Permo-Triassic anatexis, continental rifting and the disassembly of western
Pangaea

Ryan Cochrane, Richard Spikings, Axel Gerdes, Alexey Ulianov, An-

dres Mora, Diego Villagómez, Benita Putlitz, Massimo Chiaradia

PII: S0024-4937(13)00432-5
DOI: doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2013.12.020
Reference: LITHOS 3168

To appear in: LITHOS

Received date: 23 August 2013

Accepted date: 23 December 2013

Please cite this article as: Cochrane, Ryan, Spikings, Richard, Gerdes, Axel, Ulianov,
Alexey, Mora, Andres, Villagómez, Diego, Putlitz, Benita, Chiaradia, Massimo, Permo-
Triassic anatexis, continental rifting and the disassembly of western Pangaea, LITHOS
(2014), doi: 10.1016/j.lithos.2013.12.020

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Permo-Triassic anatexis, continental rifting and the disassembly of western Pangaea

Ryan Cochranea, Richard Spikingsa, Axel Gerdesb,f, Alexey Ulianovc, Andres Morad, Diego

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Villagómeze, Benita Putlitzc, Massimo Chiaradiaa

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a. Department of Mineralogy, University of Geneva, Switzerland (ryan.cochrane@unige.ch,

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richard.spikings@unige.ch, massimo.chiaradia@unige.ch)

b. Institute of Geosciences, Mineralogy, J. W. Goethe University, Frankfurt 60438, Germany

(gerdes@em.uni-frankfurt.de)
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c. Institute of Mineralogy and Geochemistry, University of Lausanne, Switzerland

(Alexey.Ulyanov@unil.ch, Benita.Putlitz@unil.ch)
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d. Instituto Colombiano del Petróleo-Ecopetrol, Bucaramanga, Colombia

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(andresmora30@googlemail.com)

e. Tectonic Analysis Ltd., Geneva, Switzerland (Diego.Villagomez@gmail.com)

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f. Department of Earth Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1,Matieland 7602,

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South Africa
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Corresponding author: Richard Spikings, tel. +41 (0)76 5806383, richard.spikings@unige.ch

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Abstract

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Crustal anatectites are frequently observed along ocean-continent active margins, although

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their origins are disputed with interpretations varying between rift-related and collisional. We

report geochemical, isotopic and geochronological data that define a ~1500 Km long belt of

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S-Type meta-granites along the Andes of Colombia and Ecuador, which formed during 275 -
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223 Ma. These are accompanied by amphibolitised tholeiitic basaltic dykes that yield

concordant zircon U-Pb dates ranging between 240 – 223 Ma. A model is presented which
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places these rocks within a compressive Permian Arc setting that existed during the
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amalgamation of westernmost Pangaea. Anatexis and mafic intrusion during 240 – 223 Ma is

interpreted to have occurred during continental rifting, which culminated in the formation of
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oceanic crust and initiated the break-up of western Pangaea. Compression during 275 - 240
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Ma generated small volumes of crustal melting. Rifting during 240 – 225 Ma was
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characterized by basaltic underplating, the intrusion of tholeiitic basalts and a peak in crustal

melting. Tholeiitic intrusions during 225 – 216 Ma isotopically resemble depleted mantle and

yield no evidence for contamination by continental crust, and we assign this period to the

onset of continental drift. Dissected ophiolitic sequences in northern Colombia yield zircon

U-Pb dates of 216 Ma. The Permo-Triassic margin of Ecuador and Colombia exhibits close

temporal, faunal and geochemical similarities with various crustal blocks that form the

basement to parts of Mexico, and thus these may represent the relict conjugate margin to NW

Gondwana. The magmatic record of the early disassembly of Pangaea spans ~20 Ma (240 –

216 Ma), and the duration of rifting and rift-drift transition is similar to that documented in
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Cretaceous-Tertiary rift settings such as the West Iberia-Newfoundland conjugate margins,

and the Taupo-Lau-Havre System, where rifting and continental disassembly also occurred

over periods lasting ~20 Ma.

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Key words: Continental rifting, crustal anatexis, bimodal magmatism, extension, oceanic

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spreading centre

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1. Introduction MA
The collective occurrence of S-type granites, tholeiitic basaltic dykes and associated high

temperature–low pressure (HT-LP) metamorphic rocks commonly occurs within continental

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extensional settings (e.g. Oliver and Zakowski, 1995; Collins, 2002; Foden et al., 2002;
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Jenkins et al., 2002; Shaw et al., 2003; Keppie et al., 2006; Collins and Richards, 2008). Slab

retreat, back arc extension and coeval S-Type plutonism is observed in most circum-Pacific
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orogens (Jenkins et al., 2002; Collins and Richards, 2008), which in some areas record the

disassembly of Pangaea and the subsequent evolution of the Pacific margins.

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We present geochronological, geochemical and Ar/39Ar data from crustal anatectites

and isotopically juvenile amphibolites in northwestern South America, which constrain the

mode and timing of fragmentation of western Pangaea, from rift to drift within the western

Tethys Wilson Cycle.

Many granulite and circum-Pacific HT-LP assemblages are considered to have formed at

temperatures that were too hot to be accounted for by continent-continent collision (e.g.

Sandiford and Powell, 1986; Collins, 2002), and are frequently found within orogens that

lack any evidence of continental collision (Collins and Richards, 2008). Rather, these rocks

often formed in extensional settings, where punctuated periods of compression (Collins,

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2002) thickened already hot and weakened back arc crust, leading to deformation and crustal

melting. The oceanic Lau-Havre-Taupo back arc basin is a recent example of a back arc basin

that evolved into an oceanic spreading centre, and where Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalts (MORB)

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are currently forming (e.g. Parson and Wright, 1996; Taylor et al., 1996; Pearce and Stern,

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2006; Smith and Price, 2006). The geothermal gradients in the Taupo volcanic zone are up to

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thirteen times higher than the crustal average (e.g. Stern, 1987), driving high temperature

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metamorphism and crustal melting (Conrad et al., 1988).

Belts of Permo-Triassic metamorphic rocks that formed prior to and during the break-up

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of western Pangaea are exposed within Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru
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(Figure 1). We focus on a ≥1500 km long belt of S-type granites, migmatites and

amphibolites exposed along the Permo-Triassic palaeo-margin of Colombia and Ecuador

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(Figure 2), and are thought to have formed during the rift phase of the western Tethys Ocean,
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which separated central American basement blocks from Gondwana (e.g. Pindell and Dewey,

1982: Jaillard et al., 1990; Litherland et al., 1994; Noble et al., 1997; Vinasco et al., 2006;
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Villagómez et al., 2011). We integrate: i) LA-ICP-MS zircon 206Pb/238U dates and Hf isotopic
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compositions of zircon, ii) whole rock Sr-Nd-Pb and oxygen isotopic compositions of quartz,
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iii) whole rock major oxide, trace element and rare earth element (REE) analyses, and iv)
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muscovite Ar/39Ar data. These data are used to quantify temporal (~60 Ma) variations of

source regions and processes within this bi-modal magmatic and metamorphic belt.

Correlations are made with potential conjugate rift margins (e.g. Restrepo-Pace and Cediel,

2010) with similar lithological units exposed in Central America, and a tectonic model for the

break-up of western Pangaea and the opening of the western Tethys Ocean is presented. The

model contributes to our understanding of the timescales and geochemical variations in

source magmas which accompany continental fragmentation. Comparisons are made with
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other preserved rift-drift settings, such as the West Iberia/Newfoundland conjugate margins,

and the Taupo-Lau-Havre System.

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2. Regional Geology and Previous Work

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Rocks exposed in the Andean cordilleras of Colombia and Ecuador can be divided into

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an oceanic and a continental province, which are separated by an approximately north-south

trending Early Cretaceous (Vallejo et al., 2006) suture referred to as the Peltetec-Pujili (in

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Ecuador) and Cauca-Almaguer (Colombia) faults (Figure 2). The continental province is
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exposed to the east of the suture in the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador and the Central

Cordillera of Colombia, which form a continuous topographic ridge extending from 8°N to
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5°S (Figure 1).

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The cordilleras consist of undifferentiated and variably metamorphosed Palaeozoic

sedimentary and igneous rocks, which were partially melted during the Triassic (e.g.
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Litherland et al., 1994). Subsequently, arc magmatism prevailed throughout the Jurassic and
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Early Cretaceous, after which the margin mainly remained passive prior to the accretion of
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the Caribbean Large Igneous Province at 75-70 Ma (Kerr et al., 2002; Vallejo et al., 2006;

Spikings et al., 2001, 2010; Villagomez and Spikings, 2013). The Palaeozoic, Triassic and

Jurassic rocks record the assembly of Pangaea, its subsequent disassembly during the rift and

drift phases of the western Tethys Wilson Cycle, and active margin magmatism which

commenced in the Early Jurassic.

Poorly dated Palaeozoic units in the Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador include schists and

gneisses of dominantly meta-sedimentary formations (e.g. the Chiguinda and Agoyan

sequences). Equivalent sequences are also found within the east-west striking Amotape

Terrane (e.g. El Tigre and La Victoria Units; Figure 2). These Palaeozoic rocks have
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tentatively been dated as Ordovician – Carboniferous based on fragmentary fossil evidence

and detrital zircon U-Pb ages (Litherland et al., 1994; Chew et al. 2007). Palaeozoic schists

and gneisses in the Central Cordillera of Colombia (e.g. Puqui and La Miel units; Ordóñez-

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Carmona and Pimentel, 2002) may be correlatable with the Chiguinda and Agoyan units, and

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are probably derived from an Ordovician continental arc (U-Pb youngest zircon age ~440

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Ma; Villagomez et al., 2011). Further possible correlations exist with the Marañon Complex

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of the Eastern Cordillera of Peru, where evidence exists for an Ordovician magmatic arc and

metamorphic belt (Chew et al., 2007).

