Igneous Rocks: Formation and Classification

Section 1 - Igneous Rocks

01.2. DEFINITION
Broadly speaking, all rocks that have formed from an originally hot molten material through
the process of cooling and crystallisation may be defined as Igneous rocks.
A very high temperature and a molten state are, therefore, two very important conditions for the
original material from which the igneous rocks are believed to have been formed.

Magma

The hot molten material occurring naturally below the surface of the Earth is called magma.
It is called lava when erupted through volcanoes. Igneous rocks are formed both from magma and
lava. It may be mentioned here that magma is actually a hypothetical melt. It has not been possible
to see it at its place of occurrence. But it is assumed to get formed at great depths below the surface
due to very high temperature related to a number of causes such as rise in temperature with depth
and also occurrence of radioactive materials. Lava is, however, a thoroughly studied material that has
poured out occasionally from volcanoes in many regions of the world again and again. It provides
with ample proof of existence of the magma below the surface.
Magma or lava from which igneous rocks are formed may not be entirely a pure melt : it may
have a crystalline or solid fraction and also a gaseous fraction thoroughly mixed with it. The solid
and gaseous fractions, however, form only a small part of the magma or lava, which are predominantly
made up of liquid material. In most cases magma is believed to be a sufficiently mobile melt. In flict
this mobility is one important quality that enables it to cool down to igneous rocks. This is because
magma can exist as a melt as long as physical and c hemical environment surrounding it remains
unchanged. But as and when there is a change in one or more of these conditions (e.g. fall in
temperature or pressure due to its upward movement), cooling and crystallisation of magma may
start and end up with the formation of an igneous rock.
Igneous rocks are divided i nto following
three sub-groups :

(a) Volcanic Rocks

These are the igneous rocks formed on

tchiy
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volcanoes. Since the lava cools down at
very fast rate (compared to magma), the grain
size of the crystals formed in these rocks is
very fine, often microscopic. Further, cooling
of lava may take place on the surface or even
under waters of seas and oceans, the latter Magma
process being more common. Major Subgroups of Igneous Rocks
I - Volcanic II - Hypabyssal III - Plutonic
The Deccan Traps of India spread over
more than four lakh square kilometers in Fig. 01.1.
Peninsular India provide the best example
of volcanic rocks. The Panjal Traps in
Kashmir Himalayas provide another example. The basalts of Columbia Plateau and the Prana
plateau of Brazil are other well-known examples.


These are igneous rocks formed at considerable depths-generally between 7-10 krn below the
surface of the earth. Because of a very slow rate of cooling at these depths, the rocks resulting from
magma are coarse grained. These rocks get exposed on the surface of the earth as a consequence
of erosion of the overlying strata.
Granites, Syenites, and Gabbros are a few examples of Plutonic rocks. They occur in good
abundance in both the Peninsular and extra-Peninsular India. In the latter case they form the lower
regions of deep Himalayan valleys.

(c) Hypabyssal Rocks
These igneous rocks are formed at intermediate depths, generally up to 2 krns below the
surface of the earth and exhibit mixed characteristics of volcanic and plutonic rocks. Porphyries of
various compositions are examples of hypabyssal rocks.

01.3. COMPOSITION

(a) Chemical Composition
Igneous rocks show a great variation in chemical composition and in fact no strict generalization
is possible. Most reliable data is due to Clark and Washington who have shown that on an average
the following elements (expressed in percentage terms of their oxides) are present in the igneous rocks.

TABLE 01.1. Average Chemical Composition of Igneous Rocks.

S.No Element Oxide(%) S.No Element Oxide(%)
(i) SiO 59.14 (vi) MgO 3.49

(ii) Al203 15.35 (vii) Na20 3.84
(iii) FeO 3.80 (viii) K20 3.13
(iv) Fe203 3.08 (ix) H2 0 1.15
(v) CaO 5.08 (x) O hers 1.94
From the above table, it is clear that silica is the dominant constituent of the igneous rocks.
Subsequent chemical analyses as well as field observations have broadly confirmed this conclusion.

(b) Mineralogical Composition
Igneous rocks like other rock groups are characterised by the abundance of only a few minerals.
The following generalisation as given by Clark may be assumed as sufficiently accurate to indicate
the relative abundance of different minerals in Igneous rocks.

TABLE 01.2. Average Mineralogical Composition of Igneous Rocks.
S.No Mineral (%) S.No Mineral (%)
(i) Felspars 59.5 (v) Titanium 1.5

(ii) Pyroxenes & Amphiboles 16.8 (vi) Apatite 0.6
(iii) Quartz 01.0 (vii) Accessory Minerals 5.8
(iv) Biotite 3.8
It is evident from the above table that most common minerals of igneous rocks are felspars,
amphiboles (e. g. hornblende), pyroxenes (e. g. augite) and quartz. Others are present only in
subordinate amounts.

Texure
The term texture is defined as the mutual relationship of different mineralogical constituents
in a rock. It is determined by the size, shape and arrangement of these constituents within the
body of the rock.
As will be explained later, a number of factors control the formation of igneous rocks from
magma or lava. Thus, the process of crystal formation (or crystallisation) may be slow or rapid; the
magma may be rich in one constituent and poor in other constituents and further, it may be highly
viscous or quite mobile and so on. All these factors lead invariably to various shapes, sizes and
arrangements of the resulting minerals and hence produce a number of textures.

01.4.1. Factors Explaining Texture
The following three factors will primarily define the type of texture in a given igneous rock :

(a) Degree of Crystallization

In an igneous rock, all the constituent minerals may be present in distinctly crystallized forms
and easily recognized by unaided eye, or, they may be poorly crystallized or be even glassy or non-
crystallized form. The resulting rock textures are then described as :
(i) Holocrystalline : When all the constituent minerals are distinctly crystallized;
(ii) Holohyaline : When all the constituents are very fine in size and glassy or non-crystalline
in nature.
The term merocrystalline is commonly used to express the intermediate type, i.e. when some
minerals are crystallized and others are of glassy character in the same rock.
Rocks with holocrystalline texture are also termed as phaneric and the holohyaline rocks are
referred as aphinitic. The term microcrystalline is used for the textures in which the minerals are
perceivably crystallized but in extremely fine grain. (Fig. 01.2)

(b) Granularity

This defines the grain size of the various components of a rock. These are the average dimensions
of different constituent minerals which are taken into account to describe the grain size of the rock
as a whole. Thus the rock texture is described as :
(i) Coarse-grained. When the average grain size is above 5 mm; the constituent minerals are
then easily identified with naked eye.
(ii) Medium-grained. When the average grain size lies between 5 mm and 1 mm. Use of magnifying
lens often becomes necessary for identifying all the constituent mineral components.
A. Holocrystalline B. Merocrystalline C. Holohyaline

Texture of Igneous Rocks Under Microscope

Fig. 01.2.


of the constituent mineral grains is possible only with the help of microscope for which very thin
rock sections have to be prepared for microscopic studies.

(c) Fabric
This is a composite term expressing the relative grain size of different mineral constituents in a rock
as well as the degree of perfection in the form of the crystals of the individual minerals.
The texture is termed as equigranular when all the component minerals are of approximately
equal dimensions and as inequigranular when some minerals in the rock are exceptionally larger
or smaller than the other.
Similarly, the shape or form of the crystals, which is best seen only in thin sections under
microscope, may be described as perfect, semi perfect or totally irregular. The textural terms to
describe these shapes are, respectively, euhedral, subhedral and anhedral.
An igneous rock may contain crystals of any one type in a predominating proportion; hence its
fabric will be defined by one of the following three terms related to fabric :
"'( i) Panidiomorphic : when majority of the components are in fully developed shapes;
(ii) Hypidiomorphic : the rock contains crystals of all the categories : euhedral, subhedral or
anhedral;
(iii) Allotriomorphic : when most of the crystals are of anhedral or irregular shapes.

