT/(FeOT + MgO) = 0.16 –0.21],
with low Cr2O3 (0.00 – 0.21 wt.%), high TiO2 (3.64 –
4.83 wt.%) and variable, but generally low Aliv and
Al2O3. The third, characteristic of the andesites of the
Suratira Formation, has moderate FeOT/(FeOT + MgO)
(0.19 – 0.26) and TiO2 (2.29 – 2.45 wt.%), low Cr2O3
( V 0.10 wt.%) and variable, but generally low Aliv and
Al2O3 (Figs. 6A, B and 7).
Phlogopites from the Pachachaca and Jama Jama
Formations are distinguished by very different TiO2,
Al2O3 and FeOT abundances (Figs. 6B and 7). Those

Table 7
Representative electron microprobe analyses of groundmass glass and oxide phases for lithostratigraphic units of the Cayconi district
MAC156 MAC156 MAC156 MAC157 MAC157 MAC157 MAC148 MAC155 MAC154 MAC148 MAC156
Gl Gl Gl Gl Gl Gl Sp Cr II II II
R R R R R R TA D B TA R
SiO2 (%) 71.70 72.01 72.52 71.99 72.25 72.62 0.20 0.09 0.20 0.15 0.11
TiO2 0.08 0.05 0.08 0.11 0.00 0.14 1.15 0.66 24.46 53.06 53.89
Al2O3 13.97 13.54 13.86 13.84 13.81 13.28 58.29 13.64 1.89 0.16 0.12
Cr2O3 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 0.20 45.94 0.44 0.11 0.02
FeO 0.64 0.71 0.72 0.68 0.86 0.60 26.44 29.50 65.62 39.97 41.33
MnO 0.04 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.00 0.00 0.11 0.39 0.74 0.43 1.69
MgO 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.00 0.00 11.33 5.91 0.76 4.43 0.62
CaO 0.63 0.50 0.51 0.53 0.53 0.54 0.07 0.09 0.07 0.16 0.01
Na2O 2.50 2.49 2.47 2.45 2.69 2.36 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
K2O 4.64 4.69 4.82 4.66 4.91 5.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
F 0.36 0.28 0.37 0.26 0.00 0.00 na na na na na
Cl 0.02 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 na na na na na
NiO 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.07 0.00 0.03 0.03 0.00
Rb2O 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.10 0.00 0.00 na na na na na
BaO 0.17 0.00 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 na na na na na
ZnO 0.05 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.29 0.04 0.00 0.36
V2O3 0.00 0.06 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.23 0.96 0.33 0.48
P2O5 0.21 0.12 0.15 0.19 0.00 0.00 na na na na na
Ncor 3.92 3.68 3.84 4.03 3.27 2.99
A/CNK 1.36 1.34 1.36 1.38 1.29 1.27
Total 95.06 94.57 95.71 94.99 95.05 94.92
Gl—groundmass glass; Sp—spinel; Cr—chromite; Il—ilmenite; R—rhyolite; TA—trachytic andesite; D—dacite; B—basalt; Ncor—normative
corundum; A/CNK—molecular Al2O3/CaO + Na2O + K2O; na—not analyzed.
202 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213
in the former exhibit moderate Aliv and Al2O3 but low
TiO2, comparable in composition to phlogopites from
the Al-rich leucite lamproite (PU-22) investigated by
Carlier et al. (1997). Those from the Jama Jama
Formation, however, exhibit low but variable Aliv
and Al2O3 with increasing FeOT/(FeOT + MgO), FeOT
and TiO2 and are, in this respect, more similar to the
micas of the Cerro Callatira phlogopite lamproite
(Carlier and Lorand, 2003). Overall, the majority of
these micas are similar in major element compositions
to phlogopites from Roman Province lavas and mine-
ttes (Rock, 1984; Venturelli et al., 1984; Mitchell and
Bergman, 1991). The two compositionally distinct
populations of phlogopite in the Jama Jama and
Pachachaca Formations strongly suggest that at least
two distinct ultrapotassic magmas contributed to the
genesis of these rocks. The micas of the Jama Jama
Formation comprise both TiO2-rich phlogopite and
biotite (Figs 6B and 7), the latter being generally
comparable to that in the S-type rocks of the region
(Kontak, 1985; Sandeman, 1995; Kontak and Clark,
1997; Sandeman and Clark, 2003) and the former to
phlogopite from some of the more evolved Puno
minettes (Carlier et al., 1997). The phlogopite of the
SFTA is also distinct in composition and appears to be
most similar to that of the Cerro Callatira phlogopite
lamproite (Fig. 7), albeit with somewhat higher FeOT/
(FeOT + MgO).
4.2.5. Anhydrous ferromagnesian phases
Available data for pyroxenes from rocks of the
Cayconi Field are plotted in Fig. 8 and representative
analyses are given in Table 6. The micro-enclaves of
the Jama Jama Formation contain both clinopyroxene
(En46Fs11Wo43 to En40Fs14Wo46) and orthopyroxene
(En72Fs27Wo1 to En60Fs39Wo1). The former are char-
acterized by higher MgO and CaO relative to those of
the basaltic Suratira Formation, which range from
En41Fs23Wo36 to En33Fs25Wo42. The mafic lavas of
the Suratira Formation do not contain orthopyroxene,
but the orthopyroxenes in the associated SFTA are
clinoenstatites (En80Fs18Wo2 to En62Fs37Wo1) and,
although they overlap in composition with the ortho-
pyroxenes of the Jama Jama Formation, they are
characterized overall by higher MgO. Backscattered,
scanning electron microscope imagery of these grains
(Fig. 3B) reveals high-MgO cores with outward
enrichment in FeO. The rims of the grains, however,
exhibit high-MgO mantles that are, in turn, resorbed
along their outermost surfaces. These observations
imply that the orthopyroxene phenocrysts along with
cogenetic plagioclase of the SFTA record abrupt
changes in magma composition, with resorption fea-
tures indicative of magmatic mixing with hotter,
MgO- and CaO-rich melts.
