PETROGRAPHY

The description and systematic classification of rocks, aided by

Igneous the microscopic examination of thin sections.

PETROLOGY
The study of the origin, occurrence, structure and history of rocks,
much broader process/study than petrography.

Petrology PETROGENESIS
A branch of petrology dealing with the origin and formation of
rocks. Involves a combination of mineralogical, chemical and
field data.
Petrologic, petrographic, and petrogenetic studies can be applied
to igneous, metamorphic or sedimentary rocks.

1 2

The Earth’s Interior The Earth’s Interior

Crust:
Oceanic crust Mantle:
Thin: 10 km
Peridotite (ultramafic)
Relatively uniform stratigraphy
Upper to 410 km (olivine  spinel)
= ophiolite suite:
• Sediments
Low Velocity Layer 60-220 km
• pillow basalt Transition Zone as velocity increases ~ rapidly
• sheeted dikes
660 spinel  perovskite-type
• more massive gabbro
SiIV  SiVI
• ultramafic (mantle)
Continental Crust Lower Mantle has more gradual
velocity increase
Thicker: 20-90 km average ~35 km
Highly variable composition Figure 1-2. Major subdivisions of the Earth.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous
– Average ~ granodiorite and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.

3 4
 The Earth’s Interior

Core:
Fe-Ni metallic alloy
Outer Core is liquid
No S-waves
Inner Core is solid

Figure 1-2. Major subdivisions of the Earth.

Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous Figure 1-3. Variation in P and S wave velocities with depth. Compositional subdivisions of the Earth are on the left,
and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall. rheological subdivisions on the right. After Kearey and Vine (1990), Global Tectonics. © Blackwell Scientific. Oxford.

5 6

-Formation of minerals in an igneous rocks is controlled by

the chemical composition of the magma and the physical-
chemical conditions present during crystallization.

- Mineralogical composition and texture are used to describe,

name and classify rocks.

- Both overall chemistry ( whole-rock chemistry) and the

NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION chemistry of constitute minerals offer clues to igneous rock
origins.

- Studies of rock chemistry reveal where magmas form and

how they are modified before they solidify.

- the problem in rock classification is the selection of a basis

for classification.

- proposed classifications use texture, mineralogy, chemistry,

geographic location and rock associations.

7 8
 -Systems of nomenclature and classification may reflect:
genetic, textural, chemical or mineralogical features. -TEXTURAL

GENETIC relies on the grain size of individual minerals in the rock.

basic system which classifies rocks on the basis of where
they form.
plutonic - at depth
hypabyssal - intermediate depth
volcanic - on the Earth's surface.
This system is not very practical, but it serves as a first
approximation, it tells nothing about mineralogy, chemistry of
the rocks and can not distinguish basalt from rhyolite.
aphanitic - fine grained < 1 mm
phaneritic - medium grained 1 to 5 mm
coarse grained (pegmatitic) > 5 mm
This system has the same shortcomings as a genetic
classification, however specific textures present may aid in
classification, e.g., phenocryst, ophitic, coronas, but these are
not indicative of a specific environment of formation or a
specific lithology.

9 10

-CHEMICAL
MINERALOGICAL
This type of classification requires a complete
chemical analysis of the rock
The one gaining application is the result of several
years work by the IUGS Subcommission on the
A chemical classification system has been
Classification of Igneous Rocks or Streckeissen
proposed for volcanic rocks and a comparable
Classification.
scheme for plutonic rocks is not available.
This leaves us with a system based on mineralogy.

11 12
 Several aspects which historically have played and continue to
play a role in the classification of igneous rocks should also be
considered.

CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS GRADATION IN SILICA CONTENT

- referred to as acid or basic, implying a range of silica content.