01.4.2. Types of Textures
After having known various factors that define the texture types, it will be easy to understand the
important textures as exhibited by the igneous rocks. These can be broadly divided into five categories :
• Equigranular textures
• Inequigranular textures
• Directive textures
• lntergrowth textures and
• Intergranular textures.
Following is a brief account of these textures of igneous rocks.
Equlgranular Textures
All those textures in which majority of constituent crystals of a rock are broadly equal in
size are described as equigranular textures. In igneous rocks, these textures are shown by granites
and felsites and hence are also often named as granitic and felsitic textures.
In the granitic texture, the constituents are either all coarse grained or a ll medium grained and
the crystals show euhedral to subhedral outlines.
In the felsitic texture, the rock is microgranular, the grains being mostly microscopic crystals
but these invariably show perfect outlines. Thus felsitic textures may be described as equigranular
and panidiomorphic.
Orthophyric texture is another type of equigranular texture, which is in between the granitic
and felsitic textures. The individual grains are fine in size but not microgranular.

lnequlgranular Texture

Igneous textures in which the majority of constituent minerals show marked difference in their
' elative grain size are grouped as inequigranular texture.
Porphyritic and Poiklitic textures are important examples of such textures.

crystals (the phenocrysts) which are embedded in a fine-grained ground mass or matrix. The texture
is sometimes further distinguished into mega-porphyritic and microporphyritic depending upon the
size of the phenocrysts.
Porphyritic texture may be caused by any one or more of the following factors :
(i) Difference in molecular concentration. When the magma is rich in molecules of a particular
mineral, the latter has better chance to grow into big crystals which may get embedded in
the fine-grained mass resulting from the deficient components.
(ii) Change in physico-chemical conditions. Every magma is surrounded by a set of physico-
chemical conditions like temperature, pressure and chemical composition, which influence the
trend of crystallisation greatly. Abrupt and discontinuous changes in these textures may result in
the formation of the crystals of unequal dimensions. Thus, magma crystallizing at great depths
may produce well-defined, large sized crystals. When the same magma (canꞏying with it these
large crystals) moves upward, the pressure and temperature acting on it are greatly reduced.
Crystallisation in the upper levels of magma becomes very rapid resulting in a fine-grained
matrix that contains the big sized crystals formed earlier.
(iii) Relative insolubility. Some mineral constituents may be relatively insoluble in the magma
than the others. During the process of crystallisation, their crystal grains get enlarged whereas
crystals of other soluble constituents get mixed up again with the magma; thus, the relatively
insoluble constituents form the phenocrysts and the soluble constituents make up the
ground mass crystallizing towards the end.
Poiklitic Texture is characterised with the presence of fine-grained crystals within the body
of large sized crystals.
In other words, it is just the reverse of the porphyritic texture. Rocks like syenite, monzonites,
peridotites etc. commonly show this texture. When the host mineral is identified as augite and the
inclusions are of plagioclase felspars, the poiklitic texture is further distinguished as ophitic.
The d velopment of ophitic texture in rocks is yet incompletely understood. It may be due to
operation of factors mentioned above (for porphyritic texture) but in a different manner. In this case,
the molecular concentration of host minerals should be greater and these should crystallise under
favourable conditions only towards the end of the process so that these are capable of enclosing
many other crystals formed at earlier stages in the process.
H

]J III
Textures of Igneous Rocks
I. Allotriomorphic (gabbro); II- Panidiomorphic (syenite); III - Hypidiomorphic (granite)
A = Augite F = Fe/spar; Fe = Iron Oxides; M = Mica

Fig. 01.3.


A
I II . III
Texture of Igneous Rocks
I - Porphyritic - (Note Felspar, F, crystals occurring in fine mass);
II - Poiklitic - (Note Felspar enclosing smaller crystals);
Ill - Ophitic texture - Augite encloses other small crystals.

Fig. 01.4.
Directive Textures

Those textures that indicate the result of flow of
magma during the formation of rocks are known as
directive textures. These exhibit perfect or semiperfect

parallelism of crystals or crystallites in the direction of
the flow of magma. Trachytic and Trachytoid textures
are common examples. The former is characteristic of certain

felspathic lavas and is recognised by a parallel arrangement
of felspar crystals; the latter is :(ound in some syenites. Textures of Igneous Rocks

Intergrowth Textures
Fig. 01.5.
During the formation of the igneous rocks, sometimes
two or more minerals may crystallize out
simultaneously in a limited space so that the resulting crystals are mixed up or intergrown. This
type of mutual arrangement is expressed by the term intergrowth texture.
Graphic and granophyric textures are examples of the intergrowth textures.
In graphic texture, the intergrowth is most conspicuous and regular between quartz and felspar
crystals. In granophyric textures the intergrowth is rather irregular.
Intergranular Textures
In certain igneous rocks crystals formed at earlier stages may get so arranged that polygonal or
trigonal spaces are left in between them. These spaces get filled subsequently during the process
of rock formation by crystalline or glassy masses of other minerals. The texture so produced is called
an intergranular texture. Sometimes the texture is specifically termed intersertal if the material
filling the spaces is glassy in nature.

01.5. STRUCTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

01.5.1. Definition
Those features of igneous rocks that are developed on a large scale in the body of an
extrusion or intrusion - giving rise to conspic"uous shap.es or forms are included under the term
structures. They may be so well developd as to be recognized easily on visual inspection or they
latter case they are termed microstructures.
01.5.2. Types
Various types of structures developed in igneous rocks can be broadly grouped under three headings :
(a) Structures due to Mobility of Magma or Lava : Magma or lava may be highly viscous,
viscous, mobile or highly mobile. The mobility of the magma (or lava) is responsible for a
variety of structures that the ultimate rock will acquire. Some of these are :
• The flow structures
• The pillow structures
• The ropy and blocky lava
• The spherulitic structure and
• The orbicular structures.
A. Pillow Structure B. Blocky lava C. Spherulitic Lava D. Orbicular Lava

Structures of Igneous Rocks
Fig. 01.6.
The Flow structures are defined by the development of parallel or nearly parallel layers or
bands or streaks in the body of an igneous rock. The parallelism is caused by the flow of magma
or lava during the process of crystallisation.
The Pillow Structure. This is characterized by the development of bulbous, overlapping, pillow
like surfaces in the body of igneous mass. It is typical stt.ucture of rocks formed from mobile
basaltic lava. In such a lava flow, its upper surface gets solidified while the lava beneath remains
hot and capable of flowing. But further flow is possible only when the crust formed at the top
ruptures. The rupture occurs at the margins of previously congealed oval mass; from such ruptures
lava flows out and cools down again forming fresh bulbous tops. The process is repeated producing
overlapping bulbous masses.
The Ropy and Blocky Lava. These are structural variations developed in the volcanic rocks
due to different mobility. Highly viscous "dry" lavas undergo very little movement after their
eruption and before cooling. Their surfaces show broken and fragmented appearance. These are
called the blocky lava. On the other hand, very mobile lava flows for considerable distance and
cooling during flow process so that its upper surface is smoothly wrinkled rather than actually
broken. The surface structure is then referred as ropy lava.
The Spherulitic Structure. It is distinguished by the presence of thin min'eral fibers of various
sizes arranged in perfect or semi perfect radial manner about a common centre. It is a common
structure of acid volcanic and hypabyssal rocks. The structure results during crystallization of saturated
lava or magma.
The Orbicular Structure. It is a rare type of structure of igneous rocks. In this, a rock mass
appears as if composed of ball like aggregations. Each ball is in turn composed of concentric shells
of different minerals. This structure is shown by some granites.
Structures due to cooling of magma. Many stt.ꞏuctures develop in igneous rocks on account of
environment in which their cooling and crystallisation take place from the original melt. The
following deserve special mention.