Clinopyroxene grains from the Jama Jama Forma-
tion have compositions similar to those from lamp-
roites and minettes (Mitchell and Bergman, 1991)
and, moreover, overlap in composition with ground-
mass clinopyroxene grains from the Puno minettes
(Fig. 8; Carlier et al., 1997). One of the clinopyroxene
grains from the Jama Jama Formation is directly
comparable in composition to those from the Cerro
Callatira phlogopite lamproite (Carlier and Lorand,
2003). In contrast, the clinopyroxenes in the basaltic
rocks of the Suratira Formation are significantly more
Fig. 9. Groundmass glass compositions in SiO2 vs. normative
corundum space for rocks of the Cerro Cancahuine Formation
(filled crosses) compared to those from the Revancha rhyodacite
(diagonally ruled field: Sandeman and Clark, 2003); the Morococala
cordierite – biotite rhyolites (five-pointed stars: Morgan et al., 1998);
S-type granitoids and volcanic rocks of the Lachlan Fold belt, SE
Australia (dash-dot field: Budd et al., 2000); strongly peraluminous
(SP) monzogranites from SE Peru (dashed field: Kontak, 1985;
Kontak et al., 1987; Sandeman, 1995; Kontak and Clark, 1997) and
radically peraluminous, Macusanite glass (stippled field: Pichavant
et al., 1987; Sandeman, 1995). We also plot the whole-rock
compositions of the Cerro Cancahuine Formation (open crosses),
the Pachachaca Formation (open diamond) and the Jama Jama
Formation (filled diamonds).
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 203

Table 8
Whole-rock, major and trace element data for selected specimens from the Cayconi district
MAC156 MAC157 MAC150 MAC154 MAC149 MAC153 MAC155 MAC151a MAC151b MAC148
CCF CCF SF SF SF JJF JJF PF PF SFTA
(wt.%)
SiO2 71.0(71.7) 69.8(69.8) 50.6(51.5) 52.3(51.8) 49.2(49.4) 64.2(64.9) 64.1(63.8) 64.6(65.1) 65.1 58.5(58.8)
TiO2 0.22(0.19) 0.21(0.19) 1.27(1.27) 1.22(1.20) 1.19(1.19) 0.47(0.44) 0.49(0.49) 0.58(0.56) 0.59 0.89(0.88)
Al2O3 14.8(14.8) 14.6(14.7) 16.4(16.7) 16.8(16.8) 16.2(16.0) 14.4(14.1) 14.4(14.2) 15.1(14.9) 15.1 16.5(16.5)
Fe2O3 0.41(0.60) 1.29(1.31) 0.83(2.40) 2.07(2.60) 8.72(2.30) 2.90(3.10) 2.19(4.10) 1.24(1.90) 1.24 5.19(3.00)
FeO 0.73(0.7) na 7.48(6.30) 6.13(5.90) (6.00) 0.77(0.80) 1.64 0.56 0.56 (2.30)
MnO 0.07(0.01) 0.01(0.01) 0.12(0.13) 0.13(0.14) 0.14(0.13) 0.18(0.12) 0.13(0.13) 0.07(0.03) 0.07 0.10(0.06)
MgO 0.16(0.35) 0.15(0.27) 6.38(6.72) 6.03(5.92) 4.63(4.68) 3.01(2.98) 2.79(2.93) 1.61(1.72) 1.49 3.74(3.83)
CaO 0.61(0.79) 0.76(0.80) 7.89(8.24) 8.46(8.58) 9.64(9.92) 2.15(2.29) 2.46(2.49) 1.99(2.13) 1.99 5.71(5.92)
Na2O 3.05(2.70) 2.50(2.60) 2.82(2.60) 2.27(2.70) 3.25(2.60) 2.88(2.30) 2.52(2.50) 2.25(2.00) 2.50 3.05(3.00)
K2O 5.68(5.56) 5.43(5.34) 1.33(1.36) 1.41(1.45) 1.41(1.38) 5.30(5.24) 5.24(5.25) 6.90(6.86) 7.02 3.16(3.01)
P2O5 0.37(0.37) 0.37(0.36) 0.22(0.23) 0.22(0.22) 0.20(0.21) 0.46(0.45) 0.50(0.49) 0.58(0.60) 0.60 0.31(0.32)
LOI 2.89(2.80) 3.04(2.80) 2.66(2.70) 3.13(3.30) 6.21(6.00) 3.57(3.60) 2.41(1.70) 3.30(2.80) 3.15 2.64(2.60)

(ppm)
Cr 25(16) 26(17) 295(280) 357(303) 267(278) 223(214) 261(235) 468(433) 460 397(350)
Ni < 10( < 10) < 10( < 10) < 10(13) 15(10) 12( < 10) 25(26) 25(25) 42(45) 48 40(100)
Co 1.4 1.6 36.4 32.0 35 14.3 17.5 11.9 na 20.0
Sc 2.3(2.8) 2.5(3.8) 28.9(27.0) 26.9(25.0) 27(25.0) 12.6(12.0) 12.7(13.0) 11.9(13.0) na 19.1(20.0)
V 26(10) 10(5) 111(170) 136(145) 123(144) 89(52) 85(64) 102(73) 96 94(110)
Cu < 10( < 10) < 10( < 10) < 10(14) 58(21) 35(11) < 10( < 10) < 10( < 10) 28(10) 21 51(21)