Acidic > 66 wt% SiO2
Granites ~ 72 wt% SiO2, granodiorites ~ 68 wt% SiO2
Intermediate - 52 to 66 wt% SiO2
Andesite 57 wt% SiO2
Basic - 45 to 52 Wt% SiO2
Basalts range from 48 to 50 wt%
Ultrabasic - < 45 wt% SiO2
peridotites 41 to 42 wt% SiO2

13 14

COLOUR GRADATION

Felsic rocks are light coloured, contain felsic

minerals (e.g. qtz, feldspar, feldspathoids) which are
themselves light in colour and have a low density
which contribute to the pale colour of the rock.
Chemistry of Igneous rocks
Mafic Rocks are denser and dark coloured, the
result of containing mafic minerals (pyroxene,
amphibole, olivine, biotite). These minerals
contribute to the green, brown and black colour of
these rocks.

15 16
 Composition of Earth shells
-Modern chemical analyses of igneous rocks Elements wt%
generally include a major elements analyses and Crust Mantle Core
minor or trace elements analyses. Continental Oceanic Upper Lower Outer Inner
O 41.2 43.7 44.7 43.7
10--15
Si 28 22 21.1 22.5
- Earth is composed almost entirely of 15 elements,
Al 14.3 7.5 1.9 1.6
12 of which are the dominant elements of the crust. Fe 4.7 8.5 5.6 9.8 80--85 80
Ca 3.9 7.1 1.4 1.7
- The crustal elements, considered to be the major K 2.3 0.33 0.08 0.11

elements, in order of decreasing abundance, are O, Na 2.2 1.6 0.15 0.84

Mg 1.9 7.6 24.7 18.8
Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, Mg, K, Ti, H, P and Mn.
Ti 0.4 1.1 0.12 0.08
C 0.3
H 0.2
Mn 0.07 0.15 0.07 0.33
Ni 5 20
Cr 0.51

17 18

The chemical composition of rocks is determined by analyzing a powder

of the rock.

Routine geochemical analysis of geologic materials can be

carried out using either or a combination of the following two These are the 13 major oxide
techiques: components which are reported as
X-ray Fluoresence Spectroscopy (XRF) to determine both major weight percent (wt%).
and trace elements
Because these are reported as a
Atomic Absorbtion Spectrometry (AAS) to determine both major percentage the total should sum to
and trace elements 100 %, ideally, however acceptable
totals lie in the range 98.5 to 101
The composition of an igneous rock is dependant on: wt%.
Composition of the source material
Depth of melting
Tectonic environment where crystallization occurs. e.g. rifting vs.
subduction
Secondary alteration

19 20
 Table 8-3. Chemical analyses of some
Oxide Wt. %
representative igneous rocks
SiO2 49.20 Peridotite Basalt Andesite Rhyolite Phonolite
TiO2 1.84 SiO2 42.26 49.20 57.94 72.82 56.19
Al2O3 15.74 TiO2 0.63 1.84 0.87 0.28 0.62
Al2O3 4.23 15.74 17.02 13.27 19.04
Fe2O3 3.79
A typical rock analysis Fe2O3 3.61 3.79 3.27 1.48 2.79
FeO 7.13
FeO 6.58 7.13 4.04 1.11 2.03
For Major Oxides. MnO 0.20
MnO 0.41 0.20 0.14 0.06 0.17
MgO 6.73 MgO 31.24 6.73 3.33 0.39 1.07
CaO 9.47 CaO 5.05 9.47 6.79 1.14 2.72
Na2O 2.91 Na2O 0.49 2.91 3.48 3.55 7.79
K 2O 1.10 K2O 0.34 1.10 1.62 4.30 5.24
H2O+ 0.95 H2O+ 3.91 0.95 0.83 1.10 1.57
(O)
Total 98.75 99.06 99.3 99.50 99.23
Total 99.06

21 22

Rare Earth Elements (REE or SATURATION CONCEPT

lathanides, atomic number
57 to 71), are reported in
ppm or mg/g. The REE are
important for petrogenetic
studies, because as a
group the REE behave
coherently.
Used in reference to the SiO2 and Al2O3 which are the two most abundant
components of igneous rocks.
SiO2 Saturation
SiO2 Saturation
Minerals present in igneous rocks can be divided into two groups:
Those which are compatible with quartz or primary SiO2 mineral (tridymite,
cristobalite) these minerals are saturated with respect to Si, e.g feldspars,
pyroxenes.
Those which never occur with a primary silica mineral. These are
undersaturated minerals, e.g. Mg-rich olivine, nepheline.