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Field observations show that the poorly described Palaeozoic units in Ecuador and
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Colombia have undergone variable degrees of partial melting, giving rise to migmatites and

peraluminous, muscovite rich, variably foliated sillimanite-garnet ± cordierite meta-granites

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(Litherland et al., 1994; Vinasco et al., 2006). Within Ecuador, the anatectites are referred to
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as the Tres Lagunas Granite and Sabanilla Migmatite in the Eastern Cordillera, and the

Moromoro Granite in the Amotape Terrane (Figure 2). Similar lithologies in the Central
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Cordillera of Colombia have numerous local names (see Vinasco et al., 2006) but are
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considered to form part of the Triassic Cajamarca Complex (Villagomez et al., 2011).
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Previous geochronological analyses are sparse, and include Triassic 206Pb-238U ages of ~223 -

229 Ma for the Amotape Terrane (Riel et al., 2013), and 227.3±2.2 Ma (zircon) and

227.5±0.8 Ma (monazite) from the Eastern Cordillera and Amotape Terrane of Ecuador,
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respectively (Litherland et al., 1994). Pb-238U ages of ~226 - 236 Ma (Restrepo et al.,

2011; Villagomez et al., 2011) have been reported for granites, gneisses and meta-

sedimentary rocks of the Cajamarca Complex. Similar Permo-Triassic granitoids are found in

south-central Peru (San Ramon - La Merced granites of Miskovic et al., 2009) and Chew et

al. (2008) dated an along strike continuation of the Sabanilla migmatite (of southern Ecuador)

into northern Peru at 230.4±3.2 Ma by U-Pb SIMS (zircon).

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Amphibolitised basaltic dykes and sills intrude the Palaeozoic sequences throughout the

Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador (Monte Olivo Unit), and more voluminous sections are present

within the Amotape Terrane (Piedras Unit). Similar rocks are located throughout the Central

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Cordillera of Colombia. Previous U-Pb geochronological ages are restricted to 221±17 Ma

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(e.g. Noble et al., 1997) for the Piedras Amphibolite within the Amotape Complex, and

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Vinasco et al. (2006) obtained two hornblende Ar/39Ar dates (230 - 243 Ma) for

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amphibolites within the Central Cordillera of Colombia.

Aspden et al. (1987) and Litherland et al. (1994) suggest that the crustal anatectites and

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amphibolites in Ecuador formed during Triassic rifting of continental crust during the oblique
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separation of Central American basement units from northwest South America. Similarly,

Vinasco et al. (2006) and Villagomez et al. (2011) suggest that Triassic anatectites of the
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Central Cordillera of Colombia formed during orogenic collapse, and/or rifting between
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South America and terranes that are currently exposed in Central America. However,

Cardona et al. (2010) document i) metaluminous Permian granitoids within the Sierra Nevada
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de Santa Marta, which these authors conclude formed during east-dipping Pacific subduction
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and ii) Triassic anatectites which are ascribed to a compressional regime during the final
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stages of amalgamation of Pangaea in the Triassic. Despite the along strike continuity

observed with the Triassic anatectites and amphibolites within Ecuador and Colombia,

Toussaint and Restrepo (1994) suggest that anatectites of the Cajamarca Unit (Central

Cordillera, Colombia) are restricted to an allochthonous Tahami Terrane, which accreted with

northwestern South America along the Otu-Pericos Fault (Figure 2) in the Late Cretaceous.

These discrepancies for the origin and nature of this seemingly continuous belt of Permo-

Triassic crustal anatectites and amphibolites within Ecuador and Colombia are addressed in

this study.
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Litherland et al. (1994) document an ophiolitic sequence in the southern Eastern

Cordillera of Ecuador (the Zumba Ophiolite; Figure 2), and suggest it may have formed

during the Triassic. Similarly, amphibolites and ultramafic rocks in the northern Central

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Cordillera of Colombia are considered to form part of an ophiolitic sequence (the Aburra

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Ophiolite), which yields a zircon Pb-238U age of 216.6 ± 0.36 Ma (isotropic gabbro;

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Martínez, 2007). These authors assign a back arc basin (BAB) - MORB setting for the origin

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of the ultramafic rocks.

Active margin magmatism commenced at 185 Ma (Litherland et al., 1994; Cochrane et

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al., 2011a), and continued until at least 112 Ma in Colombia and Ecuador (Villagomez et al.,
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2011; Cochrane et al., 2011b), after which the margin was either passive (Ecuador), or active

(Colombia; Villagomez and Spikings, 2013).

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3. Material and Methods

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Permian granitoids are typically unfoliated, hornblende bearing granitoids (Villagomez et

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al., 2011), whereas Triassic granitoids are variably foliated muscovite-biotite ± garnet-
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sillimanite and/or cordierite bearing granitoids (see Vinasco et al., 2006). Kinked muscovite

and biotite indicate syn- to post-crystallization, ductile deformation has occurred. Litherland

et al. (1994) document stretching lineations within the Tres Lagunas granite, which is

considered to have formed during emplacement into a strike-slip shear zone. Quartz crystals

within many of the Triassic granites are recrystallized and/or deformed, and often exhibit

equally sized basal and prismatic sub-grains (chessboard pattern quartz; Kruhl, 1996), which

are tentatively characteristic of granulite facies metamorphism in meta-pelitic rocks. These

features are consistent with a significant syn- or post-crystallization high temperature

deforming event (e.g. Litherland et al., 1994) which affected the Triassic granites, although
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quantitative P-T information is lacking. Amphibolites and meta-gabbros are typically bi-

mineralic hornblende and plagioclase rocks, with accessory phases of zircon, titanite and

rutile. Relict ferromagnesian phases are dominantly absent, but where present include

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orthopyroxene and/or garnet.

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3.1 Geochronology

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U-Pb isotopic data was collected from fourteen meta-granites, five meta-gabbros, three

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meta-sedimentary rocks and a migmatite using a Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Mass
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Spectrometer (LA-ICP-MS; Table 1) housed at the University of Lausanne, Switzerland.

Samples were crushed using a jaw-crusher and zircons were concentrated from the <400um
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size fraction using magnetic and gravimetric methods.

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Inclusion free zircons were handpicked under a binocular microscope, mounted into

epoxy blocks and polished to expose their inner volumes. Cathodoluminescence images of all
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zircons were obtained using a CamScan MV2300 scanning electron microscope. Suitable
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zircons were ablated using a NewWave UP-193 ArF excimer ablation system with a 25-35
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um beam diameter, 5 Hz repetition rate, 30-45 second signal and a beam intensity of 2.2-2.5

J/cm2. Isotopic ratios of ablated zircons were measured using a Thermo Scientific Element
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XR. GEMOC GJ-1 (CA-ID-TIMS Pb-238U age of 600.5±0.4 Ma; Schaltegger et al.,

unpubl. in Boekhout et al. 2012) was used as a primary standard. External reference standards

used to calibrate and monitor consistency in the measured U-Pb dates were either Harvard

91500 (1065.4±0.3 Ma; Wiedenbeck et al., 1995) zircon, or Plešovice (337.13±0.37 Ma;

Sláma et al., 2008) zircon. All analyses were performed at the Institute of Mineralogy and

Geochemistry, University of Lausanne, Switzerland. Ages were calculated using

LAMTRACE (Jackson, 2008), and additional data reduction details can be found in Ulianov
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et al., (2012). Statistical analyses of data were performed using Isoplot 3.71 (Ludwig, 2003).

Concordia diagrams were constructed for 21 analysed samples with all discordant (> 1-3 %

discordance) analyses discarded. Obvious outliers were discarded due to effects exhibited by

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either: i) inheritance, or ii) minor amounts of lead loss. Summary data is presented in Table 1,

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and U-Pb isotopic data is presented in Supplementary Table 1.

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3.2 Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry

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Zircon Hf isotopic compositions have been acquired from fourteen granites, five
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176
amphibolites, three meta-sedimentary rocks and a migmatite (Table 1). In-situ Hf/177Hf

measurements were made on the same zircons (>250) that were dated (U-Pb) using the LA-
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ICP-MS method, permitting data from separate inherited and/or xenocrystic regions to be
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distinguished from data acquired from magmatic growth zones. Hf isotopic analyses were

carried out at the Goethe Frankfurt University (GUF) using a Thermo-Finnigan Neptune
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multi-collector ICP-MS coupled to a RESOlution M50 193nm ArF Excimer (Resonetics)

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laser system following methods described by Gerdes and Zeh (2006, 2009). Zircon domains
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corresponding to their measured 206Pb/238U age were ablated for 39s with a spot size of 32-40

um, using a 5.5 Hz repetition rate and a corresponding laser energy density on sample of ~6

J/cm2. 172
Yb, 173
Yb and 175
Lu isotopes were monitored during all analyses to correct for

isobaric interferences between masses 176 for Lu and Yb. Time-resolved isotopic profiles

were reduced offline to monitor the homogeneity of ablated zircon domains (e.g. interaction

between metamorphic/magmatic rims and xenocrystic cores), and allow for precise isobaric
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interference corrections. A combination of: i) Yb/173Yb of 0.795015, ii) 176
Lu/175Lu of

0.02658 (Gerdes and Zeh, 2006), and iii) sample specific instrumental mass fractionation was
176 176 179
used to calculate Yb and Lu. An exponential law and Hf/177Hf value of 0.7325 was
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used to correct for instrumental mass bias in Hf isotopes. The mass bias behavior of Lu and

Yb were assumed to be equivalent. The difference (1.122) of the Yb to Hf mass bias is

determined in each session by averaging the βHf/ βYb of all analyses for which the 173Yb was

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above 0.08 mV (n=136). Repeated analyses of the JMC 475 yielded a Hf/177Hf of

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0.282160. Accuracy and external reproducibility of the method was verified by repeated