"'
or lava is very often accompanied by development

of cracks or joints in the rocks formed from these
sowꞏces. These joints sometimes follow definite
patterns. For instance, they may develop simply as
horizontal sets of joints, quite closely spaced and
dividing the rock into sheets. This type is called a
sheet structure. Similarly, there may be developed
three sets of joints mutually at right angles to one
(a)
another. The resulting rock mass gets divided into
Structures of Igneous Rocks Columnar Structure
cubical blocks and the structure is termed as mural
(a) Plan (b) in Section.
jointing. It is seen in granites. In basalts and many
other volcanic rocks, there are developed polygonal Fig. 01.7.
cracks, similar to those developing in mud while d!ying and shrinking. These cracks continue depth wise
for considerable thickness in the body of the rock dividing it virtua l ly into polygonal blocks or
columns. The structure so developed is often termed columnar structure. (Fig. 01.7)
Rift and Grain. These terms indicate two separate directions, often used by quarry men; in
which the igneous rocks like granite can be broken from the main rock body with a comparative
ease. The directions rift and grain, are at right angles to each other. The structure is thought to be
due to presence and proper orientation of very minute cracks in some minerals of the cooled rock.
Much importance is attached to the crystal stresses that were in operation at the time of formation
of the rock. It has been suggested that sheets of fluidal cavities are formed in quartz during
crystallization as the first step. The rift and grain cracks of weakness are then caused along these
fluidal cavities after the cooling provided the crystal stresses continue to operate.
Vesicular Structure. In many cases, lava is rich in gases at the time of eruption. The process
of cooling and crystallisation is generally accompanied by the escape of these gases. This (escape
of gases while cooling is going on) leads commonly to the formation of cavities of various sizes
and shapes in the cooled mass. These cavities may remain empty while the entire mass of the rock
is cooled down. The structure developed is then called, vesicular. In other cases, liquids may seep
into these cavities and cool down there forming secondary minerals of those specific shapes. These
are called amygdaloids and structure of the rock as amygdaloidal. Scoria is a volcanic rock rich
in such cavities, which are all empty making the rock very light. Many varieties of Panjal traps of
Kashmir Himalayas show amygdaloidal structure in abundance.
Miarolitic Structure. Sometimes small and distinct cavities are formed during the crystallization
of magma. These get filled with volatile components, which may enlarge them on the one hand and
facilitate formation of unusual (rare) minerals in them on the other hand. These cavities often
containing projecting crystals are called miarolitic cavities. When they are present in good abundance
in a rock, it is said to exhibit a miarolitic structure. Miarolitic cavities are distinguished from other
cavities (e.g. geode) by the absence of any distinct wall between the minerals of the cavities and the
rock in general.
(a) Miscellaneous Structures

The reaction and xenolithic structures may be mentioned under this category.
The Reaction structure is characterized by the presence in the rock of some incompletely
altered minerals conspicuously surrounded on their borders by their alteration products. It often
happens that some earlier formed minerals react with the magma during the subsequent stages of
crystallization . This reaction may be complete or incomplete. In the first case the original mineral

Ul:Si:tjJjJCi:tl"lS i:tllUgCUICL DUl WIICII lllC ICi:tl;liUII I:S llll;UllljJIClC,
it (the original mineral) is surrounded on sides with the
reaction product forming what is commonly called the
reaction rim.
The Xenolithic Structures are imposed on the igneous
rocks because of incorporation of foreign material (e.g. from
the host rock into which magma is intruded) into the magma
during the process of crystallisation. The foreign fragments Corona Structure : Olivine - (original
are termed xenoliths. These may arrange themselves in mineral) surrounded by actinolite, the
different patterns or they may get segregated in the reaction product
crystallizing materials.
Fig 01.8.

01.6. FORMS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
As already explained, igneous rocks are formed from cooling and crystallisation of an originally
hot molten natural material called magma (or lava when erupted from volcanoes). The cooled
igneous masses occur in nature in a variety of shapes or forms. As to what form an igneous mass
will acquire on cooling depends on a number of factors such as
/ (a) the structural disposition of the host rock (also called the country rock)
(b) the viscosity of the magma or lava
(c) the composition of the magma or lava
(d) the environment in which injection of magma or eruption of .lava takes place.
It is, h?wever, possible to divide the various forms of igneous intrusions into two broad classes :
concordant and discordant. This is based on the relationship of the igneous inuꞏusion with the
structure of the host rock.

01.6.1. Concordant Bodies
All those intrusions in which the magma has been injected and cooled along or parallel to the
structural planes of the host rocks are grouped as concordant bodies. The bedding planes in the
sedimentary formations and cleavage planes in metamorphic rocks define such planes where the
magma gets intruded and cools down without any attempt to cut across them. Most important
concordant forms are sills, phacoliths, lopoliths and laccoliths.
Sills
Those igneous intrusions that have been injected along or between the bedding planes or
sedimentary sequence are known as sills. It is typical of sills that their thickness is much small than
their width and length. Moreover, this body commonly thins out or tapers along its outer margins. The
upper and lower margins of sills commonly show a comparatively finer grain size than their interior
portions. This is explained by relatively faster cooling of magmatic injection at these positions.
------------------------------

A - Simple Sill B - Multiple Sill (S11 SJ C - Composite Sill (S1, S2)

D- Differentiated Sills E - Interformational Sills

Various Types of Sills (see text).

Fig. 01.9.
In length, sills may vary from a few centimeters to hundreds of meters. Minor and local projections
from big sills (and other concordant boclies) may rise above into the overlying strata. Such projections
of magmatic composition are known as apophyses (singular : apophyx) and these should not be considered
as an evidence against the concordant nature of the main intrusion. (Fig 01.9 (A-E))
Sills are commonly subdivided into following types :
(a) Simple Sills : formed of a single intrusion of magma;
(b) Multiple Sills : which consist of two or more injections, which are essentially of the same
kind of magma;
(c) Composite Sills : which result from two or more injections of different types of magma;
(d) Differentiated Sills : these are exceptionally large, sheet-like injections of magma in which
there has been segregation of minerals formed at various stages of crystallisation into
separate layers or zones.
(e) Interformational Sheets : the sheets of magma injected along or in between the planes
of unconformity in a sequence are specially termed as interformational sheets. These resem.ble
the sills in all other general details.
The most common rocks composing the sills are intermediate and basic igneous rocks like
syenites and gabbros. They may show aphinitic and porphyritic textures.
Phacoliths
These are concordant, small sized intrusives that occupy positions in the troughs and crests of
bends called folds. In outline, these bodies are doubly convex and appear crescents or half-moon
shaped in cross-section. As regards their origin, it is thought that when magma is injected into a
folded sequence of rocks, it passes to the crests and troughs almost passively i.e. without exerting
much pressure. (Fig. 01.10).