The occurrence of quartz with an undersaturated mineral causes a reaction

between the two minerals to form a saturated mineral.
2SiO2 + NaAlSiO4 ===> NaAlSi3O8
Qtz + Ne ===> Albite
SiO2 + Mg2SiO4 ===> 2MgSiO3
Qtz + Ol ===> En

23 24

Rock Classification (Silica saturation)
Oversaturated - contains primary silica mineral
Saturated - contains neither quartz nor an unsaturated
mineral
Unsaturated - contains unsaturated minerals
25
VARIATION DIAGRAMS
27
Al2O3 Saturation
Four subdivisions of rocks independant of silica saturation,
based on the molecular proportions of Al2O3, Na2O, K2O
and CaO applied mainly to granitic lithologies.
Peraluminous - Al2O3 > (Na2O + K2O + CaO)
Metaluminous - Al2O3 < (Na2O + K2O + CaO) but Al2O3 >
(Na2O + K2O)
Subaluminous - Al2O3 = (Na2O + K2O)
Peralkaline - Al2O3 < (Na2O + K2O)
26
A main objective of any research program
on igneous rocks is to describe and
display chemical variations for simplicity
and to facilitate condensing information.
The best way to simplify and condense
analytical data is by graphical means.
28
 Bivariate (x-y) diagrams
22
Oxides ( K2O, Na2O, 10
CaO,MgO, Al2O3) plotted Al2O3
MgO
against Silica (SiO2) form 17
5
linear arrays.
A set of such plots is called a
Harker Diagrams Harker diagram. 12 0
15

FeO* 10
10
With increasing Silica the CaO
The oldest method is the variation diagram or Harker diagram which dates
from 1909, and plots oxides of elements against SiO2. following trends are 5
5
evident:
FeO, MgO and CaO decrease 0 0
in abundance. 4
6
Na2O 3
K2O and Na2O increase. 4 K2O
2

Al2O3 does not exhibit a 2 1

strong variation.
0
0
45 50 55 60 65 70 75 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
SiO2 SiO2

29 30

Trace Elements
ppm

Note
magnitude
of trace
element
wt %

changes
ppm

Figure 9-1. Harker Diagram for Crater Lake. From data

compiled by Rick Conrey. From Winter (2001) An Introduction
to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.

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Triangular Variation Diagrams
Triangular Variation Diagrams
These diagrams visually present the variation in 3
chemical parameters. Two are commonly used:
AFM - Mainly for Mafic Rocks
A = Na2O + K2O
F = FeO (+Fe2O3)
M = MgO
Plotted as either molecular or weight percent values.
Na2O - K2O - CaO - Mainly for Felsic Rocks
Uses either the molecular or weight percent values for the
three oxides listed.
Data may be plotted as weight percent oxide or atomic
percent of the cations. The disadvantage to this is that
the absolute values of the analyses are not readliy
determined.

33 34

Ternary Variation Diagrams Table 9-6 A brief summary of some particularly useful trace elements in igneous petrology

Example: AFM Element Use as a petrogenetic indicator

Ni, Co, Cr Highly compatible elements. Ni (and Co) are concentrated in olivine, and Cr in spinel and
diagram FeO + Fe2O3 clinopyroxene. High concentrations indicate a mantle source.

V, Ti Both show strong fractionation into Fe-Ti oxides (ilmenite or titanomagnetite). If they behave
(alkalis-FeO*-MgO) differently, Ti probably fractionates into an accessory phase, such as sphene or rutile.