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176
analyses of reference zircon GJ-1 and Plešovice, which yielded a Hf/177Hf of

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0.282013±0.000026 (2 SD, n=62) and 0.0282475±0.000018 (n=20), respectively. This is in

perfect agreement with the long-term LA-MC-ICPMS average of GJ-1 (0.282010±0.000025;

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n > 800) and Plešovice (0.282478±0.000025, n >450) reference zircon at GUF. Summary
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data is presented in Table 1, and Hf isotopic data is presented in Supplementary Table 2.
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3.3 Whole rock major oxide, trace element, rare earth element (REE) and Sr-Nd-Pb
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isotope geochemistry
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Twenty-four samples of granites, amphibolites and meta-sedimentary rocks were

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prepared for chemical analyses. Representative whole rock powders were prepared with an
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agate mill and major and trace elements were measured using a Philips PW2400 X-Ray

Fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer. The NIMN, NIMG, BHVO and SY2 standards were used

for quality control. The glass fused disks prepared for XRF analyses were fragmented and

mounted for additional analyses of trace and rare earth elements (REE). Measurements were

made using a Perkin Elmer ELAN 6100 DRC quadrupole ICP-MS, and depending on the

element concentrations within the samples, either NIST SRM 610 or 612 fused glasses were

used as external standards. The laser settings used for analyses were 10 Hz frequency, 140 mJ

energy and 80-120 um spot size. Blanks were measured for ~90 seconds, after which the laser

was switched on and the signal measured for 45 seconds. The Sr or Al2O3 concentration
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(previously determined by XRF) was used as an internal standard. Each sample was ablated 3

times, and average concentrations were calculated offline using LAMTRACE (Jackson,

2008). The uncertainties of 3 spots per sample were <10% for REE and <5% for other trace

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elements. The geochemical data is presented in Supplementary Table 3.

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The Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic compositions of whole rock powders of six amphibolites have

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been measured following the protocol outlined in Chiaradia et al. (2011). Approximately 100

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mg of whole rock powder was dissolved in 4 ml of concentrated HF and 1 ml of 15M HNO3

in closed Teflon vials at 140 °C for seven days. The samples were dried down and re-

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dissolved in 3 ml of 15M HNO3 before being dried down again. Sr-Nd-Pb chemical
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separation was achieved following the methods outlined in Pin et al. (1997) and Chiaradia et

al. (2011). Pb, Sr and Nd isotope ratios were measured on a Thermo TRITON mass
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spectrometer housed at the University of Geneva, Switzerland. Pb was loaded on Re

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filaments using the silica gel technique (Gerstenberger and Haase, 1997) and all samples (and

standards) were measured with Faraday cups in static mode at a pyrometer-controlled

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temperature of 1220°C. Pb isotope ratios were corrected for instrumental fractionation by a

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factor of 0.07% per amu based on more than 90 measurements of the SRM981 standard, and
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using the standard values of Todt et al. (1996). External reproducibility of the standard ratios

are 0.08% for 206Pb/204Pb, 0.12% for 207Pb/204Pb and 0.16% for 208Pb/204Pb. Sr was loaded on

single Re filaments with a Ta oxide solution and measured in static mode at a pyrometer-

controlled temperature of 1480°C using the virtual amplifier design to cancel out biases in

gain calibration among amplifiers. 87Sr/86Sr values were internally corrected for fractionation
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using a Sr/86Sr value of 8.375209. Raw values were further corrected for external

fractionation by a value of +0.03‰, determined by repeated measurements of the SRM987

standard (87Sr/86Sr = 0.710248). External reproducibility of the 87

Sr/86Sr ratio for the

SRM987 standard is 7 ppm. Nd was loaded on double Re filaments with 1M HNO3 and
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143
measured in static mode with the virtual amplifier design. Nd/144Nd values were internally

corrected for fractionation using a 146Nd/144Nd value of 0.7219 and the 144Sm interference on
144 147 144
Nd was monitored on the mass Sm and corrected by using a Sm/147Sm value of

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0.206700. These values were further corrected for external fractionation by a value of

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+0.03‰, determined by repeated measurements of the JNdi-1 standard (143Nd/144Nd =

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0.512115: Tanaka et al., 2000). External reproducibility of the JNdi-1 standard is <5 ppm.

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Summary data is presented in Table 1, and the complete whole rock geochemical dataset is

presented in Supplementary Table 3.

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3.4 Quartz Oxygen Composition
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Quartz fractions were collected from eleven meta-granites from Colombia and Ecuador,
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which were concentrated using heavy liquids, cleaned within an ultrasonic bath for 5 minutes

and picked under a binocular microscope to avoid feldspar contamination. Quartz fractions
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were weighed (3.0 milligrams) and purity was estimated to be >95%. Oxygen was extracted
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from quartz using a CO2 laser fluorination line housed at the University of Lausanne,
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Switzerland following procedures outlined in Tarantola et al. (2007). Oxygen isotopic

measurements were made using a ThermoFinnigan MAT 253 mass spectrometer (Table 1).

Raw data were converted to δ18OSMOW using the measured value of the reference gases, and

then normalized to the in-house LS-1 quartz standard (δ18O = 18.1 ‰), which yielded a δ18O

reproducibility of ±0.15 ‰ (2σ). Summary data is presented in Table 1.

3.5 Muscovite 40Ar-39Ar Analysis

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Muscovite was separated and cleaned in distilled water in an ultrasonic bath for 5

minutes. Three milligrams of unaltered and inclusion free muscovite was hand-picked under

a binocular microscope, and irradiated for 30 hours in the CLICIT facility at Oregon State

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University, along with the flux monitor, Fish Canyon Tuff sanidine. Samples were degassed

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by step-heating with a 55W CO2-IR laser (Photon Machines Inc.) that was rastered over the

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samples to provide even-heating of the grains, and the extracted gas was gettered in a

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stainless steel UHV line. Argon isotopes were analyzed at the University of Geneva using a

multi-collector GV Instruments Argus mass spectrometer equipped with four high-gain

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(1012Ω) Faraday detectors, and a single 1011Ω Faraday detector (40Ar). Time-zero regressions
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were fitted to data collected from twelve cycles. Age plateaus were determined using the

criteria of Dalrymple and Lanphere (1974), and data reduction utilized ArArCalc (Koppers
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2002). Summary data is presented in Table 1, and argon isotopic data is presented in
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Supplementary Table 4.
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4. Results
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4.1 U-Pb zircon geochronology: meta-granites and meta-sedimentary rocks

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Widely dispersed meta-granites of the Cajamarca Complex, which is exposed in the

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Central Cordillera of Colombia (Figure 2), yield concordant weighted mean Pb-238U dates

(zircon) that range between 277.6±1.6 and 234.1±1.2 Ma (Figure 3a; Table 1).

Meta-granites and migmatites of the Moromoro, Tres Lagunas and Sabanilla units in the
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Eastern Cordillera of Ecuador (Figure 2) yield concordant, weighted mean Pb-238U dates

(zircon) that range between 247.2±4.3 and 231.0±1.9 Ma (Figure 3b). Cathodoluminescence

images reveal zircons which host distinctive cores and/or exhibit oscillatory zoning. Both the

zircon rims of sample 09RC31 and magmatic zoned zircons (e.g. 09RC56) yield dates
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between 230-240 Ma. Metamorphic rims of a paragneiss (11RC03; Agoyan fm.) in northern
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Ecuador yield a weighted mean Pb-238U date of 207.6±9.2 Ma (Figure 3a). Zircons

extracted from a paragneiss of the Sabanilla Unit (09RC44) in southern Ecuador, yield

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Pb/238U ages that range between 233.7±4.8 Ma and 2.6 Ga (Figure 2), and a meta-

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sedimentary rock located on the western flank of the Central Cordillera (Cajamarca Complex;

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10RC32) yields a similar age range of 238.0±3.7 Ma to 2.8 Ga, suggesting the sediments

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were deposited at 234 - 242 Ma, or younger. Abundant xenocrystic cores within all of the

granites suggests their protoliths were sedimentary rocks that were sourced from regions with

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magmatic and metamorphic ages of i) ~260 - 290 Ma, ii) ~450 – 600 Ma (the Braziliano
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Orogenic Event), iii) 0.95 – 1.2 Ga, (the Sunsas Orogenic Event; e.g. Gombojav & Winkler,

2008), and iv) older than 1.2 Ga (Table S1).

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4.2 U-Pb zircon geochronology: amphibolitic dykes and sills

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Amphibolites from the Chinchina Stock, Santa Elena, Cajamarca, Piedras and Monte
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Olivo Units (Ecuador and Colombia; Figure 2) yield concordant Pb-238U ages that range
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between 239.7±2.4 and 222.7±6.3 Ma (Figure 4; Table 1). Cathodoluminescence imaging of

zircons extracted from amphibolite 10RC39A reveal two populations of zircons. One

population exhibits faint zoning, whereas other zircons exhibit weakly luminescent, patchy

and indistinct features. Pegmatite 10RC71 (Cajamarca Unit) represents a fractionated melt of

the precursor to the amphibolite, and its age (236.0±0.6 Ma) is probably an accurate estimate

for the protolith. Amphibolite 11RC14 (Piedras Unit) yields the youngest age, although its
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zircons have low uranium concentrations resulting in a poor precision for the Pb-238U,

compared to other samples. Zircon Th/U ratios of 0.19 - 0.41 (Table 1; Figure 4) suggests the
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zircons are magmatic (e.g. Hartmann and Santos, 2003), and the Pb-238U dates are

interpreted as estimates of the time of crystallization of the protoliths.