Pb 35(36) 17(40) < 10(11) < 10(13) (9) 33(39) 44(44) 42(45) 39 26(30)
Zn 102(92) 63(86) 54(75) 83(67) 72(71) 78(64) 71(84) 59(63) 51 89(94)
Sn 19(17) 27(19) < 5( < 2) 11(3) (2.3) 15(13.0) 17(15.0) 9(14.0) 11 < 5( < 2)
W 2.9 0.7 0.9 1.0 na 3.9 4.0 3.5 na 1.5
As 27.4 28.3 8.7 7.9 na 33.2 34.0 13.0 na 13.7
Rb 442(400) 421(420) 80(74) 88(82) 91(79) 327(290) 327(360) 404(440) 410 191(190)
Cs 54(63) 61(74) 119(130) 62(70) 107(110) 53(54) 45(51) 161(190) na 28(34)
Ba 271(330) 165(310) 332(370) 409(352) 485(440) 1481(1489) 1356(1500) 2517(2500) 2316 930(880)
Sr 133(130) 125(120) 352(380) 356(357) 395(430) 277(272) 298(340) 627(630) 603 526(550)
Ga 26(33) 25(34) 20(20) 27(18) 22(18) 22(22) 20(24) 23(25) 18 20(25)
Li 249 na 96 103 na 349 na na na 0
Ta 1.3 1.2 0.7 0.5 0.7 2.4 2.3 2.0 na 1.1
Nb 15(9.6) 26(17.0) 17(11.0) 12(11.0) 8(11.0) 13(17.0) 16(22.0) 5(19.0) 6 13(22.0)
Hf 2.7(2.4) 2.4(2.7) 3.9(3.9) 3.7(3.4) 4.0(3.2) 4.8(3.5) 4.8(3.9) 4.8(4.6) na 5.6(5.6)
Zr 97(87) 91(88) 167(150) 176(160) 167(140) 157(138) 155(150) 200(150) 205 242(213)
Y 8(7.2) 6(7.3) 27(28.0) 29(28.0) 29(27.0) 24(19.0) 23(22.0) 23(23.0) 21 26(26.0)
Th 6.4(6.6) 6.6(6.9) 6.1(6.1) 5.6(5.4) 5.7(5.0) 16.2(15.0) 16.3(17.0) 16.0(20.0) na 15.8(16.0)
U 8.3(9.8) 8.3(9.9) 2.3(2.0) 1.5(1.8) 1.8(1.8) 10.6(9.6) 8.3(10.0) 8.0(11.0) na 6.5(6.9)
F 1400(1346) na 330 310 (303) 1200 na 0 na 0
Cl 79(101) 10 122 196 207 46 30 60 61 91
B 260 na 60 70 na 100 na 0 na 0
Be (11.0) (12.0) (2.4) (2.5) (2.4) (14.0) (16.0) (11.0) na (9.1)
La 15.8(17.0) 16.9(17.0) 24.1(23.0) 22.7(21.0) 21.8(21.0) 37.9(33.0) 38.1(39.0) 39.3(44.0) na 52.1(58.1)
Ce 31.5(36.0) 29.5(36.0) 48.1(50.1) 42.6(44.0) 47.9(44.0) 72.8(67.0) 71.4(77.0) 75.9(90.2) na 90.9(100.2)
Pr (4.1) (4.2) (6.0) (5.5) (5.4) (7.8) (9.0) (11.1) na (12.0)
Nd 15.2(15.0) 11.1(15.0) 20.2(24.1) 16.8(22.0) 28.3(22.0) 27.1(29.0) 31.4(32.9) 35.9(39.0) na 40.5(43.9)
Sm 4.6(3.5) 4.9(3.6) 4.6(5.5) 6.1(4.8) 4.7(4.5) 5.6(5.3) 5.4(6.3) 5.5(6.9) na 6.3(7.1)
Eu 0.95(0.99) 0.91(1.00) 1.57(1.50) 1.53(1.40) 1.49(1.40) 1.14(1.00) 1.22(1.00) 1.33(1.01) na 1.70(1.80)
Gd (2.9) (2.8) (4.9) (4.7) (4.6) (4.1) (5.0) (5.5) na (5.3)
Tb 0.59(0.36) 0.60(0.38) 0.89(0.84) 1.10(0.83) 0.51(0.71) 0.49(0.62) 0.60(0.71) 0.40(0.75) na 0.60(0.80)
(continued on next page)
204 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

Table 8 (continued)
MAC156 MAC157 MAC150 MAC154 MAC149 MAC153 MAC155 MAC151a MAC151b MAC148
CCF CCF SF SF SF JJF JJF PF PF SFTA
(ppm)
Dy (1.5) (1.6) (5.0) (4.9) (4.3) (3.4) (3.8) (3.9) na (3.9)
Ho (0.23) (0.24) (2.60) (1.00) (0.90) (0.65) (0.74) (0.74) na (0.82)
Er (0.50) (0.54) (1.00) (2.50) (2.30) (1.60) (1.80) (1.80) na (2.01)
Tm (0.08) (0.08) (0.44) (0.40) (0.36) (0.25) (0.30) (0.29) na (0.33)
Yb 0.37(0.50) 0.52(0.48) 2.75(2.70) 2.43(2.50) 2.59(2.30) 1.69(1.70) 1.86(1.90) 1.51(1.70) na 1.96(2.02)
Lu 0.07(0.07) 0.09(0.08) 0.43(0.40) 0.40(0.38) 0.34(0.35) 0.27(0.25) 0.26(0.29) 0.20(0.27) na 0.28(0.31)
A/CNK 1.24 1.22 0.81 0.78 0.87 1.04 0.99 1.02 0.99 0.87
Mg# 20.6 28.4 58.0 57.4 51.3 61.4 58.0 63.1 61.3 58.8
Values in parentheses are those from the Geological Survey of Canada. na—not analyzed; CCF—Cerro Cancahuine Formation rhyolite; SF—
Suratira Formation basalt; JJF—Jama Jama Formation dacite; PF—Pachachaca Formation dacitic agglomerate; SFTA—Suratira Formation
trachytic andesite; A/CNK—molecular Al2O3/CaO + K2O + Na2O; Mg#—molecular MgO/FeO + MgO.