Zr, Hf Very incompatible elements that do not substitute into major silicate phases (although they may
replace Ti in sphene or rutile).
Triangular variation Ba, Rb Incompatible element that substitutes for K in K-feldspar, micas, or hornblende. Rb substitutes
less readily in hornblende than K-spar and micas, such that the K/Ba ratio may distinguish these
diagrams show only phases.

the ratios of various Sr Substitutes for Ca in plagioclase (but not in pyroxene), and, to a lesser extent, for K in K-
feldspar. Behaves as a compatible element at low pressure where plagioclase forms early, but
as an incompatible at higher pressure where plagioclase is no longer stable.
oxides or elements, REE Garnet accommodates the HREE more than the LREE, and orthopyroxene and hornblende do
so to a lesser degree. Sphene and plagioclase accommodates more LREE. Eu 2+ is strongly
rater than their partitioned into plagioclase.

actual values. Y Commonly incompatible (like HREE). Strongly partitioned into garnet and amphibole. Sphene
and apatite also concentrate Y, so the presence of these as accessories could have a
significant effect.

Table 9-6. After Green (1980). Tectonophys., 63, 367-385. From Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and
Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.
K2O + Na2O MgO

35 36
 Trace elements as a tool to
determine paleotectonic
environment
• Useful for rocks in mobile belts that are no Table 18-4. A

longer recognizably in their original setting Classification of

Granitoid Rocks Based
on Tectonic Setting.

• Can trace elements be discriminators of After Pitcher (1983) in

K. J. Hsü (ed.),
Mountain Building

igneous environment? Processes, Academic

Press, London; Pitcher
(1993), The Nature and

• Approach is empirical on modern Origin of Granite,

Blackie, London; and
Barbarin (1990) Geol.
occurrences Journal, 25, 227-238.
Winter (2001) An
Introduction to Igneous

• Concentrate on elements that are and Metamorphic

Petrology. Prentice Hall.

immobile during low/medium grade

metamorphism
37 38

SiO2 is generally chosen because it is the most
abundant oxide in igneous rocks and exhibits a wide
variation in composition. This type of graphical
presentation is useful for large quantities of analytical
data and yields an approximation of inter-element
variations for a group of samples.
No genetic link can be inferred from Harker diagrams,
i.e. that the lowest SiO2 content present on the
diagram represents the original or first liquid, for the
group of samples presented, from which all other
liquids were derived.
• Harker diagrams: SiO2 vs. oxide.
• The meaning of geochemical trends: can be
interpreted as magmatic
“evolution” from “primitive” to “differenciated”
rocks. More or less implicitly
assumes fractional crystallization.
• The nature of the phases crystallizing can be
inferred from the shape of the
trends. Ex.: decreasing Fe, Mg = precipitation
of mafic minerals.

39 40
 Magmatic series: reflect first order differences between rock
Alkali vs. Silica diagram for Hawaiian volcanics:
groups.
Seems to be two distinct groupings: alkaline and subalkaline
• TAS diagram separates alkali and sub-alkali series
• Sub-alkali series are further separated on the basis of their 12
Fe-Mg contens
(AFM diagram) into tholeitic and calc-alkaline 10
In addition, important role of the relative proportions of Al2O3
and CaO-Na2O-K2O
8 Alkaline
• A>CNK: Peraluminous rocks. Have Al-rich minerals such as
biotite,
muscovite, garnet, cordierite… 6

• A<CNK:
o .. and A>NK: Metaluminous. No particular minerals, mafics 4

are
pyroxene, amphibole, biotite 2
Subalkaline
o .. and A<NK: peralkaline rocks. Alklai-rich minerals such as
alkali 40 55 60 65
35 45 50
amphiboles and pyroxenes. %SiO2

41 42

AFM diagram: can further subdivide the subalkaline

magma series into a tholeiitic and a calc-alkaline series
Figure 8-14. AFM diagram showing the distinction
between selected tholeiitic rocks from Iceland, the Mid-
Atlantic Ridge, the Columbia River Basalts, and Hawaii
(solid circles) plus the calc-alkaline rocks of the Cascade
volcanics (open circles). From Irving and Baragar (1971).
After Irvine and Baragar (1971). Can. J. Earth Sci., 8,
523-548.
1. Tholeitic series
Fe-rich, alkali poor.
Metaluminous
Px/Hb/Bt-bearing basalts, andesites, dacites, rhyolites (BADR)
Tholeitic series are common in oceanic ridges, intraplate-volcanoes ± convergent
margins. They correspond to melting by decrease of pressure.
2. Calc-alkaline series
Moderately alkaline, more magnesian
Metaluminous to peraluminous
BADR, that can feature ms/gt/cd in the more differenciated terms
Calc-alkaline series are mostly found in convergent margins. They correspond to
melting by adding water to the source (and therefore “shifting” the solidus towards
lower temperatures).
3. Alkaline series
Alkali rich, Fe-rich
Metaluminous to peralkaline
Evolution towards trachytes (moderaltely alkaline series) or phonolites (very
alkaline series), that can feature riebeckite, aegyrine, etc.
Alkaline series are found in intra-plate situations ± convergent margins. They
correspond to melting by increase of temperature.