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4.3 Whole rock geochemistry: Meta-granites and meta-sedimentary rocks

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Major oxides, trace element and REE abundances, along with δ18O (quartz) isotopic data

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have been obtained from fourteen unaltered meta-granites and three meta-sedimentary rocks

(Figure 5; Table 1) from Colombia and Ecuador. The meta-granites are enriched in potassium

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relative to sodium (average K20/Na20 ratios range from 0.77 – 4.85 with a mean of 1.41;
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Table S3a) and a majority of samples plot within the high potassium calc-alkaline field. The

granites have i) highly enriched aluminum saturation indices (ASI; 1.18 – 2.38) relative to

SiO2 (65 - 83 wt%; Figure 5a) abundance, and ii) significantly elevated δ18O quartz values
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(12.06 – 17.37 ‰; Figure 5b), placing these samples in the ‘S-Type granite’ field of Chappel

and White (1974, 1992) and Harris et al. (1997). Trace element compositions (Figure 5c) of
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the granites normalized to Normal Mid Ocean Ridge Basalt (N-MORB) shows i) high
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enrichment in Large Ion Lithophile Elements (LILE), ii) negative Nb, Ta, Eu and Sr
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anomalies, which suggests a subduction-related component may have influenced these

granites. REE plots (Figure 5d) normalized to N-MORB show variable light REE enrichment
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(La/Yb ratios of 4.7 – 16.2) where La/Yb correlates positively with Pb-238U zircon age

(Figure 5e). All of the Triassic meta-granites from the northern Andes, along with the

associated Palaeozoic-Triassic meta-sedimentary rocks plot near parity with normalized

Upper Continental Crust (Figure 5f; Taylor and McLennan, 1995).

4.4 Whole rock geochemistry: Amphibolitic dykes and sills

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Major oxides, trace element and REE abundances, and Sr-Nd-Pb isotopic data are

presented for seven amphibolites from Ecuador and Colombia, along with previous data

(Litherland et al. 1994; Martínez, 2007; Figure 6; Table 1). A bimodal distribution is

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observed between Triassic amphibolites and Permo-Triassic anatectites (Figure 6a).

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Amphibolites yield low K20 (<0.5 wt %) relative to SiO2 (46 - 53 wt %), placing these

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samples in the tholeiitic field of Peccerillo and Taylor (1976). The relationship between

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Zr/TiO2 and SiO2 (Figure 6b) demonstrates the sub-alkaline basaltic nature of the

amphibolites, implying that the tholeiitic signature is primary. Amphibolites are enriched in

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Ti relative to V (Figure 6c), and plot in the MORB or back arc basin basalt (BABB) field of
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Shervais, (1982). LILE’s within the amphibolites are enriched (5 - 50 times) relative to N-

MORB (Figure 6d) and exhibit slight negative Nb and Ta anomalies, suggesting a possible

slab-related signature. εNdi (+8.98 to +9.79) correlates negatively with 206Pb-238U age (Figure
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6i) and all isotopic signatures are characteristic of BABB to N-MORB. Amphibolite 11RC10

yields a whole-rock 87Sr/86Sri of 0.7147, which is extremely high relative to its 143Nd/144Ndi of
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0.5126 and low La/Yb ratio of 1.71. This probably reflects low temperature alteration, which
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has preferentially mobilized the LILE but had a minimal effect on the REE. Therefore, the
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Pb/204Pbi for sample 11RC10 is excluded as lead has similar mobility characteristics to Rb

and Sr.

4.5 Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry

Fourteen crustal anatectites (migmatites, S-type granites and/or meta-granites) and four

isotopically juvenile amphibolites from Colombia and Ecuador yield a large range of

weighted mean εHfi values of +15 to –20 (Figure 7a; Table 1), which are consistent with

crustal recycling and the addition of new continental crust (e.g. Collins et al., 2011).
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Xenocrystic zircon cores (~275 Ma to ~1.2 Ga) within the meta-granites plot within the

CHUR array and are representative of the range of meta-sedimentary protoliths that

underwent crustal anatexis.

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4.5.1 Zircon Hf isotope geochemistry: Amphibolites

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Zircons from four amphibolites yield εHfi values (+ 10 to + 15) that negatively correlate

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Pb-238U zircon ages (Figure 7b). Amphibolites 10RC39A (239.7±2.4 Ma) and

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with their

11RC10 (231.9±1.9 Ma) yield at least two distinct coeval zircon populations with εHf values
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of approximately +10 and –5 (Figure 7b). Cathodoluminescence images from zircons within

these samples (e.g. 10RC39A; Figure 7c) reveal that εHfi values of -3.6 to -4.8 are obtained
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from zircons that exhibit faint oscillatory zoning, whereas unzoned zircons yield εHfi values
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that range between +7.4 and +10. Therefore, the cathodoluminescence images do not clearly
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correlate with the two isotopic groups of zircons. The least radiogenic volumes of zircons
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extracted from the amphibolites overlap with the Hf isotopic signatures of the crustal

anatectites (Figure 7a), suggesting that crustal contamination during emplacement was an
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important process in the petrogenesis of the older (~240 - 232 Ma; 10RC39A and 11RC10)

amphibolites. The youngest amphibolites (~225 - 223 Ma) are the most juvenile with respect

to εHfi (+13 to +15), approach the Depleted Mantle (DM) array and exhibit no intra-sample

zircon εHfi variation. Finally, εHfi zircon signatures from amphibolites correlate negatively

with whole rock REE signatures (La/Yb; Figure 7b).

4.5.2 Meta-granite Hf isotope composition

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Single leucosomes of migmatites and S-type granites often yield high, intra-sample εHfi

(zircon) variations (e.g. +2 to -7; 09RC56) for coeval, magmatically zoned zircons (Figure

8b, c, d). Granite 09RC31 displays similar but larger intra-sample εHfi variations (Figure 8d)

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from +3.2 to -11 for coeval zircon overgrowths around variably aged xenocrystic cores. In

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contrast, sample 09RC53 (Figure 8a) exhibits indistinguishable intra-sample εHfi variations

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(-2.63±0.43, n=12, MSWD =2.5).

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4.6 Ar/39Ar dating: Meta-granites
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Muscovite was separated from two meta-granites from the Central Cordillera of

Colombia and a meta-granite from south-west Ecuador (Figure 2; Table 1). Colombian meta-
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granites 10RC43 and 10RC40 yield a plateau Ar/39Ar date of 213.71±0.91 and a weighted
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mean date of 221.80±1.03 respectively (Figure 9). Individual heating steps that comprise the
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weighted mean age of meta-granite 10RC40 yield indistinguishable ages (within ±2),
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although they account for less that 50% of the total 39Ar released (Table S4) and hence do not

strictly define a plateau date. Meta-granite 09RC40 from southern Ecuador yields a plateau
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Ar/39Ar date of 214.56±0.93. These dates are 15 – 30 Ma younger than the zircon

crystallization ages of the samples (Figure 2), and relate to the timing of cooling through

440±40°C (Harrison et al., 2009).

5. Interpretation

5.1 Isotopic and geochemical evolution of the amphibolites

Amphibolitic dykes and sills were emplaced throughout the Palaeozoic palaeomargin of

Ecuador and Colombia during ~240 – 223 Ma, and yield BABB and MORB geochemical
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signatures. The oldest amphibolites sampled (Santa Elena Amphibolites, ~240 Ma; Figure 2)

yield relatively high LREE/HREE ratios and the least juvenile Nd and Hf isotopic

compositions (Figures 6i and 7b; Table 1) compared to the younger (Piedras Amphibolites,

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~223 Ma; Figure 2) amphibolites. Meta-gabbros (~216 Ma) of the Aburra Ophiolite in

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northern Colombia yield the lowest (and flattest) LREE/HREE ratios (Figure 6). The

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youngest (225 – 216 Ma) and most depleted meta-gabbros (e.g. Piedras, Chinchina stock, and

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Aburra Ophiolite) are located on the westernmost flank of the Palaeozoic margin, and no

continental crust is documented further west. The reduction of the relative abundance of

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incompatible elements with time can be explained by several processes. Enriched basalts
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(BABB) seen within back-arc regions may be progressively replaced by depleted MORB like

compositions during advanced back-arc extension (e.g. Whitmarsh et al., 2001). Continental
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lithosphere of the back-arc thins during slab rollback, causing the asthenosphere to upwell
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beneath the back-arc and melt by decompression (Jenkins et al. 2002; Shaw et al., 2003;

Pearce and Stern, 2006), resulting in progressively more depleted basaltic intrusions with
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time. Alternatively, progressive geochemical depletion (Figures 6e, 6f, 7b) may reflect a
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reduced component of contamination by continental crust during emplacement of the basalt.

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The oldest two amphibolites 10RC39A (239.7±2.4 Ma) and 11RC10 (231.9±1.9 Ma)

yield at least two populations of zircons with respect to their εHfi signatures (Figure 7b), with

a juvenile component (εHfi +10 to +7.4) and a component that is more characteristic of

continental crust (εHfi -3.6 to -4.8). Cathodoluminescence imaging (Figure 7c) shows that the

patchy or unzoned zircons generally yield more juvenile εHfi signatures, whereas the

oscillatory zoned zircons are less radiogenic. This suggests that the older (~232 – 240 Ma)

amphibolites were contaminated by coeval continental crust and/or crustal-melts during their

emplacement. However, the progressive geochemical depletion and enrichment in radiogenic

Hf isotopes with time cannot be completely accounted for by reducing the proportion of
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assimilated continental crust. The youngest dated migmatites yield an age of ~225 Ma (Riel

et al., 2013), and younger Triassic continental crust has not been identified. The youngest

amphibolites (10RC28, ~224.7±1.9 Ma; 11RC14, ~222.7±6.3 Ma) are isotopically juvenile

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and contain no inherited crustal zircons, which we use as a proxy for contamination with

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continental crust. Therefore, it is possible that the εHfi (zircon) values of these samples

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(10RC28; ~+13 to 11RC14; ~+15) reflect progressive asthenospheric source depletion. This

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would suggest that a combination of crustal contamination and mantle source depletion is

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required to account for the Hf isotopic trend observed within the amphibolites between 240-

220 Ma. Continental anatexis stopped at ~225 Ma (age of the youngest S-type granite and
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migmatitic leucosome), and younger mafic melts such as those represented by amphibolite

11RC14 (~223Ma; εHfi ~+15) formed without any interaction with the continental crust, in a
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setting similar to present day MORB.