Fe-rich. Orthopyroxenes of the Jama Jama Formation
are more Fe-rich than those characteristic of lamp-
roites, but overlap with those of minettes and the
leucite lamproite (PU-22: Carlier et al., 1997). Ortho-
pyroxenes from the SFTA are more magnesian and
compare closely with those from lamproites, minettes
and the leucite lamproite (PU-22: Carlier et al., 1997).
Some of these, however, are more magnesian, similar
to orthopyroxene from the Cerro Callatira phlogopite
lamproite (Carlier and Lorand, 2003).
The remanent olivine grains of the Jama Jama
Formation are, on average, more forsteritic than those
of the Suratira Formation (Table 6), the former ranging
from Fo81 to Fo90 and the latter from Fo68 to Fo82.
Moreover, olivine grains preserved in the intermediate
Jama Jama Formation are more magnesian than any yet
analyzed from mafic rocks of the region (Kontak et al.,
1986; Carlier et al., 1997; Sandeman, unpublished data,
2003) with the exception of olivine phenocrysts from
the polycrystalline aggregates of the Cerro Callatira
lamproite (Carlier and Lorand, 2003).
4.2.6. Oxide phases
Orange-brown spinel ( V 100 Am) has been ob-
served as inclusions in olivine in the basaltic rocks of
the Suratira Formation, while ilmenite with minor Cr
and V substitution occurs as large acicular grains
intergrown with intersertal glass in the interstices of
the phenocrysts. Spinel also occurs as irregular over-
growths on ilmenite in micro-inclusions in the SFTA
and as dispersed grains spatially associated with, and
occurring as inclusions in, the phenocrysts of the
olivine – clinopyroxene – orthopyroxene – phlogopite-
bearing micro-inclusions in the Pachachaca and Jama
Jama Formations (Table 7). Those of the latter forma-
tion exhibit compositions comparable to that of spinel
from lamproites (Wagner and Velde, 1987; Venturelli
et al., 1988; Carlier et al., 1997). Spinels associated
with micro-inclusions in the Pachachaca and Jama
Jama Formations are ferroan chromites, whereas those
in the micro-inclusions of the SFTA exhibit hercynite-
spinel solid solution with ilmenite cores and alumi-
nous spinel rims. The Al2O3-rich nature of a single
spinel from a small micro-inclusion in the SFTA
suggests that it may represent the breakdown product
of phlogopite (Wagner and Velde, 1987).
4.2.7. Groundmass glass
Representative compositions for groundmass glass
in rocks of the Cerro Cancahuine Formation are
recorded in Table 7. The complete data are shown in
Fig. 9, where they are compared to glasses from the
Revancha rhyodacite (Sandeman and Clark, 2003) and
from the cordierite rhyolites of the Morococala volca-
nic field, Bolivia (Morgan et al., 1998). The Cerro
Cancahuine glass is similar in composition to that in the
Revancha dyke, but has mildly higher Al2O3 (13.3 –
14.0 vs. 12.3– 14.1 wt.%) and K2O/Na2O (1.8 –3.8 vs.
1.5 –2.6) and lower MgO ( V 0.10 vs. V 0.30 wt.%)
and TiO2 ( V 0.10 vs. V 0.30 wt.%) (Table 7). The
Cerro Cancahuine glass is markedly less variable in
composition than that from the Revancha dyke. These
relationships suggest that the Cerro Cancahuine resid-
ual magma did not undergo mixing with more mafic
melts (Sandeman and Clark, 2003). This is also
reflected in the higher Al2O3 and SiO2 contents of
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 205

glasses from the Cerro Cancahuine Formation and their

elevated A/CNK ratios [molecular Al2O3/(CaO +
Na2O + K2O)] relative to those of the Revancha dyke
(CCF = 1.24– 1.42 with x̄ = 1.33 F 0.06 vs. Revancha
dyke = 1.14 –1.42 with x̄ = 1.26 F 0.05). Glasses from
the Morococala Field have higher SiO2 (73.8 – 74.1
vs. 71.5– 74.0 wt.%) and Na2O (2.8 – 3.8 vs. 2.4 – 2.7
wt.%), mildly elevated Al2O3 (14.0 – 14.3 vs. 13.3–
14.0 wt.%) and lower CaO (0.34 – 0.48 vs. 0.39–
0.65 wt.%) contents and slightly lower A/CNK ratios
(1.15 – 1.30 with x̄ = 1.24 F 0.06) relative to those
from the Cerro Cancahuine Formation.

4.3. Whole-rock major and trace element variations

Although cordierite is a phenocrystic phase and

sillimanite commonly occurs as acicular inclusions in
many of the silicate phases, the rocks of the Pacha-
chaca and Jama Jama Formations are metaluminous,
with A/CNK = 0.99 – 1.07 (Fig. 9) and normative
corundum values of 1.0 –1.8 wt.% (Table 8). These
bulk compositions, inconsistent with their Al2O3-rich
mineral assemblage, are presumably a result of com-
mingling with mafic melts. In contrast, the rhyolites of
the Cerro Cancahuine Formation are strongly peralu-
minous (A/CNK = 1.22 – 1.28 and normative weight
percent corundum = 3.5 –4.3), as is reflected by the
abundant phenocrystic cordierite, acicular sillimanite
inclusions in many phases and the absence of xen-
ocrystic metaluminous phases. The basalts of the
Suratira Formation are hypersthene- and olivine-
normative, two of four samples analyzed having up
to 21 wt.% normative olivine, whereas the trachytic-
textured andesite of the Suratira Formation is hyper-
sthene-normative only.