Phacoliths (Dark Shaded)

Fig. 01.10.
Lopoliths
Those igneous intrusions, which are associated with structural basins, that are sedimentary
beds inclined towards a common centre, are termed as lopoliths. They may form huge bodies of
consolidated magma, often many kilometers long and thousands of meters thick. It is believed that
in the origin of the lopoliths, the formation of structurcil basin and the injection of magma are
"contemporaneous", that is, broadly simultaneous.
same connotations.
Lopolith (Dark shaded) Laccoliths (Dark shaded)

Fig. 01.11. Fig. 01.01.
Laccoliths
These are concordant intrusions due to which the invaded strata have been arched up or deformed
into a dome. The igneous mass itself has a flat or concave base and a dome-shaped top.
Laccoliths are formed when the magma being injected is considerably viscous so that it is
unable to flow and spread for greater distances. Instead, it gets collected in the form of a heap about
. the orifice of eruption. As the magma is injected with sufficient pressure, it makes room for itself
by arching up the overlying strata.
Extreme types of laccoliths are called bysmaliths and in these the overlying strata get ultimately
fr ctured at the top of the dome because of continuous injections from below.
Laccoliths are further distinguished as asymmetrical when the roof rocks show different
inclinations in different directions and interformational when these are injected along unconformities.
They ru;e commonly intermediate (silica content is between 45-66%) in composition and show great
variation in texture.
01.6.2. Discordant Bodies

All those intrusive bodies that have been injected into the strata without being influenced by
their structural disposition (dip and strike) and thus traverse across or oblique to the bedding
planes etc. are grouped as discordant bodies.
Important types of discordant intrusions are dykes, volcanic necks and batholiths.
Dykes (Dikes)
These may be defined as columnar bodies of igneous rocks that cut across the bedding plane or
unconformities or cleavage planes and similar structures. Generally the dykes are formed by the intrusion
of magma into pre-existing fractures. It depends on the nature of magma and the character of the invaded
rock whether the walls of the fracture are pushed apart, that is, it is widened or not.
Dykes show great variations in their thickness, length, texture and composition. They may be only
few centimeters or many hundreds of meters thick. Similarly, in length they may be anything between
a few meters to many kilometers. In composition, dykes are generally made up of hypabyssal rocks like
dolerites, porphyries and lamprophyres, showing all textures between glassy and phaneritic types.
Dykes generally-tend to occur in groups or sets. Thus, the term, dyke-set is used for a couple
of parallel and closely spaced dykes. When the number of dykes occurring in a limited area is quite
large, the term dyke swarm is used to express them collectively.
It is customary to classify dykes (like sills) as simple dykes, multiple dykes, composite dykes
and differentiated dykes, the terms having the same significance as for sills.

A Simple B. Multiple C. Composite D. Ring dyke

Types of Dykes (See Text)

Fig. 01.13.
Cone sheets and Ring Dykes may be considered as the special types of dykes. The cone sheets
are defined as assemblages of dyke-like injections, which are generally inclined towards common
centres. Their outcrops are arcuate in outline and their inclination is generally between 30°-40°. The
outer sheets tend to dip more gently as compared to the inner ones (Fig. 01.13)
Ring Dykes are characterised by typicaJJy arcuate, closed and ring shaped outcrops. These may
be arranged in concentric series, each separated from the other by a screen of country rock. They
show a great variation in their diameter; their average diameter is around 7 kilometers. Few ring
dykes with diameters ranging upto 25 kms are also known.
Origin of dykes. It has been already mentioned that dykes are intrusions of magma into pre-
existing fractures present in the rocks of the crust. These original fractures are generally caused due
to tension. Their original width might have been much less than the present thickness of the dykes.
This indicates widening of the cracks under the hydrostatic pressure of magmatic injection. In case
where magmatic pressure happens to be less than the lithostatic pressure (that due to overlying
rocks), only the space made available by the original fractures is filled by the magma and determines
the dimensions of the dyke.

Volcanic Necks
In some cases vents of quiet volcanoes have become sealed with the intrusions. Such congealed
intrusions are termed volcanic necks or volcanic plugs. In outline these masses may be circular,
semicircular, or irregular and show considerable variation in their diameter. The country rock generally
shows an inwardly dipping contact (Fig. 01.14A).
Batholiths
These are huge bodies of igneous masses that show both concordant and discordant relations
with the country rock. Their dimensions vary considerably but it is generally agreed that to qualify as
a batholith the igneous mass should be greater than 100 square kilometers in area and its depth should
not be traceable. This is typical of batholiths : they show extensive downward enlargement (Fig. 01.14B).
The Costa Rica Batholith of British Columbia is at least 2000 km long and 40-90 Ian wide on
different sides. It is considered by many as the largest plutonic body in the world. The Idaho batholith
and the Sierra Nevada Batholith of California are some other examples of batholiths.
When the surface area of batholith-like igneous mass is less than 100 km, it is commonly termed
as stock. When such a stock has roughly circular outline (rather than irregular), it is further
distinguished as a boss. Minor projections of igneous masses from the roofs of batholiths, stocks and
bosses called apophyses are often observed passing into the overlying strata.
In composition, batholiths may be made of any type of igneous rock. They also exhibit many
types of textures and structures. But as a matter of observation , majority of batholiths shows
predominantly granitic composition, texture and structure.
:=:=:=:=:-_ + +++ _=-:=-:=-::-:=-:=-:=-:=-:=-:
------ + + ---------
+
"!i.+
2 3 4Km
A-Volcanic Neck B-Batholith
Some Other Igneous Bodies
Fig. 01.14.
Origin. Many views have been expressed regarding the emplacement of batholiths. The most
important theories are outlined below : ꞏ
(i) Emplacement by Cauldron Subsidence. According to this view, parts of country rock
within a vertical ring dyke may fall into the underlying magma reservoir. The space thus
created by the megasubsidence, the cauldron subsidence, as it is called, gets subsequently
filled with magma, which congeals to form batholiths, stocks and bosses.
(ii) Emplacement by Magmatic Stoping. This view, forwarded by DALY, envisages engulfment of
blocks at the roof of the magmatic reservoir. The roof blocks are first shattered due to
expansion because of heating from below and then start sinking into the reservoir of magma .
below under the influence of thermal expansion and magmatic penetration.
(iii) Granitization. It is held by many that huge granitic batholiths cannot be imagined to have
been formed by simple process of cooling and crystallisation frorp such a large pre-existing
magmatic reservoir. A new process called granitization has been suggested as the most
plaasible way to explain their formation.
Granitization may be broadly described as a set of processes by which already existing-'-
sedimentary and other rocks are changed into granite-like masses without actually passing through
a magmatic stage. The term envisages at least two fundamental conditions :
(a) The changes that convert the solid rocks into granitic bodies are essentially in-situ in character.
(b) The changes are brought about essentially in solid state.
01.6.3. Igneous Extrusions

Unlike the igneous intrusions, the igneous extrusions do not show much complexity in their
form. They generally occur as widely spread, extensive flows covering enormous area and the
existing topography. On cooling, these lava flows form solid sheets of rock. In many cases, the
sheets may occur as layers laid one above another. Often, there may be layers of other sedimentary
materials deposited during the volcanic intermissions, which are called intertrappean layers. The
total thickness of volcanic layers, piled one above another may reach many hundreds of meters. In
some cases, the different flows can be distinguished from one another by the presence of intertrappean
beds. In other cases, they may be completely welded together without any zone of separation being
visible between them.
The volcanic flow sheets may be horizontal or slightly inclined depending upon the original
topography and "subsequent geoiogical history of the area.
01.7. CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

The subject of classification of igneous rocks is perhaps one of the most thoroughly discussed
problems of petrology and yet without any universally accepted solution. At the same time, a few


different purposes. Among these, classification systems based on following three factors will only
be mentioned in outline :
(i) the chemical composition of the rock;
(ii) the mineralogical composition of the rock;
(iii) the textural characteristics of the rock.