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5.2 Isotopic and geochemical evolution of the granitoids

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S-type granites and migmatites formed between 275 - 225 Ma along the entire
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Palaeozoic margin of Ecuador and Colombia (Figures 2 and 3; Table 1). They yield i)

strongly peraluminous compositions, ii) anomalously high δ18O quartz values (~12 to 17.4

‰; Figure 5b), and iii) trace element compositions that are indistinguishable from upper

continental crust (Figure 5f). Clearly, the Triassic granites and migmatites formed by melting

of a dominantly pelitic (clay rich) source (e.g. Chappel and White 1974, 1992; Harris et al.,

1997). Low temperature alteration doesn’t appear to play a significant role in the major and

trace element geochemistry in the granites, thus it is likely that quartz oxygen isotopic

compositions reflect primary source characteristics. Although small degrees of low

temperature alteration accounting for the anomalously high δ18O quartz (> 16 ‰) cannot be
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ruled out, available evidence suggests the Permo-Triassic granites were derived from melting

of clay rich sedimentary protoliths (e.g. Harris et al., 1997). Meta-granite 09RC53 (Figure 8a)

yields one population of coeval and isotopically equivalent zircons (εHfi -2.63±0.43, n=12,

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MSWD = 2.5), indicating that this granite was derived from a distinct, homogeneous source.

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However, coeval zircons in most of the granites yield extremely large intra-sample εHfi

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variations (e.g. +3.2 to – 11; Figure 8; Table 1a, b). These variations are considered to be too

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high for magmatic zircons that crystallized from a single, well mixed source (e.g. Gerdes et

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al., 2002; Appleby et al., 2010), and can be accounted for by dis-equilibration reactions

which fractionate Hf within zircon (Gerdes and Zeh, 2009), or by source mixing.
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5.2.1 Dis-equilibration reactions

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Hafnium isotopes can be fractionated between the melt, xenocrystic cores and zircon

overgrowth/resorption rims during crustal melting (Gerdes and Zeh, 2009). Meta-granite
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09RC31 (Figure 8d) yields the largest intra-sample εHfi variation for coeval zircons of +3.2

to –11.
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Cathodoluminescence images show these zircons have complicated textures that reveal,

i) xenocrystic cores, ii) faintly zoned magmatic rims, and/or iii) clear oscillatory zoning for

entire grains. Crustal melting may partially resorb and fractionate Hf from the older

xenocrystic zircon cores into the melt which crystallizes the zircon overgrowths. Newly

crystallized zircon rims (~234 Ma; Figure 8d) would thus record a locally mixed Hf isotopic

signal, explaining the large (+3.2 to – 11) spread in εHfi zircon composition within this

sample.
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5.2.2 Source-mixing

Meta-granite 09RC56 (235.0 ± 1.5 Ma) hosts coeval zircons (Figure 8b) which exhibit

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clear magmatic oscillatory zoning patterns, and yield large intra-sample εHfi variations of

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approximately +2 to –7. The cathodoluminescence images reveal no obvious xenocrysts,

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which renders it unlikely that Hf isotopic fractionation accounts for the large εHf i variation.

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The intra-sample εHfi variations are better explained by source mixing processes. The

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intrusion and/or underplating of basaltic amphibolites (~240-223 Ma) would have provided

sufficient heat to melt parts of the continental crust, and the degree of melting and its ability
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to coalesce and homogenize largely depends on i) the volume of mafic magma, ii) ambient

temperatures in the continental crust, iii) deformation assisted flow structures (Petford et al.,
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2000), and iv) the amount of hydrous phases present within the protolith (e.g. Clemens and
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Vielzeuf, 1987). Low degree partial melts often form during muscovite breakdown in meta-

pelitic rocks, forming migmatites, whereas at higher temperatures (>800°C) biotite

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breakdown results in voluminous melt extraction and granitoid formation (e.g. Clemens and

Vielzeuf, 1987; White et al., 2003). A critical percentage (approximately 7%; Brown, 2013
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and refs therein) of partial melting is required to achieve connectivity between melt pockets,

which can subsequently form dykes. Higher degrees of partial melting ultimately results in

ponding of granitic plutons (e.g. Brown, 1994), where mixing, coalescing and

homogenization can occur. The highly variable intra-sample εHfi signatures found within

most of the Permo-Triassic anatectites suggests these melts did not undergo sufficient

magmatic homogenization to produce coeval zircons of similar Hf isotopic composition.

Some important temporal variations can be observed in the geochemical composition of

the anatectites that formed during ~275 – 225 Ma. A progressive (Permian – Late Triassic)

decline in whole rock La/Yb (Figure 5e) is probably a consequence of increasing degrees of
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partial melting of the crust (e.g. Petford and Gallagher, 2001). The Permian anatectites

formed by relatively low degrees of partial melting, resulting in higher light REE

concentrations, whereas higher degrees of partial melting occurred during the Triassic,

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resulting in diluted and less enriched light REE patterns. This is consistent with the study of

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Riel et al. (2013) and with the crystallization ages of basaltic amphibolites obtained in this

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study, which shows that significant basaltic underplating occurred in the Triassic (~240-223

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Ma), providing heat for progressively melting higher proportions of the crust. Similarly, a

correlation is observed between the Th/U ratios and 206Pb-238U ages of zircons extracted from

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the crustal anatectites (Figure 10), where Permian rocks yield the highest Th/U zircon ratios
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(~1), and the Triassic rocks yield zircon Th/U ratios of <0.5 – 0.01. This temporal change of

zircon Th/U ratios possibly reflects i) an increasing proportion of fluid within the source of
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the crustal anatectites in the middle Triassic, when underplating by mafic melts was
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occurring, or ii) an increased modal proportion of co-genetic monazite, which sequesters Th,

was crystallizing in the Triassic anatectites (Chu et al., 2009). Riel et al. (2013) demonstrate
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that a fluid saturated, high temperature Triassic metamorphic event occurred in southwest
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Ecuador. Thus it is possible that this fluid rich event fractionated U with respect to Th (e.g.
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Hawkesworth et al., 1997), and lead to a progressively lower Th/U ratio in the magmatic

fluids as crustal melting and metamorphism progressed during ~275-207 Ma. We observe no

evidence for monazite within the evolved crustal granites and associated magmatic rocks,

thus favour an interpretation whereby fluid rich crustal melting occurred in the Triassic (Riel

et al., 2013).

We propose that the Permo-Triassic anatectites formed within a back arc basin, which

was dominated by pelitic protoliths that underwent variable degrees of melting during

increased heat flow and fluid expulsion driven by basaltic underplating.

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6. The tectonic environment in which the Permo-Triassic crustal anatectites and

amphibolites formed

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Anatexis of the continental crust can occur in several different tectonic settings,

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including compression (e.g. shear heating during compression in the Himalayas; Harrison et

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al., 1998) and within low-pressure environments such as those encountered during extension,

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when combined with the input of heat (Gerbi et al., 2006). A majority of previous studies

(e.g. Pindell and Dewey, 1982; Jaillard et al., 1990; Litherland et al., 1994; Noble et al.,

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1997; Vinasco et al., 2006; Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010; Villagómez et al., 2011)
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suggested that the Permo-Triassic belt in Colombia and Ecuador formed during rifting and/or

orogenic collapse associated with the early break-up of western Pangaea. However, Weber et
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al. (2007) and Cardona et al. (2010) propose that Early-Middle Permian granitoids found in
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the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta (northern Colombia) formed in a magmatic arc above an

east dipping Proto-Pacific subduction zone, and formed during compression and crustal
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thickening during the final amalgamation of Western Pangaea.

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6.1 ~275-240 Ma: Compression and arc magmatism

The dominant features seen within crustal anatectites during the Permian – earliest

Triassic (275 – 240 Ma) are: i) whole rock La/Yb ratios of ~11 to 16, ii) generally magmatic

zircon Th/U ratios of 0.26 – 1.27 (Figure 10; Table 1), iii) δ18O values of ~13 to 17 ‰, and

iv) zircon εHfi values that range between +2 and -12. These data reveal a relatively low

degree of partial melting of sedimentary rocks, although they do not unambiguously constrain

the tectonic environment within which the Permian – earliest Triassic (275 – 240 Ma)

anatectites formed. Early-Middle Permian granites within the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
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(Cardona et al., 2010) and the Central Cordillera of Colombia (Villagomez et al., 2011) are

interpreted to have formed above an east-dipping Pacific subduction zone during the final

assembly of western Pangaea. Weber et al. (2007) report anatectites and syn-tectonic

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granitoids that intruded the southern Maya Block during compression at 252 - 254 Ma. The

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Maya Block may have shared a conjugate margin with north-western South America within

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Pangaea. Therefore, in the absence of bimodal magmatism, we suggest that anatexis within

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Ecuador and Colombia during 275 – 240 Ma may have been a consequence of collision. We

speculate that the principal Permian arc axis lay outboard and to the west of the north-western

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South American Plate, and intruded through continental crust that would subsequently
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assemble to form Central America (e.g. the Oaxaquia Terrane), where it is currently

preserved (Figure 1).