The rocks of the Suratira Formation include medi-
um- to high-K calc-alkaline basalts and andesites,
whereas the Pachachaca and Jama Jama Formations
are characterized by intermediate SiO2 contents and
andesitic, dacitic and trachydacitic bulk compositions
(LeBas and Streckeisen, 1991). In contrast, the agglu-
tinated lavas of the Cerro Cancahuine Formation have
significantly higher SiO2 and total alkalies, defining a
rhyolitic bulk composition (Fig. 10A). All of the rocks
of the Cayconi district except for the rocks of the
Suratira Formation are shoshonitic according to the
K2O vs. SiO2 plot of Peccerillo and Taylor (1976)
(Fig. 10B).
Fig. 10. (A) Total alkalies vs. SiO2 plot (LeBas and Streckeisen,
1991) for representative samples from the Cayconi district with
additional analyses from Laubacher et al. (1988). Also shown are
the Puno minettes (open stars: Carlier et al., 1997; Sandeman,
1995); the Cerro Callatira phlogopite lamproite (filled star: Carlier
and Lorand, 2003); a field (diagonal ruled) for 18 basaltic rocks of
the Cerro Queuta Formation in the Picotani volcanic field
(Laubacher et al., 1988; Sandeman, 1995); 12 shoshonitic basalts
(vertical ruled field) from Cerro Moromoroni of the Antauta
complex (Kontak et al., 1986; Sandeman, 1995). (B) K2O vs. SiO2
plot (after Peccerillo and Taylor, 1976) demonstrating the potassic,
shoshonitic affinity of the majority of rocks of the Cayconi district.
The basaltic rocks of the Suratira Formation are
characterized by moderate Mg # values (100  molec-
ular MgO/FeOT + MgO) of 51– 59, whereas the tra-
chytic-textured andesite of the Suratira Formation has
Mg # = 58 (Table 8). Remarkably, the dacitic lavas of
the Jama Jama and Pachachaca Formations have Mg
#’s of 57– 64, generally higher than those of the basaltic
rocks of the Suratira Formation. The flows of the Jama
Jama Formation exhibit more primitive compositions
than those of the Pachachaca Formation, with substan-
tially higher MgO, CaO, FeOT and MnO. This con-
trasts, however, with the compatible trace element
206 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213

variations, wherein the rocks of the Pachachaca For-
mation exhibit significantly higher Cr and Ni than those
of the Jama Jama Formation. Rocks of the Cerro
Cancahuine Formation have much lower Mg #’s
(16 – 33), reflecting overall their low contents of MgO
and FeOT.
Selected Harker variation diagrams for the rocks
of the Cayconi district, along with analyses for the
Puno minettes, are shown in Fig. 11. We also plot for
comparison the fields for Oligo-Miocene rocks of the
region including that for 18 samples of the Cerro
Queuta Formation of the Picotani volcanic field
(Sandeman et al., 1997a; Sandeman, 1995) and that
for 12 analyses of Cerro Moromoroni shoshonitic
basalts of the Antauta complex (Kontak et al., 1986;
Sandeman, 1995). Therein, rocks of the Suratira
Formation are comparable to those of the Picotani
Field, whereas the trachytic-textured andesite flow of
the Suratira Formation is most similar to the shosho-
nitic, commingled and mixed basaltic andesites of the
Antauta complex. In these plots, we have calculated
hypothetical mixing curves for 20% incremental
mixtures between three compositionally distinct end
members including: MAC156 of the Cancahuine
Formation (a silicic end member); a calc-alkaline
basaltic melt (represented by MAC149 of the Suratira
Formation); and an ultrapotassic melt represented by
the Cerro Callatira phlogopite lamproite. The rocks
of the Pachachaca and Jama Jama Formations, as
well as the trachytic-textured andesite flow of the
Suratira Formation, invariably plot in the polygon
defined by these mixing curves. Moreover, in the
case of the incompatible trace elements (i.e., those
less affected by crystal fractionation), rocks of the
SFTA typically plot closer to the MAC156 –
MAC149 mixing curve, whereas the rocks of the
Pachachaca and Jama Jama Formations exhibit more
variable behaviour. These observations underscore
the observation that inferences based on whole-rock
geochemical variations alone are unclear and suggest

Fig. 11. Selected Harker variation diagrams for rock samples of the Cayconi district. Symbols as in Fig. 10. Mixing lines and 20% increments
for mixtures between representative phlogopite lamproite, calc-alkaline basalt and peraluminous rhyolite are shown as small white dots. End-
members used in mixing are sample MAC156, Cerro Callatira phlogopite lamproite (filled eight-pointed star: Carlier and Lorand, 2003) and
MAC149. The leucite lamproite (PU-22) of the Puno minettes (Carlier et al., 1997) is represented by the filled five-pointed star.
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213 207

that if mixing occurred, then the processes were
complex and nonlinear.
Both the Pachachaca and Jama Jama Formations
have very similar rare-earth element patterns, the
former characterized by La N /Yb N g18.6 and
SREEg207, and the latter by LaN/YbN = 13.9 – 14.7
and SREE = 156 – 180 (Fig. 12). The Jama Jama
Formation has Eu/Eu* values (after Taylor and
McLennan, 1985) of 0.54 –0.66, comparable to but
slightly higher than those for the Pachachaca Forma-
tion (ca. 0.49). The latter also have slightly higher
LREE but lower HREE contents than the Jama Jama
Formation. Samples of the Suratira Formation are
characterized by LaN/YbN = 6.0 – 6.6, SREE = 114 –
128, Eu/Eu* = 0.88– 0.94 and overall lower LREE,
but higher HREE than the Jama Jama, Pachachaca and
Cerro Cancahuine Formations. The trachytic-textured
andesite flow of the Suratira Formation is character-
ized by more fractionated LREE abundances than the
basaltic members, having LaN/YbN = 19.1– 20.8 and

Fig. 12. (A) Chondrite-normalized (Sun and McDonough, 1989) rare-earth element patterns for representative samples from the Cayconi district
compared to the field for the Puno minettes (diagonal ruled field) and the pattern for leucite lamproite PU-22 (Carlier et al., 1997). (B) Primitive
mantle-normalized (Sun and McDonough, 1989) extended incompatible trace element patterns for representative samples from the Cayconi
district compared to the field for the Puno minettes (diagonal ruled field) and the pattern for leucite lamproite PU-22 (Carlier et al., 1997).