01.7.1. Chemical Classification
Many attempts have been made to classify igneous rocks on the basis of their chemical
compositions. All such systems are founded on the assumption that the chemical composition of the
ultimate igneous rocks is definitely related to the original chemical composition of the magma.
The most commonly followed system of chemical classification is due to four American
petrologists Cross, Iddington, Pirsson and Washington, referred in abbreviated form as C.I.P.W
classification. In this classification, a standard set of minerals called norm is selected. Chemical
composition of a given rock is ultimately expressed in terms of these normative minerals. The
relative abundance of different groups of normative minerals is taken as a basis for dividing
the rocks into classes, subclasses and orders etc. The salient features of this classification are
summarized as below :
(a) The Norm. It is a set of standard minerals of calculated chemical composition. The norm
minerals are divided into two groups namely, salic and fernie minerals.
The salic minerals are : Quartz, felspars orthoclase, albite and anorthite; leucite; nephelite;
corundum; zircon and halite etc.
The fernie .minerals are : Acmite; diopside; hypetsthene; olivine; magnetite; chromite; hematite;
pyrite; rutile, etc,
(b) Nomenclature. In the C.I.P.W. classification, the igneous rocks are divided into five classes,
which have been named according to salic/femic mineral ratio. The convention is to use the prefixes per
and do to the normative group dominating in a given rock signifying domination of high or moderate
order respectively. No prefix is used when the two groups are equally represented. The five classes are:
.

TABLE 01.3 . I Class1'f1i cat'wn.

Che

S.No. Salic!femic ratio Class name

1 > 7.00 Persalic
2 7 - 1.66 Dosalic
3 1.66 - 0.60 Salfemic
4 0.60 - 0.14 Dofernie
5 < 0.14 Perfemmic
Subclasses, orders and sub orders are further distinguished on the basis of individual predominance
of different normative minerals.
(a) Calculations. These form the most important part of the classification programme and
involve frequent use of tables of molecular weights, percentage weight (of oxides) and molecular
values etc. The ultimate result (of defining a class etc.) is achieved in following steps :
(i) The rock is chemically analyzed and the data obtained is converted and expressed in
percentage terms of the respective oxides, (which is done by consulting tables).
(ii) The percentage weight of each of the oxide is divided by its molecular weight to obtain what
is called, molecular number of that oxide. For example, in a given rock, silica, Si02 is
1..-o'-JI !".....................'.-., .1.'"-U &I.&'U'.Il..............._......... && ....... .l..llU'.....&. 1'1' ........... l...,o'U'II.._,V - .&.o-.LO 0 -ꞏ--
'' ....................... _...._. ....._......_....._•• &LLV'& ......... -........._
number, some negligible oxides are either neglected or added to some other related oxides.
(iii) The molecular numbers and the various oxides are then arranged in an orderly manner.
(iv) 1 From the molecular numbers normative minerals are defined using set of rules and tables.
Further the percentage weights of these minerals as also their relative abundance and broad
salic/femic ratio is also established at this stage from which class of the rock is determined.
For instance if on .the basis of chemical analysis and above process, it is observed that in
a given rock, 70 % minerals are of salic group and 30% of fernie group, the ratio obtained
is 2.33 which places the rpck into Dosalic group.
Limitations. The chemical system of classification, as is obvious, is very elaborate and often
ss accurate. Rocks of identical chemical composition may be made up entirely or partly of
ifferent set of minerals. Moreover, the system does not reflect satisfactorily the cooling history of
e rock. Further most of the normative or so-called standard minerals are least important as rock
orming minerals. Still the system has its own importance.
01.7.2. Mineralogical Classification

The mineralogical composition of an igneous rock is actually an expression of the chemical
omposition of the parent magma and cooling history of the rock. This can also form, therefore, a
ound basis for classifying the igneous rocks. Moreover, the mineralogical composition of most of
he igneous rocks can be determined fairly accurately megascopically or at best by making thin
ections and studying them under microscope. Hence, mineralogical classification is regarded as an
asy and more accurate method.
It has been observed over wide areas that only a few minerals make bulk of igneous rocks. These
re called rock-forming minerals and are divided into two main classes : the Felsic minerals and the
1afic minerals :
1. The Felsic Minerals. These are generally light in colour and lower in density and include :
quartz, felspar group and felspathoid group of minerals;
2. The Mafic Minerals. These are dark in colour, comparatively heavier in density and contain
ferro-magnesian minerals such as amphiboles, pyroxenes, micas, olivine, oxides of iron etc.
The relative abundance of minerals of these groups is made the basis for defining the rock
ivisions, groups, and series.
It is a convention to broadly assess the sum of the coloured minerals in a rock and express it
percentage terms of total mineralogical composition, which gives the colour index of the
ineral. The three rock divisions recognised on the basis of colour index are given below.
TABLE 01.4. Rock Divisions on Colour Index.
S.No Rock Division Colour Index Examples
1. Leucocratic 1 - 30 Granite
2. Mesocratic 31 - 60 Gabbro
3. Melanocratic 61 - 100 Peridotite
Some authors (e.g. Shand) distinguish a special type of igneous rocks excessively rich in mafic
ninerals with a colour index above 90 as Hypermelanic.
Shand and others developed a method of classifying igneous rocks into three divisions on the
asis of predominant chemical composition as expressed by the relative abundance of the rock

recognized on this basis :
(a) Oversaturated (Acidic) Rocks in which silica percentage is greater than 66 and is indicated
by abundance of minerals of primary/pure silica composition as Quartz, Si02 .
(b) Saturated (Basic) Rocks; These are characterized by silica percentage between 45-66; free
silica lies between 0-10 percent. Sometimes the term Intermediate rocks is also used for
silica percentage between 52-66 per cent.
(c) Undersaturated (Uitrabasic) Rocks : These are silica-deficient igneous rocks, the silica
percentage being less than 45 per cent. The unsaturated minera,ls like leucite, nepheline,
sodalite, olivine etc. make these rocks.

01.7.3. Textural Classification
The property of texture is indicative of the conditions under which rocks have formed. It has
also been used for classifying rocks into three divisions.
(a) Phanerites. These are coarse-grained (average grain size greater that 5mm) in which all the
constituent minerals can be identified megascopically, that is, with unaided eyes.
(b) Aphanites. These igneous rocks are composed chiefly of fine-grained (grain size less than
1 m) constituents. Microscopic examination of thin sections of these rocks becomes essential
to determine their mineralogical composition. Sometimes an aphinitic rock may show a few
well-developed coarse crystals present as phenocrysts. It is then distinguished as porphyritic
aphanite.
(c) Glasses. Igneous rocks in which all the minerals are present in practically uncrystallised
form or glass due to very rapid cooling are grouped as glasses. These may be defined as
rocks of zero grain size. The material of the rock had no time to differentiate into individual
grains or crystals. Glasses are sometimes referred as supercooled liquids.
The textural classification is in a general way, a megascopic or field classification. It is difficul1
to further classify the rocks on the basis of texture.
Igneous rocks are also divided into three divisions on the basis of their mode of formation as
Plutonic, Volcanic and Hypabyssal rocks.
The plutonic rocks are formed from magma at greater depths under conditions very favourable
to formation of good crystals. Hence these are coarse to medium grained in texture. Granites and
syenites are common examples.
The volcanic rocks are formed from lava erupted at the surface under subarea! or subaqeous
(under water, as at ocean floors). They are generally fine grained in texture. Basalts are best examples.
The hypabyssal rocks are of intermediate type : ' formed neither at great depths nor on the
surface. These are formed at shallower depths, generally less than 2 km below the surface where
conditions of crystallisation favour porphyritic texture. Porphyries of various compositions are generally
hypabyssal in origin.