43 44

Fractionation Indices
45
MgO Index
This is used for basaltic rocks. Positive correlations are
produced for Na2O, K2O, and P2O5 indicating enrichment
in these oxides with successive liquids. Negative
correlations result for CaO.
Mg-Fe Ratios
Again used for basaltic rocks. These involve a ratio of Mg to Fe:
MgO/MgO+FeO (ferrous)
MgO/MgO+FeO+Fe2O3 (ferric)
Mg/Mg+Fe (uses atomic proportions of the cations).
Normative Ab/Ab+An
Based on the values of Na2O and CaO. Only good for rocks
which crystallize plagioclase, not effected by mafic mineral
formation. Generally applied to granites.
The above three indices are only good for specific lithologies,
and thus have a restricted application.
47
To obtain a genetic link between
analyses of a given suite of samples
fractionation indices were developed.
These indices attempt to the results of
chemical analyses from an individual
igneous suite into their correct
evolutionary order. These indices are not
realistic but several come close to such
an order.
46
Two fractionation indices, based on complex equations have
been suggested for more comprehensive use.
Solidification Index (Kuno, 1959)
SI = 100 MgO/(MgO+FeO+Fe2O3+Na2O+K2O)
For basalts this is similar to Mg/Fe ratios due to the relatively
poor alkali content. As fractionation progresses the
residual liquids become enriched in alkaliis, thus Na2O
and K2O contents offset the Mg-Fe index. For mafic rocks
SI is high, for felsic rocks SI is low.
Differentiation Index (Thornton and tuttle, 1960)
DI = normative Q+Or+Ab+Ne+Ks+Lc
This is based on the normative analyis results. For mafic
rocks DI will be low, because in normative calculation
these minerals are minor. Felsic rocks DI will be high
because these minerals are abundant in the norm.
48
 Alkali vs. Silica diagram for Hawaiian volcanics:
Seems to be two distinct groupings: alkaline and subalkaline

12

10

8 Alkaline

2
Subalkaline

35 40 45 50 55 60 65
%SiO2

49 50

AFM diagram: can further subdivide the subalkaline

magma series into a tholeiitic and a calc-alkaline series

Figure 8-14. AFM diagram showing the distinction

between selected tholeiitic rocks from Iceland, the Mid- Tholeiitic
Atlantic Ridge, the Columbia River Basalts, and Hawaii
(solid circles) plus the calc-alkaline rocks of the Cascade
volcanics (open circles). From Irving and Baragar (1971).
After Irvine and Baragar (1971). Can. J. Earth Sci., 8, B-A
523-548.
A
D

Calc-alkaline

51 52
 biotite pyroxene aegirine
muscovite hornblende riebeckite
cordierite biotite arfvedsonite
andalusite
garnet CaO

CaO

CaO K2O
moles

Alkaline
K2O Calc-alkaline
Tholeitic
Al2O3 K2O Al2O3 Al2O3

Na2O Na 2O
Na2O

Peraluminous Metaluminous Peralkaline

Figure 18-2. Alumina saturation classes based on the molar proportions of Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O) (“A/CNK”) after
Shand (1927). Common non-quartzo-feldspathic minerals for each type are included. After Clarke (1992). Granitoid
Rocks. Chapman Hall.