208 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213
Eu/Eu*g0.90 and by a higher overall REE abun-
dance (SREEg238). The Cerro Cancahuine Forma-
tion exhibits the most fractionated REE patterns, with
La N /Yb N = 24.4 – 30.0, Eu/Eu* = 0.95 – 1.05 and
SREE = 83 –86. The latter LREE-enriched patterns,
exhibiting low HREE contents, are typical of silicic
rocks derived through partial melting of a source
containing a HREE-bearing phase such as garnet
(Hanson, 1978; Morgan et al., 1998).
5. Discussion
5.1. Field and petrographic relationships
The volcanic rocks of the Cayconi Field, the salient
features of which are documented in Table 1, comprise
a diverse sequence of uppermost Oligocene –lower-
most Miocene (22.2 – 24.4 Ma) strongly peraluminous
silicic to high-K calc-alkaline basaltic lavas, rhyoda-
citic agglomerates and rhyolitic agglutinates that con-
stitute part of the Picotani Group of the southeastern
Peruvian Andes. Although intercalation of the volcanic
rocks in the field is noted, a feature supported by their
overlapping 40Ar – 39Ar ages (Sandeman et al., 1997a;
Table 1), no convincing megascopic magma commin-
gling features were observed in the field. In contrast,
petrographic evidence for magma mixing and commin-
gling is prevalent in at least three of the constituent
formations. Thus, in the dacitic lavas and agglomerates
of the Jama Jama and Pachachaca Formations, dis-
persed and diffuse melanocratic micro-enclaves and
dispersed xenocrystic mineral phases characteristic of
the enclaves, including phlogopite, olivine, orthopyr-
oxene, clinopyroxene and chromite, are common. A
thin horizon of trachytic-textured andesite interlayered
with the basalts of the Suratira Formation exhibits
textural features such as sieve textures and marginal
resorption in both plagioclase and orthopyroxene as
well as across-grain, major element compositional
variations that are indicative of magma mixing. More-
over, small melanocratic patches in the groundmass of
the trachytic-textured andesite comprise the assem-
blage phlogopite + plagioclase + sanidine + ilmenite
(-spinel), a mineral paragenesis compatible with their
derivation from a potassic melt such as would be
represented by the minettes and possibly shoshonitic
rocks exposed in the region.
5.2. Mineral chemistry
Electron microprobe analyses of the anhydrous
ferromagnesian phases in the basaltic and trachytic-
textured andesite flows of the Suratira Formation
(SFTA) and the micro-enclaves of the Jama Jama
Formation (Table 6) indicate that clinopyroxenes in
the micro-enclaves of the Jama Jama Formation are
enriched in MgO relative to those of the basalts of the
Suratira Formation and, moreover, overlap in compo-
sition with those from the Puno minettes (Carlier et
al., 1997) and, in the case of one analysis, with
clinopyroxenes from the Cerro Callatira phlogopite
lamproite (Carlier and Lorand, 2003). Orthopyroxenes
from the micro-enclaves of the Jama Jama Formation
overlap in composition with some of those from the
SFTA and with orthopyroxenes from the Puno mine-
ttes. Moreover, at least two analyses of orthopyroxene
from the SFTA are similar to those from the Cerro
Callatira phlogopite lamproite (Carlier and Lorand,
2003). Backscatter SEM imagery, however, indicates
that, in contrast with those in the Jama Jama Forma-
tion, the orthopyroxene grains in the SFTA record
normal zoning followed by an abrupt change to more
MgO-rich compositions and, finally, grain boundary
resorption (Fig. 3B). The abrupt compositional change
from FeO- to MgO-rich orthopyroxene, paralleling the
saddle-shaped An% profiles at the margins of the
plagioclase phenocrysts (Fig. 5A), is evidence for a
marked compositional change in the host melt. The
resorption of the outer margins of these phenocrysts
implies that the melt was again subjected to a signif-
icant thermal perturbation immediately prior to erup-
tion and quenching. These observations imply that the
primary magma crystallizing plagioclase and ortho-
pyroxene must have mechanically and chemically
interacted with a more CaO- and MgO-rich magma.
Olivine in the Jama Jama Formation is more
forsteritic than that of the Suratira Formation and is
the most magnesian confirmed from the rocks of the
Picotani Group in the region with the exception of
those from the olivine-rich aggregates of the Cerro
Callatira phlogopite lamproite (Carlier and Lorand,
2003). This implies that it is unlikely that the xen-
ocrystic olivine grains dispersed in the Jama Jama
Formation were derived from parental magmas similar
in composition to those of the Suratira Formation or
from other calc-alkaline basaltic melts of the same age
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213
exposed in the region (Kontak et al., 1986; Sandeman,
unpublished data). It is more probable that the olivine
grains dispersed in the Jama Jama Formation were
derived from an ultrapotassic melt that had previously
crystallized highly magnesian olivine (i.e., compara-
ble to the Cerro Callatira phlogopite lamproite).
A complex mica population is observed in rocks of
the Cayconi Field. Thus, the rocks of the Jama Jama
Formation contain abundant ‘‘destabilized’’ S-type
granitoid biotite and rare small grains of TiO2-rich,
but Al2O3- and Cr2O3-poor phlogopite. The micas of
the Pachachaca Formation comprise both abundant S-
type biotite and Cr2O3-rich but TiO2-poor phlogopite.
The trachytic-textured andesite of the Suratira Forma-
tion, however, contains small blades of Cr2O3-poor,
moderate TiO2 phlogopite in the melanocratic patches.