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Peraluminous Permian granites within the Eastern cordillera of Peru and Bolivia are
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considered to have formed during lithospheric thinning (e.g. Miskovic and Schaltegger, 2009;

Sempere et al., 2002). However, it is likely that this section of the margin of Gondwana was
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more distal to the Pangaean suture, and thus the prevailing stress regime may have been
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entirely different.
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6.2 ~240- 225 Ma: Rifting within western Pangaea

A peak in melting and metamorphism of the continental crust accompanied bimodal

magmatism during ~ 240 – 225 Ma. The Palaeozoic continental margin was intruded by a

series of tholeiitic dykes and sills, which exhibit variable geochemical signatures from BABB

to depleted MORB. Juvenile mantle derived tholeiites (εHfi +7.4 to +11.2) emplaced between

~240 - 232 Ma (εHfi -3.6 to -4.8; Figure 7b) assimilated continental crust, and did not form

ophiolitic sequences.
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Most crustal anatectites yield large intra-sample εHfi variations (Figure 8; Table 1),

reflecting source mixing with coeval juvenile mafic magmatism. The crustal anatectites that

formed during this period yielded much lower La/Yb and Th/U ratios (Figures 5e and 9b)

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than in the Permian, which may indicate increased degrees of crustal melting due to increased

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geothermal gradients associated with mafic underplating and elevated fluid expulsion from

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the protoliths, which lowers the melting solidus in metapelites (e.g. Clemens and Vielzeuf,

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1987).

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The widespread and coeval occurrence of primitive mantle derived tholeiites and evolved

crustal anatectites is clearly difficult to explain within a compressional setting. These bimodal
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associations are more likely to have formed within a region of significantly elevated heat

flow as is commonly observed within extending back-arc basins (e.g. Collins and Richards,
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2008), and we propose that progressive thinning of continental crust was occurring during
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240 – 225 Ma during rifting and disassembly of western Pangaea (Figures 11 and 12).

Additional evidence for extension during the Triassic includes: i) the Triassic Zumba
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Ophiolite (Litherland et al., 1994) in southern Ecuador, ii) red beds, and rift grabens of the

Piuntza Unit and marine sediments of the Santiago formation in southern Ecuador (Litherland
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et al., 1994), iii) Pb-238U zircon ages of 216.6±0.4 Ma (U-Pb zircon) obtained from the

Aburra Ophiolite in northern Colombia, which hosts aluminium rich and Cr # poor chromites

that are considered to be diagnostic of either a MORB or BABB source (Martínez, 2007), and

iv) widespread Triassic extension and magmatism within the Mitu group of Peru (Reitsma,

2012). Furthermore, elevated crustal extension beta values (>1.23) are observed within the

early – middle Triassic sedimentary rocks of the Cienaga de Morrocoyal area of northern

Colombia and marine carbonates of the Payande Formation were deposited in the late

Triassic (Sarmiento-Rojas et al., 2006). The majority of the highly depleted meta-gabbroic
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and ophiolitic exposures are exposed on the westernmost flank of the Eastern and Central

Cordilleras of Ecuador and Colombia.

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6.3 ~225-216 Ma: Thermal decay of the rift margin and the formation of oceanic

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crust

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No products of melting continental crust have been found younger than ~225 Ma, and the

basaltic amphibolites that formed after ~225 Ma yield N-MORB isotopic and geochemical

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signatures. Furthermore, no Triassic continental crust is observed to the west of the meta-
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gabbros and ophiolitic sequences. The geochemical compositions of amphibolites that formed

during ~225 to ~223 Ma reveal no evidence for assimilation of continental crust, and their

zircon Hfi isotopic composition evolves from +13 to +15, indicating that i) mantle source
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depletion probably occurred during this period, and ii) the continental crust was either
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extremely thin, or not present. Ar/39Ar dates collected from three crustal anatectites within
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the Permo-Triassic belt (Figure 2) yield plateau and weighted mean ages of 221 - 214 Ma,
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which bracket i) the crystallization age (216.6±0.36, U-Pb zircon; Martinez, 2007) of an
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isotropic gabbro collected from the Aburra Ophiolite in northern Colombia, and ii) the age of

the youngest amphibolites from this study (11RC14; 222.7±6.3).

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The Ar/39Ar dates are approximately 5 - 10 Ma younger than the U-Pb zircon ages of

the youngest anatectites, and hence indicate the time of cooling below ~440±40°C (Harrison

et al., 2009), either by i) relaxation of a thermal spike, ii) exhumation during extension,

and/or iii) gradually lowering geothermal gradients. We propose that the rifted margin cooled

through ~440±40°C via a combination of exhumation during extension, and lowering of the

geothermal gradient as the margin migrated away from the source of melting and locus of

ophiolite formation. Some regions of the continental margin remained at temperatures that
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were sufficiently high to grow metamorphic zircon until ~207 Ma, as shown by the Pb-
238
U ages of metamorphic zircon rims extracted from paragneiss 11RC03 (Figure 3).

Collectively, these data suggest that sea floor spreading commenced at some time after ~223

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Ma, and was occurring by ~216 Ma (Figures 11 and 12).

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6.4 The passive margin stage and its transition to an active margin

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Following the creation of oceanic crust at ~216 Ma, the Northern Andean margin

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remained passive until ~213 Ma in Venezuela (Van der Lelij et al., 2011), and ~190 - 185 Ma
MA
in Colombia and Ecuador (Cochrane et al., 2011b), when Pacific subduction commenced

(Figure 11). The observed magmatic gaps between drift initiation at ~216 Ma and active
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margin magmatism in different portions of the Northern Andes likely reflects a complex
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interaction and obstruction between the Pacific Plate and the rifted portions of NW South

America. We propose that a MORB generating spreading centre had isolated continental
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blocks of Mexico from NW South America at ~216 Ma, and the initiation of Pacific
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subduction occurred diachronously between 213 - 185 Ma along strike (Cochrane et al.,
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2011a; Van Der Lelij, 2013). Continuous arc magmatism persisted throughout the Andes

during the Jurassic (Boekhout et al., 2012; Reitsma, 2012). Details of the interactions

between NW Gondwana and potential conjugate margins are described below.

7. Permo-Triassic rifting along NW Gondwana and potential conjugate margins

7.1 NW Gondwana

Permo-Triassic rocks along NW Gondwana have been reported from Peru (Mitu Group;

e.g. Miskovic and Schaltegger, 2009; Reitsma, 2012), the Northern Andes (e.g. Litherland et
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al., 1994; Cardona et al., 2010; Villagomez et al., 2011) and Venezuela (Merida Terrane;

Laya and Tucker, 2012; Van Der Lelij, 2013), although these studies have reported widely

varying interpretations for the break-up of western Pangaea.

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Sillimanite bearing, peraluminous crustal anatectites have been documented in the

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Santander Massif and the Merida Terrane of northern South America (~241 - 237 Ma; Figure

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1), and are considered to have formed during continental rifting (Van der Lelij et al., 2011).

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These are superseded by a continental arc that commenced at ~213 Ma (Van der Lelij, 2013),

indicating that rifting lead to the opening of the Western Tethys Ocean at some time between

241 - 213 Ma.

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Further south, Reitsma (2012) showed that the Mitu Rift of southern Peru) was extending

during the Triassic (240 – 216 Ma), although it did not result in ophiolite formation and
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remains as an aulocagen. Rifting was accompanied by the formation of extensive S-type

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granites along the Eastern Cordillera of Peru (Miskovic et al., 2009), and terminated prior to

the onset of subduction-related magmatism (Chocolate Fm.) at 216±0.8 Ma (Boekhout,

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2012).
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This brief summary of Permo-Triassic NW Gondwana shows that extensional forces and
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elevated geothermal gradients influenced a significant portion of the western margin of the

South American Plate, and Middle-Late Triassic extensional basins are dispersed across

South America (e.g. southern Chile, western Argentina, southern Brazil, Bolivia; Franzese

and Spalletti, 2001; Sempere et al., 2002; Zerfass et al., 2004).

7.2 Conjugate margins to NW Gondwana

Several lines of evidence suggest that the conjugate margin to NW Gondwana currently

forms the basement to Mexican terranes (e.g. Maya and Oaxaquia terranes). Evidence
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includes: i) Grenville-aged granulite belts (e.g. Ortega-Gutiérrez et al., 1995; Restrepo-Pace

et al., 1997) with similar Pb isotopic signatures (Ruiz et al., 1999), ii) evidence for similar

Cambrian fauna (Cocks and Torsvik, 2002), iii) rare anorthosite complexes (Tschanz et al.,

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1974; Restrepo-Pace and Cediel, 2010), and iv) widespread Triassic bimodal magmatism and

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Triassic rift-related sedimentary rocks (Keppie et al., 2006). Furthermore, Solari et al. (2011)

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document isotopically juvenile (εNd ~ +10) gabbroic intrusions (~226 Ma) in the Chuacus

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complex of central Guatemala, which these authors assign to a Triassic arc environment.

Weber et al. (2007) document Late Permian – Early Triassic high temperature

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metamorphism and crustal anatexis in the Maya Block (Figure 1). They propose that high
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temperature metamorphism was a result of compressive deformation. It is possible that this

phase of compressive deformation accounts for the 275 – 240 Ma crustal anatectites observed
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in this study. These lithological units and their proposed tectonic origins are broadly
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consistent with lithological units in NW Gondwana, and support the interpretation that NW

Gondwana shared a conjugate margin with various Mexican crustal blocks during Permo-
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Triassic subduction of the Pacific Ocean.

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Keppie et al. (2006) document Late Triassic (216 – 197 Ma) continental rift tholeiites
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within the Guerrero composite terrane (Figure 1), which is adjacent to the Oaxaquia Terrane

(which in turn is attributed to a back arc setting by the same authors). Furthermore, Helbig et

al. (2012) describe transitional arc to MORB like meta-volcanic rocks within the Acatlan

Complex, which these authors have also assigned to a back arc setting in the late Triassic.