01.7.4. Tabular Classification
A field geologist and a civil engineer 9r mining engineer are concerned more with a practical
rather than theoretical classification system. For them a broad compromise between the most useful
and important systems of classification wou ld be most satisfyiryg. An attempt has been made in the
following table to present a tabular classification with above end in view.
TABLJ): 01.5. Tabular Classification of Igneous Rocks.
DOM. MIN. I II QUARTZ+ lll FELSPARS IV Felspars v l'l
-+ FELSPARS +
Quartz Ortho Plagio Alkali Soda Lime Felspatlwids Felspathoids Ferromagnen
Rock divisions clase close fel. do- -lime -soda Minerals
domi- domi- minant fel. do- fel. do-
nan/ IIOfl( minaflt mi11a11t

Vein Granite Tona Syenite Diorite Gabbro Nephe-
"a:i Felsic Quartz -lite & line
Anortho Syenite
c=
:;ꞏg,. Mefelsic
Site ljolite Peridotites
Thera lite
ꞏc ..c
c'
" 0. teschenite
..2 t1 Mafic Micro Micro Micro Micro Micro Picrites
!:l...
granite tonalite syenite diorite gabbro Pyroxenites

Granite Tona Syenite Diorite Gabbro Nepheline
Porph- -lite Porphy- Porphy- Porphy- syenite
yry Proph. ry ry ry . Porphyry
GRANO PHYRE rLAMPROPHYRES -+

I
r PITCH STONE-+
I TACHYLITE
I Limburgite
Rhyol- Dactie Trachy- Andt:Site Basalt Phonolite Leuctio Olivine

ire tc phyres Basalt

r PITCH STONES
I I
1
r OBSIDIAN -+
Silica
saturation OVERSATURATED .1. SATURATED J. UNSATURATED
(> 66%) (48-65%) (<48%)
The essential features of the tabular or field classification are as follows :

(a) The igneous rocks are first divided into three main subdivisions based on their mode of
formation as indicated by their textural and structural features : plutonic, hypabyssal and
volcanic.
(b) Textural divisions are then recognized in all the three subdivisions as follows :
Plutonic Rocks : Phanerites [P], Microphanerites [M]
Hypabyssal Rocks : Porphyries [PO]; Microporphyries [M] and Glasses fG]
Volcanic Rocks : Aphanites [A] and Glasses [G]
(c) Each class of the above rocks is then subdivided into rock subclasses according to the
relative abundance of following rock forming mineral assemblages
(i) quartz and felspars
(ii) felspars;
(iii) felspars and felspathoids
(iv) ferro-magnesian minerals.

particular type of a rock-forming mineral.
(e) The relative abundance of felsic and mafic minerals serves as a basis for broadly defining
the saturation of the rock with silica.

01.8. FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
It has been already mentioned that igneous rocks make up more than 90 per cent(by volume)
of the crust of the Earth up to a depth of 10 km. It is, therefore, desirable to have a working
knowledge about the processes thought to be involved in their formation. At least three major
questions have to be answered adequately to explain the formation of igneous rocks
(a) What is the source material of igneous rocks?
(b) What is the process or (or processes) involved in the formation of these rocks from the
source material?
(c) How great diversity in the nature of igneous rocks is to be explained?
A brief review of various possibilities (so far suggested) on the above questions leads to following
general conclusions.

01.8.1. The Source-Magma
All igneous rocks are formed from a hot molten material called magma when occurring below
the surface or lava when flowing out from volcanoes. As already said, no body has actually observed
the magma in its natural environment below the smface because of the great depths involved; even
then its existence is fairly established from two factors : first, the temperature gradient and second,
the volcanic eruptions. The temperature of the earth is established to increase with depth, on an
average, to the extent of 30 degree centigrade per kilometer. With such a rise, materials of the Earth
may be assumed to be in a molten form at certain depths. Similarly, millions of cubic meters of
lava have poured out from various volcanoes during the historic times. Many volcanoes are active
even at present. This lava comes from within the earth and there has to be some source for huge
outpouring. Hence, existence of magma at places below the surface of the Earth in magma chambers
can be safely accepted.
Composition of Magma. A study of chemical composition of igneous rocks reveals that
99.25 percent of an average igneous rock is made up of a few of nine elements only, namely,
oxygen, silicon, aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium and titanium. Naturally,
these elements should represent the chemical composition of an average magma also. It is,
however, held that quite a few volatile components escape from the magma prior to or during
the process of formation of rocks from the magma; and hence are not represented in the final
rocks. Thus, no final conclusion can be drawn regarding the exact chemical composition of the
magma.
As regards the physico-chemical constitution of the magma, it is believed that a few
constituents are always dominating in the molten state. Further, the magmatic constituents may
be divided into two groups :
The fixed constituents, which are characteristically refractory substances of higher melting
points and low vapour pressures; examples, molecules of silica, alumina, magnesia etc.
The volatile constituents or the fugitives are characterised by high vapoul'; pressure and
include gases and vapours like those of water, hydrogen sulphide, hydrofluoric acid, carbon dioxide,
sulphur dioxide, besides those of oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen.

1ne rrocess- rystamzanon
The principle involved in the formation of igneous rocks from magma or lava is that of
crystallization, which may be defined as formation of solid crystals in a cooling melt with the
change in its physico-chemical environment. Crystallisation always signifies a well-defined atomic
arrangement in the solid re.s:\llting from a cooling melt. The magma is assumed to pass through stages
of nucleation followed b},' growth of crystals around these nuclei. The process is quite complicated
and is controlled by a number of conditions. It results in the formation of minerals of different
composition that ultimately make up the cooled solid mass - the igneous rock.
Crystallization is invariably linked with cooling of magma, and therefore, it starts from the
outer margins of a magmatic body, which are to cool first. Crystallization centres are established
in the cooling mass at different locations; different molecules are attracted from the melt to the
nearby respective centres. Thus the crystals start growing and enlarging.
The grain size of the ultimate rock will be defined by following factors attending the process
of crystallisation :
(a) Rate of cooling. Slow cooling results in the formation of coarse-grained crystals with well
defined shapes and faces provided enough molecu]gg of that constituent are available. On
the contrary, more rapid the rate of cooling, finer is the size of the crystals. This is because
molecules of various constituents dispersed throughout a melt require sufficient time to
move towards their respective centres of crystallisation. When this time is not available, the
resulting crystals contain only fewer molecules and hence remain small in size. In glass, for
instance , cooling may take place at such a fast rate that virtually no time is available
for the molecules to develop centres of crystallisation or to move towards them. Hence
the resulting solid is practically without any crystallisation or atomic arrangement. It is
simply a supercooled liquid . .
(b) Molecular Concentration. Different c.onstituents in a magma may be present in varying
molecular concentration : some making 50% and others 30% and still others as small as
10% and 5% and so on of the melt. Other conditions remaining the same, the components
present in smaller concentrations may make smaller crystals.
(c) Viscosity of the Melt. Higher viscosity retards the rate of diffusion of molecules towards
the centres of crystallisation and thus growth of crystals in size is hindered. In highly
viscous magmas, greater number of small sized crystals may be formed compared with
mobile magmas that may contain only fewer crystals of bigger dimensions, other conditions
remaining the same.