A feature characteristic of the micas from the lithos-
tratigraphic units of the Cayconi district, with the
exception of those of the Cerro Cancahuine Forma-
tion, is their variable and typically low ( < 1) Aliv
contents (Figs. 6A and 7). This indicates that these
micas have tetrahedral sites that are incompletely
filled by Si + Al, a compositional feature that is
characteristic of lamproitic phlogopite (Foley, 1990;
Carlier and Lorand, 2003).
If the phlogopite preserved in rocks of the Cayconi
district were derived from ultrapotassic melts, it is
probable that the melanocratic enclaves preserved in
the Pachachaca Formation and SFTA represent some-
what similar parental compositions of admixed ultra-
potassic magmas, although those of the latter exhibit
mildly lower Al2O3 and higher TiO2 and FeOT. Those
represented in the rocks of the Jama Jama Formation,
however, are distinct in having significantly higher
TiO2 contents. Based on the experimental work of
Foley (1989, 1990), it seems probable that the
admixed ultrapotassic melt involved in the petrogen-
esis of the Jama Jama Formation likely crystallized
under low-P, high-T and low aH2O prior to mixing
with silicic crustal melts. In contrast, the admixed
ultrapotassic melt involved in the petrogenesis of the
Pachachaca Formation likely crystallized under
higher-P, similar- or lower-T and higher aH2O con-
ditions. On the basis of their feathery textures, fine
grain size and compositional variations, phlogopite in
the micro-enclaves of the SFTA is inferred to have
rapidly crystallized under low aH2O, moderate-P and
low-T conditions, possibly from a melt representing a
209
hybrid between phlogopite lamproite and S-type si-
licic crustal melts. Collectively, these observations
imply that at least two and possibly three distinct,
now ‘‘cryptic,’’ ultrapotassic end members were in-
volved in the petrogenesis of the volcanic rocks of the
Cayconi Field and that the magma commingling and
mixing between an S-type magma and composition-
ally distinct varieties of phlogopite-bearing ultrapo-
tassic magmas resulted in the disequilibrium mineral
assemblages preserved in the rocks.
5.3. Implications of whole-rock chemistry
The basaltic rocks of the Suratira Formation exhibit
medium- to high-K2O calc-alkaline compositions char-
acterized by MgO (4.6 –6.7 wt.%), Cr (267 –357 ppm)
and Ni ( < 15 ppm) contents that are too low to record
equilibration with asthenospheric mantle, thereby in-
dicating that their bulk compositions were generated
through fractionation of more primitive mantle-derived
magmas in crustal magma chambers. All of the remain-
der are shoshonitic according to the classification
scheme of Peccerillo and Taylor (1976). Rocks of the
Pachachaca and Jama Jama Formations comprise
dacitic to trachydacitic agglomerates and lava flows
with metaluminous compositions, features incompati-
ble with their bulk SiO2 contents and aluminous
mineral assemblages. However, these units differ sig-
nificantly in terms of their trace element contents, the
Pachachaca Formation being enriched in Cr (433 vs.
214– 235 ppm), Ni ( V 45 vs. V 26 ppm), Sr (603 –630
vs. 272 – 340 ppm) and Ba (2316 – 2517 vs. 1356 –1500
ppm) relative to the Jama Jama Formation (Table 8).
Moreover, the high abundances of these elements
cannot plausibly be attributed to mixing with basaltic
magmas of the Suratira Formation because the latter
commonly exhibits comparable or lower abundances of
these elements than the dacitic units (Table 8). As noted
above, the Pachachaca Formation contains abundant
dispersed Cr-phlogopite, whereas the Jama Jama For-
mation contains rare phlogopite but abundant olivine,
clinopyroxene and, in some cases, orthopyroxene crys-
tals as small micro-enclaves or as dispersed xenocrysts.
It is therefore plausible that the distinctive bulk com-
positions of the two units, emphasized above, are the
result of mixing of S-type parental melts with con-
trasted ultrapotassic and possibly even high-K basaltic
mafic end members. The Pachachaca Formation exhib-
210 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213
its higher Cr, Ni, Sr and Ba, elements typically enriched
in ultrapotassic minette and lamproitic melts (Rock,
1984; Venturelli et al., 1984; Mitchell and Bergman,
1991), whereas the Jama Jama Formation exhibits Cr,
Ni, Sr and Ba contents lower than those of the Pacha-
chaca Formation and mildly lower Cr but higher Ba and
Sr than the Suratira Formation. These compositional
relationships suggest that the parental S-type magma of
the Jama Jama Formation mixed with either: (1) a
primitive, olivine – clinopyroxene – orthopyroxene-
bearing ultrapotassic melt; (2) a hybrid ultrapotassic –
high-K calc-alkaline melt; (3) or underwent mixing
with a number of types of mafic melt over a short
interval.
In contrast to the dacitic rocks of the Cayconi Field,
the rhyolitic Cerro Cancahuine Formation exhibits no
mineralogical or geochemical features indicative of
magma commingling or mixing with distinctly more
mafic end members. The rhyolites have geochemical
features common to cordierite + biotite-phyric, S-type
rocks from the SE Peruvian Cordillera Oriental (Table
8; Figs. 10 – 12), including: high A/CNK values
(1.22 – 1.28) and normative corundum (3.5 – 4.3
wt.%); high P2O5 (0.36 –0.38 wt.%), Rb (400 –442
ppm), Th (6.4 7.4 ppm) and U (8.3 –11 ppm); and
elevated LaN/YbN (24.4 – 30.0) (cf. Kontak, 1985;
Kontak et al., 1987; Sandeman, 1995; Sandeman and
Clark, 2003).