These similarities strongly support a reconstruction where Oaxaquia and other Mexican

Terranes, were juxtaposed against NW Gondwana (e.g. Weber et al., 2007). Triassic roll-back

of the Pacific east-dipping slab drove widespread back-arc extension between various

Mexican terranes such as Oaxaquia and the north-western South American Plate (Figure 12),

leading to crustal anatexis, mafic underplating and ultimately continental fragmentation.

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We propose that Central American blocks were separated from South America by an

ocean basin and then migrated north along a dextral oblique boundary (Figure 12). The

Aburra Ophiolite (Martínez, 2007) on the western flank of the Central Cordillera of Colombia

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and the late Triassic meta-gabbros suggest that sections of the Triassic ocean basin were

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obducted onto NW Gondwana at some period between 216-185 Ma. In addition, it is likely

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that a majority of late Triassic oceanic lithosphere was subducted, giving rise to the Jurassic

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arc.

8. A comparison with other rift settings

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The rift and transition to drift stage during the disassembly of western Pangaea during
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the Triassic occurred over a period of ~ 20 Ma. Other well documented examples where the
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timing of rift to drift has been established include: i) the Lau-Havre-Taupo System (south

Pacific), which has seen a complete rift to drift phase occur within the last 15 Ma (Parson and
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Wright, 1996), and sea floor spreading is currently occurring, and ii) the west Iberia-
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Newfoundland conjugate margins, which are magma-poor and are associated with a rift to
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drift interchange that occurred during 146 - 126 Ma (Whitmarsh et al., 2001; Russell and

Whitmarsh, 2003). Rocks from the Iberia-Newfoundland margins yield a similar geochemical

trend to the primitive tholeiites in the northern Andes, whereby transitional E-MORB

dolerites and gabbros (144-130 Ma) are proceeded by MORB eruptions, which were coeval

with seafloor spreading at ~126 Ma (Russell and Whitmarsh, 2003). These examples are

relatively young (Cretaceous), and the magmatic record suggests early extension advanced to

seafloor spreading within ~20 Ma.

9. Conclusions
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A geochronological, geochemical and isotopic survey of Permo-Triassic magmatic rocks

exposed within the Northern Andes reveal ~60 Ma of semi-continuous magmatism, leading

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to ocean basin formation. A model is developed which improves our understanding of the

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nature and timescales of the fragmentation of western Pangaea, the opening of the western

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Tethys Ocean and the long term magmatic source variations occurring in rift-drift settings.

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Major aspects of the model (Figure 12) are:

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1) Low degrees of crustal melting occurred throughout NW South America during 275-240
MA
Ma. East-dipping subduction of the Proto-Pacific slab formed a Permian magmatic arc that is

preserved the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northern Colombia (Figure 1) and in various
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Mexican terranes (e.g. Weber et al., 2007). Permian-Earliest Triassic magmatism within NW
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South America (Ecuador, and Colombia) formed within a compressional setting during the

final amalgamation of western Pangaea (e.g. Weber et al., 2007).

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2) The period spanning 240 - 225 Ma is characterized by the emplacement of juvenile

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gabbroic intrusions (southern Mexico; Solari et al., 2011), fluid expulsion, peak crustal

melting and the emplacement of mafic dykes and sills (NW South America), which were

probably coeval with basaltic underplating. The development of a widespread back-arc basin

evolved into a rift where BABB were gradually replaced by primitive N-MORB during

progressive extension of the continental lithosphere (e.g. Keppie et al., 2006; Solari et al.,

2011). εHfi zircon signatures show that older amphibolites (~240-232 Ma) incorporate

variable amounts of continental crust, while coeval crustal melts yield intra-sample εHfi

variations which are too high for a single, well mixed source. Meta-granite zircon Th/U ratios

(Figure 10) reveal a progressively increasing fluid component in the petrogenesis of the
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crustal anatectites, which was probably a consequence of fluid expulsion related to basaltic

underplating. The juvenile tholeiites introduced heat to the continental crust, resulting in peak

crustal melting.

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3) Interaction between continental crust and juvenile MORB had ceased by ~225 Ma. εHfi

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zircon signatures varied from +13 to +15 during ~225 to 223 Ma, indicating that mantle

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source depletion was occurring in a setting similar to present day MORB. The emplacement

of extremely depleted rocks within ophiolitic suites occurred along the westernmost flank of

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the palaeomargin at ~216.6 Ma (Martinez, 2007), which coincides with three 40Ar/39Ar dates
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(~214 - 221 Ma; muscovite) collected from crustal anatectites along the Permo-Triassic belt,

indicating the margin cooled through ~ 440 ± 40°C during this period. The age of the Aburra

Ophiolite (~216.6 Ma) and the 40Ar/39Ar dates (~ 214 - 221 Ma) provide an estimate for the
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timing of seafloor spreading, as Oaxaquia and other Mexican terranes drifted away from

South America within a dextral, oblique setting (Figure 12). The subduction of Pacific
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oceanic lithosphere commenced between ~213 – 190 Ma (Van Der Lelij et al., 2011;
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Litherland et al., 1994; Cochrane et al., 2011b) within the Northern Andes, and at a similar
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time along the Peruvian margin. The late Triassic oceanic basin was probably both partly

obducted and subducted beneath South America, resulting in the Aburra Ophiolite (Martinez,

2007).

4) Back arc extension and the rift-to-drift transition of the continental crust lasted for ~20 Ma,

which is similar to the duration of other well-known rift-drift margins (e.g. Parson and

Wright, 1996; Whitmarsh et al., 2001; Russell and Whitmarsh, 2003). The Permo-Triassic

belt of the N. Andes is a well preserved example of Palaeozoic-Mesozoic rifting of

continental crust.
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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the assistance of Bernado Beate, Roelant Van der Lelij, Jaime

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Corredor and Luis Eduardo López during field work in Colombia and Ecuador. Funds for the

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project were provided to RS by the Swiss National Science Foundation (fund

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200020_134443).

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Figure Captions

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Figure 1. Sketch map of northwestern South America and Central America showing the

locations of the Andean cordilleras, terranes and the extent of Precambrian, Palaeozoic and
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Permo-Triassic rocks, and allochthonous Cretaceous basement. The palaeogeographic

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reconstruction for the Permo-Triassic shows the estimated location of the Permo-Triassic
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magmatic belt, modified after Nishimura et al., (1999), Golonka and Bocharova, (2000),
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Dickinson and Lawton (2001), Elıas-Herrera and Ortega-Gutierrez (2002), and Weber et al.

(2007).
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Figure 2. The geology of the Eastern and Central Cordilleras of Ecuador and Colombia,

which form a single topographic ridge within the northern Andes. The extent of Permo-
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Triassic and Jurassic rocks is shown. Sample locations and weighted mean Pb-238U ages of

magmatic rocks are shown in normal print, and the ages of detrital zircons are shown in
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italics (this study). Permo-Triassic zircon magmatic Pb-238U dates have been summarized
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in an age-distribution plot for both crustal anatectites and metagabbros. Pb-238U ages

shown in grey are from Litherland et al. (1994), Vinasco et al. (2006), Martínez (2007) and
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Riel et al. (2013). Major faults: CAF: Cauca Almaguer Fault, OPF: Otu Pericos Fault, PF:

Peltetec Fault. The Peltetec (Ecuador) – Cauca Alamaguer Fault (Colombia) represents the

Campanian ocean-continent suture.

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Figure 3. LA-ICP-MS zircon geochronology of meta-granites from (A) Colombia and (B)

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Ecuador. Pb-238U weighted mean ages are shown for all samples, and selected U-Pb

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concordia plots and cathodoluminescence images are shown. MSWD values are occasionally

higher than 3, and in these cases it is likely that the zircons crystallised during protracted

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crystallization over time scales that are typical of melting of the continental crust (e.g.
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Rubatto et al., 2009). Uncertainties are ±2 σ.
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Figure 4. LA-ICP-MS zircon geochronology of amphibolites from Ecuador and Colombia.

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Ages are Pb-238U weighted mean ages. A U-Pb concordia plot of all amphibolite data

shows the concordance of each data point. Uncertainties are ±2σ. Selected and
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cathodoluminescence images are also shown.

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Figure 5. Whole rock geochemistry and the stable oxygen isotope composition of S-type

granites and migmatitic leucosomes from Ecuador and Colombia. The composition of N-

MORB and Upper Continental Crust is from Sun and McDonough, (1989) and Taylor and
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McLennan, (1995), respectively. The relationship between La/Yb and Pb-238U age reveals

a general depletion trend from the Permian to the Triassic.

Figure 6. Whole rock geochemistry and Nd and Pb isotopic composition of amphibolites and

meta-gabbros of Ecuador and Colombia. The composition of N-MORB and Upper

Continental Crust is taken from Sun and McDonough, (1989) and Taylor and McLennan,
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(1995), respectively. The tectonic discrimination fields (V vs. Ti/1000) are taken from
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Shervais (1982). Variations of La/Yb and εNdi with respect to Pb-238U shows a depletion

trend from the Early to Late Triassic within the amphibolites.

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Figure 7. A: εHfi (zircon) data acquired from zircon rims and xenocrystic cores of S-type

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granites, migmatitic leucosomes and amphibolites of the Permo-Triassic belt of Ecuador and

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Colombia. εHfi was calculated using the Pb-238U age determined by LA-ICP-MS dating,
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and the following composition of CHUR: Lu/177Hf = 0.0336, and 176
Hf/177Hf = 0.282785

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(Bouvier et al., 2008). Depleted Mantle (DM) is a generalized growth curve. B: A
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comparison of εHfi, La/Yb and zircon U-Pb (crystallization) age of amphibolites and

metagabbros. Metagabbros 10RC39A and 11RC10 yield two (continental crust and juvenile)

distinct populations with respect to εHfi (zircon). C: Representative cathodoluminescence

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images for metagabbro 10RC39A show that juvenile εHfi values (+7.4 - +10) are yielded by

zircons that are patchy or unzoned, whereas εHfi (-3.6 to - 4.8) values diagnostic of the
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continental crust are yielded by zircons that have oscillatory zoning patterns.
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Figure 8. Intra-sample zircon εHfi variations for Triassic S-type granites and migmatitic

leucosomes from Colombia and Ecuador. Sample 09RC53 (A) yields indistinguishable intra-

sample εHfi variations (MSWD = 2.5, N = 12) for coeval zircons indicating a single well

mixed source. Metagranites 10RC53 (B), 10RC56 (C) and 09RC31 (D) yield MSWD values

of εHfi for coeval zircons that are too high to be derived from a single homogeneous source.