01.8.3. Phenomena-Associated with CrystaUisation
During the process of crystallisation from magma, certain other phenomenona are believed to
play important role in defining the characters of the ultimate igneous rocks. A brief mention of some
of these will be quite useful.
(a) Eutectics. Certain components of magma may crystallise out simultaneously at a certain
stage during the process of crystallisation. It has been observed that this phenomenon takes
place only when those constituents are present in certain constant proportions at a certain
temperature. The constant proportion in which two or more constituents crystallise out
simultaneously from a melt is termed eutectic. A mineral formed as a part of eutectic
system is no longer concerned with the equilibrium of the process of crystallisation of the
rest of the melt. Its composition remains unchanged in the subsequent process.

-ꞏ---- --., ----- , ---- - ----- -- -- - ----r --- ----- -- ----o---- -- --------- ,-- -- --- - ------
-- intimately mixed up) in all proportions. This leads to a peculiar process of reactions.
Minerals
formed at one stage from the magma, if not removed from the melt immediately after their
formation by some natural process, react with the melt again and give rise to new minerals.
Such minerals are called mixed crystals and abound in igneous rocks.
(c) Reaction Series. In the mixed crystal system an earlier formed mineral reacts with the
melt and forms a new mineral. The two minerals so related in the process form a reaction
pair. A number of minerals may be related in this manner and when they are arranged in a
proper order, they form a reaction series. This series is actually based on experimental
studies performed by N.L. Bowen on crystallisation of artificially prepared silicate melts
broadly corresponding to basaltic magma. Although they represent crystallisation under
laboratory conditions only, they are considered to represent the order of crystallisation of
minerals in magmatic melts in a general way.
The Bowen's Reaction Series is further distinguished into two types :
Continuous Series. In this series, the atomic structure of the new minerals remains the same;
there is only minor change in the chemical composition of the minerals so formed which takes place
in a continuous manner. The best example of a continuous series is that of plagioclase felspars
which gradually change from calcic to sodium felspars.
Discontinuous Series. In this series, new minerals with different chemical composition and different
atomic structure are formed only at particular temperature. The Olivine_Biotite series is the example
established by Bowen. The Bowen Reaction Series is shown graphically below :

BOWEN'S REACTION SERIES

CONTINUOUS SERIES DISCONTINUOUS SERIES

The three minerals shown at the end of chart indicate the fact that from a melt these three
minerals will form towards the last stages of crystallisation and they do not ꞏꞏ.act with the remaining
melt, if any.

Differentiation-causes of Diversity
Igneous rocks are known to occur in great variety. This may be explained by assuming that
there exist as many types of magmas in nature as there are types of igneous rocks. This
assumption is outrightly rejected on theoretical as well as experimental observation. But the fact
of diversity in nature of igneous rocks has to be explained. Various possibilities have been suggested
in the past including about the number and nature of parent magmas. It is, however, generally
believed now that various types of igneous rocks have been formed from single parent magma,
called the primary magma. The primary magma is believed to be basaltic in composition. It is
further believed that the diversity of igneous rocks formed from the primary magma can be explained
by envisaging processes like differentiation and assimilation.
(a) Differentiation. It is the process by which an originally homogeneous and uniform magma
splits up into different types of igneous rocks. It is argued , that differentiation can take place before,
during or even after the crystallisation of minerals in a magmatic melt. All possibilities have been
suggested. I
Those who believe in differentiation prior to crystallisation assume it to have taken place due
to liquid immiscibility involving separation of liquid phases of contrasting composition in the
parent magma. Subsequent crystallisation in these immiscible layers results in the formation of
different rocks reflecting the composition of those layers. Though theoretically quite sound and
possible, it is argued by many others that thphenomenon of liquid immiscibility is insignificant
in causing differentiation on such a major scale as observed in igneous rocks.
Differentiation during crystallisation may be brought about by localization of the process of
crystallisation and by localized accumulation of crystals. In the first case, crystallisation starts only
at favourable locations, which can be cooling margins of a magmatic body. This involves the
diffusion of the particular molecules towards the crystallisation regions and corresponding deficiency
of the remaining melt in those molecules. Thus, minerals of early crystallisation will be differentiated
or separated from those of later crystallisation.
This process of fractional crystallisation involves a considerable amount of "molecular diffusion"
or convection currents. This type of diffusion is both possible and an effective process but whether it could
be held responsible for bringing out differentiation on a large scale is questioned by many.
Differentiation after crystallisation is possible in many ways. The following processes are
considered very important in this respect.
(i) Gravitational differentiation : This process involves the sinking or 'setting' of earlier
formed crystals under the influence of gravity. The process is controlled by factors like
specific gravity, shape and size of crystals on the one hand and viscosity of the melt on
the other hand. Heavier and uniformly shaped crystals sink easily and quickly in lighter
and less viscous melts.
(ii) Filtration differentiation : In this process, the solid phase (i.e. the crystals) is separated
from the liquid phase (i.e. the melt) through the operation of lateral stresses. This
process involves squeezing out of the liquid from the crystallizing melt and is known
as filter processing. The squeezed out liquid may be injected into rocks farther away
from the original source and crystallise there giving rise to new types of rocks.
(b) Assimilation : The process of incorporation of the foreign materials, generally from the host
rock, into the magmatic melts is termed as assimilation. This may lead to a change in the chemical
composition of the magma, which on cooling may give rise to different types of rocks. Thus, assimilation
is also thought as a process that can bring about the diversity in the character of igneous rocks.

.
importance in explaining diversity of igneous rocks because the capacity of most of the magmas to.
digest the foreign materials is generally limited, being, at the best, up to ten percent of their own mass.
Summarizing, it may be said that the origin of igneous rocks is a complicated question. These
rocks are thought to have been formed from a single parent or primary magma, basaltic in composition
and originally homogeneous and uniform in nature. From this parent basaltic magma diverse types
of igneous rocks are assumed to have evolved through the process of differentiation which might have
been brought out by one or more of the processes like liquid immiscibility, fractional crystallisation,
gravitational differentiation and filtration differentiation. Much imp01tance is attached to the role of
volatile constituents in the magma; their presence in reasonable concentration influences the crystallisation
process and differentiation to a great extent.

01.9. IMPORTANT IGNEOUS ROCKS
Important characters of a few of the most common igneous rocks are described in the following
pages for a ready reference. Engineering properties of these rocks have been dealt with separately
under the relevant chapters. For a detailed study of these and other igneous rocks, the reader may
refer to standard textbooks on igneous petrology.

Granites
Definition. Granites may be defined as plutonic light coloured igneous rocks. These are among
the most common igneous rocks. The word granite is derived from Latin word granum meaning a
grain and obviously refers to the equigranular texture of the rock.
Composition. Two most common and essential mineral constituents of granite are : Quartz
and Felspar. Quartz is always recognized by its glassy lustre, high hardness (H = 7), and cleavageless
transparent white appearance. Felspars making granites may be of two varieties : the potash felspars,
commonly orthoclase and the soda-bearing felspars like albite and oligoclase. Felspar microcline
may also be present in some granites.
Among the accessory minerals in granites, micas deserve first mention. Both varieties (muscovite
or white mica and biotite or black mica) are present in small proportions in most granites. Amphiboles
like hornblende and pyroxene like augite and hypersthene are also often present as accessory
minerals. Among other accessory minerals found in granites may be mentioned magnetite (oxide
of iron), apatite, garnet and tourmaline.
Texture. Granites are generally coarse to medium grained, holocrystalline (phaneric) and
equigranular rocks. Granitic, graphic, porphyritic and intergrowth textures are the most common
types of textures met with in granites of different varieties. As regards structures, granites occur in
large massive bodies, often as batholiths, stocks and bosses beside in usual intrusive bodies like sills
and dykes.
Types. Many types of granites are distinguished on the basis of relative abundance in them of
some particular accessory mineral. For instance, when white mica, muscovite is present as a
prominent accessory mineral, the granite may be distinguished as muscovite-granite. Similarly,
when it is the black mica or biotite, which is a prominent accessory mineral, the granite may be
called a biotite-granite. When both the biotite and muscovite are present in almost equal amounts
as accessory minerals, the type may be named as muscovite-biotite granite. Other common types
of granites distinguished on the same pattern are hornblende-granite, augite-granite, tourmaline-
granite, and so on. Sometime granite may also be named on the basis of its texture such as graphic
granite, porphyritic granite and so on.