53 54

A world-wide survey suggests that there may be

Series Alkali Fe-Mg Al
content
some important differences between the three series
Alkaline High Fe-rich Metaluminous
to peralkaline
Characteristic Plate Margin Within Plate
Low to Mg-rich Metaluminous
to per- Series Convergent Divergent Oceanic Continental
Sub- Calc- moderate Alkaline yes yes yes
aluminous
alkaline alkaline Tholeiitic yes yes yes yes
Tholeitic Low Fe-rich Metaluminous Calc-alkaline yes

After Wilson (1989). Igneous Petrogenesis. Unwin Hyman - Kluwer

55 56
 - B. Normalization and spidergrams
1. What is “normalization”, and why do it?
Abundance of elements varies greatly in the Earth:
• Different families of elements are more or less present
• Even within a family, nucleosynthesis results in huge variations
2. Spidergrams
Spidergrams allow to
• See many elements at a time
• Compare elements with large differences of absolute abundance (log scale!)
• To some degree, make petrogenetic interpretations
Making a spidergram
• For each sample, arrange elements in order of increasing compatibility (i.e.,
MODAL ANALYSIS
the more incompatible at the left). (technically, this implies a different order
for each different source!).
• Plot the normalized value of each elements (log scale!)
• Link the dots
• Look at the “anomalies”!
Some classical spidergrams:
• REE diagrams (n’ed to chondrites or PRIMA=PRImitive MAntle in general)
• Multi-element diagrams for incompatible elements (N’ed to
PRIMA/chondrites, or to MORBs)
• PGE diagrams
• Transition metal diagrams

57 58

MODAL ANALYSIS

Produces an accurate representation of the distribution and volume

percent of the mineral within a thin section. Three methods of
Two types of analysis are useful when examining Igneous Rocks:
analysis are used:
Measure the surface area of mineral grains of the same mineral,
Modal analysis - requires only a thin section, relative to the total surface area of the thin section.

Measure the intercepts of each mineral along a series of lines.

Normative analysis - requires a chemical analysis.
POINT COUNT - Count each mineral occurrence along a series of
traverse line across a given thin section. For a statistically valid
result > 2000 individual points must be counted.

The number of grains counted, the spacing between points and

successive traverse lines is dependant on the mean grain size of
the sample.

59 60
 Advantages
One can compare rocks from different areas if you
only have a thin section, no chemical analysis is
required, using a petrographic microscope.
Gives the maximum and minimum grain sizes.
NORMATIVE ANALYSIS OR NORM
Disadvantages
Meaningless if the sample has a preferred orientation
of one or more minerals.
Porphyritic rocks are difficult to count.
Total area of sample must be sufficiently larger than
the max. diameter of the smallest grain size.

61 62

Normative analysis is defined as the calculation of a theoretical assemblage

of standard minerals for a rock based, on the whole rock chemical Plate Tectonic - Igneous
composition as determined by analytical techniques. The original
purpose for the norm was essentially taxonomic. An elaborate
classification scheme based on the normative mineral percentages was
Genesis
proposed. The classification groups together rocks of similar bulk 1. Mid-ocean Ridges
composition irrespective of their mineralogy. Various types of NORMs
5. Back-arc Basins
have been proposed - CIPW, Niggli, Barth. Each of theses proposals has 2. Intracontinental 6. Ocean Island Basalts
its own specific advantages and/or disadvantages.
The CIPW norm, originally proposed in 1919, was proposed as a means of Rifts 7. Miscellaneous Intra-
comparing and classifying all igneosu rocks for which chemical analyses
wers available. The NORM takes it's name from the four authors who 3. Island Arcs Continental Activity
proposed it - Cross, Iddings, Pirsson and Washington. This NORM was kimberlites, carbonatites,
very elegant and based on a number of simplifications:
4. Active Continental
anorthosites...
The magma crystallizes under anhydrous conditions so that no hydrous Margins
minerals (hornblende, biotite) are formed.
The feromagnesium minerals are assumed to be free of Al2O3.
The Fe/Mg ratio for all feromagnesium minerals is assumed to be the same.
Several minerals are assumed to be incompatible, thus nepheline and/or
olivine never appear with quartz in the norm.
Since the CIPW NORM was introduced in 1919 several other normative
calculations have been suggested, e.g. Niggli norm, Barth mesonorm.
The latter is used commonly when examining granitic rocks.

63 64