5.4. Model for the genesis of the volcanic flows
The Pachachaca and Jama Jama Formations are
spatially and temporally associated with both the
high-K calc-alkaline basaltic-to-andesitic Suratira For-
mation (see Fig. 2 and Table 1, and preceding dis-
cussion above) and the rhyolitic flows of the Cerro
Cancahuine Formation. These units were all emplaced
over a short time interval from 21.2 to 24.4 Ma, the
40
Ar – 39Ar ages of mafic rocks of the Suratira For-
mation overlapping, within error, with those of the
three predominantly silicic formations. The Cerro
Cancahuine Formation overlies and is therefore youn-
ger than the rocks of the Jama Jama and Pachachaca
Formations. Hence, although all of the units are
spatially and temporally associated, clear petrological
distinctions imply ambiguous petrogenetic links.
Moreover, the lack of phenocrystic phlogopite in
rocks of the Suratira Formation but its abundance in
the Pachachaca Formation is problematic. Similarly,
the occurrence in the Jama Jama Formation of abun-
dant olivine more forsteritic than that in the Suratira
Formation, and the absence of orthopyroxene in the
basalts of the latter, indicate that these units are
unlikely to have had a simple, shared petrogenetic
history.
Although anhydrous ferromagnesian phases are
apparently lacking in rocks of the Pachachaca Forma-
tion, serpentinous pseudomorphs, probably after oliv-
ine and pyroxene, imply an origin somewhat similar to
those of the Jama Jama Formation. The opaque-rich,
highly destabilized nature of the biotites in the Jama
Jama Formation, and to a lesser extent in the Pacha-
chaca Formation, inhibits unequivocal characterization
of the mafic magma(s) involved in mixing, but the
preservation of grains of phlogopite in rocks of both
formations suggests that the mafic progenitors were
sufficiently potassic to have crystallized phlogopite.
The presence in the Jama Jama Formation of micro-
enclaves of remanent orthopyroxene coexisting with
clinopyroxene and olivine, the occurrence of rare
phlogopite and the contrasted whole-rock geochemis-
try imply that the mafic end member involved in
commingling was not as potassic as that which con-
tributed to the Pachachaca Formation. It is also possi-
ble, however, that the mafic melt that commingled with
the Jama Jama Formation magmas may simply repre-
sent a more primitive lamproitic melt that had crystal-
lized olivine, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene, but
that phlogopite had just joined the liquidus assemblage
prior to mixing (cf. olivine-rich aggregates in the Cerro
Callatira lava: Carlier and Lorand, 2003). Alternative-
ly, the mafic melt that commingled with the Jama Jama
Formation magmas may have itself been a hybrid, with
a composition intermediate between lamprophyre
(sensu lato: Rock, 1984) and high-K calc-alkaline
basalt (i.e., shoshonitic).
The compositions of the phlogopite grains in the
volcanic rocks further clarify their origin. Those in the
Jama Jama and Pachachaca Formations indicate that at
least two distinct potassic end members were probably
involved in their petrogenesis (Figs. 6 and 7). The
phlogopites in the SFTA have compositions interme-
diate between the biotite and phlogopite in the Pacha-
chaca Formation. This suggests that the trachyandesite
either contains end-member components of both high-
K, calc-alkaline basaltic melts (i.e., the Suratira For-
 H.A. Sandeman, A.H. Clark / Lithos 73 (2004) 187–213
mation) and ultrapotassic melts similar to that involved
in the production of the Pachachaca Formation or that a
third distinct ultrapotassic melt was involved in its
petrogenesis. This ultrapotassic melt was likely char-
acterized by high SiO2 and F, moderate MgO and TiO2
and low Al2O3 contents, possibly comparable to that
represented by the olivine-lamproite of Cerro Callatira
(Carlier and Lorand, 2003). It is likely therefore that at
least two compositionally distinct, cryptic, phlogopite-
bearing, potassic mafic magmas underwent magma
commingling with crustally derived magmas repre-
sented by the felsic mineral assemblage surviving in
the flows of the Pachachaca and Jama Jama Forma-
tions. An ultrapotassic melt was also probably involved
in the genesis of the SFTA and commingled and mixed
with mantle-derived calc-alkaline magmas of the Sur-
atira Formation.
We envisage that the high heat flow required for
anatexis of metasedimentary rocks in the upper crust
and the subsequent generation of the peraluminous
silicic suites of the Picotani Group was supplied by
ponded, calc-alkaline basaltic and mafic ultrapotassic
magmas that were emplaced into an extended, ca. 35-
km-thick, orogenic crust (Sandeman et al., 1995;
Sandeman and Clark, 2003). Constraints on the depth
of emplacement of these magmas are not rigorous, but
the ubiquitous presence of Fe-cordierite and the ab-
sence of garnet suggests depths not exceeding ca. 15
km (Green, 1976). The rocks of the Suratira Forma-
tion probably represent the major component of
mantle-derived material that supplied heat for ana-
texis, but the abundant petrographic evidence for the
involvement of potassic to ultrapotassic melts in the
genesis of these rocks implies their presence at the site
of crustal melting. The commingled magmas repre-
sented by units of the Cayconi Field therefore repre-
sent erupted, forestalled products of multiphase
mixing at the level of intrusion and anatexis. The
eruption of the magmas was possibly triggered by
replenishment at the base of the magma chamber by
injection of mantle-derived melts.
Acknowledgements
This is a contribution to the Queen’s University
Central Andean Metallogenetic Project (CAMP) and is
an outcome of doctoral studies by HAS at Queen’s
211
University. The project was supported through NSERC
grants to AHC and Edward Farrar, and scholarships
awarded to HAS by the Queen’s University School of
Graduate Studies. The Instituto Peruano de Energı́a
Nuclear is warmly thanked for logistical support in the
field, where Guido Arroyo provided cooperative and
stimulating discussion. Katharine Venance assisted
with electron microprobe analysis at the Geological
Survey of Canada. We wish to acknowledge the
indefatigable assistance in manuscript preparation
provided by Joan Charbonneau. The text of this paper
benefited greatly from the reviews of G. Carlier, G.B.
Morgan VI and T. Horscroft.
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