Cathodoluminescence images of zircons show: 09RC56 (B), clear magmatic zonation

patterns with highly variable εHfi zircon signatures, and 09RC31 (D), variably xenocrystic

zircons with complicated overgrowths and widely varying intra-sample εHfi signatures.
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Figure 9. 40Ar/39Ar age spectra for muscovites extracted from metagranites 09RC40, 10RC40

and 10RC43. All uncertainties are ±2σ.

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Figure 10. The variation in Th/U ratio of zircon extracted from S-type granites and

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migmatitic leucosomes, with zircon Pb-238U crystallization age. The zircon Th/U ratios

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show a significant reduction at ~240 Ma, which may be due to increased fluid expulsion and

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geothermal gradients during basaltic underplating, which results in the formation of fluid

saturated metamorphic zircon. Metamorphic and magmatic zircon fields after Hartman et al.

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(2004). Uncertainties of the 206Pb-238U ages are ±1 - 2 % (supplementary Table 1).
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Figure 11. Geochemical and geochronological summary for Permo-Triassic crustal

anatectites and amphibolites (this study). Three periods are defined: i) Compression (275 –
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240 Ma), ii) rifting and the onset of mafic magmatism (240 - 225 Ma), and iii) the formation

of oceanic crust (223 – 216 Ma).

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Figure 12. Schematic reconstruction and cross sections for northwestern Gondwana from the
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Early to Late Triassic. Rifting and bimodal volcanism occurred during 240 - 225 Ma, and the

rift-drift transition and onset of seafloor spreading occurred during 225 - 216 Ma. The

palaeogeographic reconstruction for the Permo-Triassic shows the estimated location of the

Permo-Triassic magmatic belt, modified after Nishimura et al., (1999), Golonka and

Bocharova, (2000), Dickinson and Lawton (2001), Elıas-Herrera and Ortega-Gutierrez

(2002), Weber et al. (2007).

Table 1. Summary of data collected from Permo-Triassic rocks of the cordilleras of Ecuador

and Colombia
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Table 1: Summary of data collected from Permo-Triassic rocks of the cordilleras of Ecuador and Colombia
206 238 18 40 39
Sample Unit Lithology Latitude Longitud Pb/ MSW
Hf zircon ± Nd (87Sr/86S (206Pb/204Pb)i δ O Th/U A/CN (La/Yb Ar/ Ar Inv. MSW
2σ  wr ± 2σ
N-S eW U age ± D r)i wr ± (‰) ± zircon K wr )n wr age ± 2σ Isochron D
w.r

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± 2σ Age ± 2σ
2σ (Ma) ± 2σ  2σ
d°m's'' d°m's'' 2σ (Ma)

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S-type granites and migmatitic leucosomes  
Ecuad

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or
Tr. metagranit S 1° 23' 78° 21' 233.7±0. <-10.5 to - 15.3±0 0.26±0
09RC25
Lagunas e 51" 15" 8 1.1 3.2> .2 .1 1.99 13.24
Tr. metagranit S 0° 22' 78° 8' 234.4±0. <-11.0 to 15.1±0 0.04±0
09RC31

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Lagunas e 33" 32" 9 0.8 +3.2> .2 .1 1.40 13.50
S 3° 42' 79° 51' 237.7±5. <-7.5 to 0.42±0 214.56±0. 214.71±0.
09RC40 Moromoro migmatite
16" 7" 2 4.6 +0.8> .5 2.38 11.36 93 95 0.67
metagranit S 4° 27' 79° 8' 247.2±4. <-5.3 to - 16.8±0 0.69±0
09RC42 Sabanilla

N
e 43" 52" 3 3.0 0.5> .2 .5 1.23 10.58
Tr. metagranit 78° 48' 231.0±1. 0.24±0
09RC53

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Lagunas e S 3° 9' 24" 45" 9 2.1 -2.63±0.43 .1 1.19 12.68
paragneis 79° 8'
09RC44 Sabanilla
s S 4° 29' 2" 55" 1.37 4.65
Paragneis S 3° 58' 79° 1'
09RC45 Sabanilla
s 41" 15"
Tr. metagranit S 1° 23' 78° 22' 235.0±1. <-6.0 to 12.1±0 0.14±0

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09RC56
Lagunas e 57" 8" 5 3.0 +1.7> .2 .1 2.24 6.92
Agoyan metagranit N 0° 23' 77° 51' 207.6±9. <-16.3 to - 15.1±0 0.01±0

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11RC03
fm. e 24" 44" 2 1.9 9.0> .2 .0
Colombia
Cajamarc metagranit N 4° 19' 75° 12' 277.6±1. 13.6±0 1.27±0

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10RC04 a e 24" 7" 6 1.2 1.96±0.31 .2 .6 1.18 16.23
Cajamarc metagranit N 5° 53' 75° 25' 236.1±3. 17.4±0 0.08±0 221.80±1. 221.65±1.
10RC40

10RC41
a
Cajamarc
a
e
metagranit
e
13"

N 6° 1' 8"
28"
75° 7'
28"
3
234.1±1.
2
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3.7

1.2
-6.57±0.66
<-9.5 to -
0.2>
.2
13.1±0
.2
.1
0.23±0
.1
1.73

1.27
8.19

11.49
03 28 2.64

Cajamarc metagranit N 5° 59' 74° 55' 244.6±2. <-8.2 to 13.1±0 0.35±0

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10RC42 a e 17" 37" 4 2.3 +1.4> .2 .1 1.33 12.00
Cajamarc metagranit N 5° 58' 74° 54' 245.0±2. <-11.7 to - 0.42±0 213.71±0. 211.11±6.
10RC43 a e 34" 2" 0 0.6 3.1> .4 1.36 15.70 91 91 0.05
Cajamarc metagranit N 7° 0' 75° 22' 236.4±1. <-5.9 to 15.9±0 0.30±0
10RC53 a e 56" 28" 8 3.0 +3.1> .2 .2 1.56 14.27
Cajamarc N 5° 8' 75° 9'
10RC66 a qtz-Schist 20" 47" 1.84 12.63
Cajamarc metagranit N 5° 9' 75° 7' 255.7±1. 15.6±0 1.10±0
10RC69 a e 27" 57" 5 1.2 -3.16±0.7 .2 .2 1.70 12.81
Cajamarc N 5° 7' 74° 54' 236.0±0. <-6.0 to 0.31±0
10RC71 a pegmatite 34" 38" 6 0.9 +0.4> .1
Cajamarc metagranit N 5° 59' 74° 55' 240.9±1. <-5.9 to 0.26±0
Dv65 a e 16" 34" 5 0.6 +0.7> .2
Cajamarc metagranit N 4° 17' 75° 13' 275.8±1. <-3.7 to 0.66±0
Dv82 a e 16" 59" 5 3.0 +0.3> .1
El plagiogran 216.6±0.
AC32B Picacho ite 4 8.00
Amphibolites
Ecuad
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or
amphibolit 75° 34' 224.7±1. 0.20±0
10RC28 Chinchina e N 5° 3' 5" 25" 9 0.8 13.31±0.25 9.83 0.70354 17.520938 .1 1.41
amphibolit N 0° 23' 77° 51'

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11RC04 Monte Ol. e 24" 44" 2.59
amphibolit S 1° 23' 78° 22' 231.9±3. <-6.3 to 0.19±0

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11RC10 Monte Ol. e 56" 52" 2 1.6 +11.2> 5.03 0.71470 18.707878 .1 1.71
amphibolit 79° 50' 222.7±6. 0.32±0
11RC14 Piedras e S 3° 39' 9" 35" 3 1.9 15.00±0.29 9.79 0.70271 17.754038 .2 0.81

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amphibolit
JR148 Piedras e 221±17.0
amphibolit
JR149 Piedras e 221±17.0

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amphibolit
JR150 Piedras e 221±17.0
Colombia
Santa amphibolit N 5° 54' 75° 24' 239.7±2. 0.41±0

N
10RC39 Elena e 6" 31" 4? 1.9 8.98 0.70430 18.119529 .3 2.34
10RC39 Santa amphibolit N 5° 53' 75° 24' 239.7±2. <-4.8 to

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A Elena e 52" 37" 4 1.9 +10.0> 4.13 0.70535 18.298843 2.02
Tr. amphibolit N 6° 9' 75° 44' 10.1
10RC50 Intrusive e 26" 31" 8 0.70243 16.607997 0.49
CMK04 El meta- 216.6±0.
0A Picacho gabbro 4 0.64

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Note.JR148-150 from Litherland et al. (1994), AC32B and CMK040A from Martinez et al. (2007). Abbreviations: wr (whole rock); A/CNK (Molecular Al2O3/CaO + Na2O + K20); (La/Yb)n (normalized to N-MORB)
87 86 143 144 206 204
Sr/ Sr 2s.d. (ext. reproducibility) = 0.0007%; Nd/ Nd = <0.0005%; Pb/ Pb = 0.12 %

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Highlights

Anatexis accompanied compression in NW Gondwana during 275-240 Ma

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Continental rifting occurred along NW South America during 240 - 225 Ma

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Rift-to-drift transition occurred during 225-216 Ma, oceanic crust existed by 216 Ma

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Continental extension advanced to seafloor spreading over a period of 20 Ma.

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