Section 1 - Igneous-o---Rocks
- -- -- ---- --- ---
----- - ꞏꞏ- -- -J -- ---- -
They occur chiefly as deep-seated intrusive bodies like sills, bosses, stocks and bathol iths. Their
occurrence on the surface of the earth is attributed to prolonged weathering and erosion of the
overlying strata through historical times running over millions of years.
Megasacopic Identification. Granites may be identified in hand specimens by their :
(i) Light-coloured (leucocratic) appearance, such as grey, pink, brownish and yellowish. Some of
the shades may take brilliant polish to make it eminently suitable as a decorative building stone.
(ii) Coarse to medium-grained texture; fine-grained granites are rare specimens.
(iii) Abundance of quartz and felspar orthoclase as essential minerals.
Use. Granites find extensive use in architectural and massive construction where they are
found in abundance. These rocks have been used extensively in monuments and memorials, as
columns and steps and as flooring in buildings.
Origin. The origin of granites is a controversial problem in petrology. Many minor granitic
bodies occunꞏing as sills and similar masses are clearly of igneous plutonic origin. Their formation
from parent magma through the normal process of cooling and crystallisation is easily accepted. But
exceptionally large bodies like batholiths and stocks and bosses running over hundreds of square kilometers
close to or on the surface are not accepted by many as simple igneous intrusions mainly because of their
extenSive dimensions. These large granitic masses are believed by many to have been formed from pre-
existing rocks through the process of granitization, which is in-situ conversion of those rocks into masses
of granites without involving intrusion phase. This process has been already discussed.
Variations. As we pass from granites to diorites through granodiorites (refer to the Classification
Table), following variations appear in the composition of these rocks :
(i) the relative prqportion of quartz (Si02) falls gradually so that in diorites it is reduced to a
subordinate amount;
(ii) felspar orthoclase, which is a dominant mineral in granites, is reduced in relative amount
and replaced by felspar plagioclase in granodiorites. In diorites, it is felspar plagioclase that
makes the bulk of felspar constituent. A number of rock types get distinguished on the basis
of this variation. For example, adamellite is a variety of granodiorites that contains felspar
orthoclase and plagioclase in equal proportion.
Diorite
Definition. It is an intermediate type of igneous rock of plutonic origin with silica percentage
generally lying between 52-66 per cent.
Composition. Diorites are typically rich in felspar plagioclase of sodic group (e.g. Albite).
Besides plagioclase and alkali felspars, diorites also contain accessory minerals like hornblende,
biotite and some pyroxenes. Quartz is not common but may be present in some varieties that are
then specially named as quartz-diorites.
Texture. In texture, diorites show quite close resemblance to granites and other plutonic rocks.
They are coarse to medium grained and holocrystalline.
Occurrence. Diorites commonly occur as small intrusive bodies like dikes, sills, stocks and
other irregular intrusive masses. They also get formed at the margins of bigger igneous masses.
Hypabyssal and Volcanic equivalents. A glance at the Classification Table will show that
rocks named as aplites and granophyres are the hypabyssal equivalents and those named as
rhyolites are the volcanic equivalents of granites. There is not much difference in the chemical
and mineralogical composition of granites and their hypabyssal and volcanic ꞏequivalents; the
main difference lies in textural and structural forms necessitated due to mode of formation.

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is invariably fine-grained in texture. Volcanic equivalent of diorite is termed andesite that is also
quite abundant in occurrence.
Andesite
Definition. These are volcanic rocks in which plagioclase felspars (sodic and sub-calcic varieties
like albite, andesine and labradorite) are the predominant constituents making the potash felspar
only a subordinate member.
Composition. Besides plagioclase and potash felspars, andesites may contain small amount of
quartz as well as biotite, hornblende, augite, olivine and hypersthene from the dark minerals
giving them an overall grayish or darker appearance.
Occurrence. Andesites are known to be quite abundant volcanic rocks, next only to basalts and
may occur as crystallized lava flows of extensive dimensions. Petrologists are sharply dividedꞏover
the origin of andesites. Some believe them to be the products of normal crystallisation from a mafic
magma whereas others think that some andesites may be the products from mixed magmas or
magmas enriched with fragments from the wall rocks. The second view is supported by the presence
of some foreign materials in andesites.
Syenites
Definition. Syenites are defined as igneous, plutonic, even-grained rocks in which alkali-felspars
(including orthoclase and albite) are the chief constituent minerals. They may contain, besides these
essential constituents, dark minerals like biotite, hornblende, augite and some accessories.
Composition. As said above, syenites chiefly contain felsparsꞏ of which many types may occur
simultaneously in the same rock or in different varieties. The most common felspars of syenites are
orthoclase and albite; rnicrocline, oligoclase and anorthite are also present in them in subordinate
amounts. In some syenites, the felspathoids (nepheline, leucite) also make appearance.
Common accessory minerals occurring in syenites are apatite, zircon, and sphene. Quartz so
common in granites is altogether absent or is only a minor accessory in syenites.
Texture. Syenites show textures broadly similar to those of granites, that is, they are coarse to
medium-grained, holocrystalline in nature and exhibiting graphic, inter-grown or porphyritic
relationship among its constituents.
Types. A good number of types of syenites have been recognized on the basis of presence of
particular accessory minerals. Few well-known types of syenites are as follows :
(i) Nordmarkite. a syenite that contains some amount of quartz in them.
(ii) Monzonite. in which plagioclase felspars become almost equal to the potash felspars as
essential minerals.
(iii) Larvikite. it is also sometimes known as blue-granite; it is, however, actually a syenite
that contains felspar labradorite as a predominant constituent.
(iv) Nepheline (or Alkali) Syenites. These are a group of syenite rocks in which nepheline (a
typical felspathoid) becomes an important constituent. Quartz is typically absent in
nepheline syenites. Theralite is a special type of nepheline syenite containing felspar
labradorite. The syenite is known as teschenite if instead of nepheline, analcite is the
felspathic mineral. Theralites and teschenites are, of course, rare in occurrence.
The Alkali Syenites have attracted special attention of petrologists because of their extreme
variation in mode of occurrence and mineralogical composition. Divergent views have been xpressed
regarding their origin. A common association of nepheline syenites with normal syenites and limestones

that has been desilicified because of reactions with the associated limestone.
Volcanic Equivalents. Trachyte is the name given to the volcanic equivalent of syenite. This
rock is fine grained and shows trachytic texture. It contains alkali felspars as chief constituents.
Phonolite is volcanic equivalent of nepheline syenite. (Refer to classification table)

Gabbro
Definition. These are coarse-grained plutonic rocks of basic character. Plagioclase felspars of
lime-soda composition (e.g. labradorite and anorthite) are the chief constituents of gabbros. Besides
these, the mafic minerals like augite, hornblende, olivine, biotite and iron oxides are also common
as accessory minerals.
Texture. Gabbro shows variable texture; generally coarse to medium grained; reaction ri m
structure is seen in some gabbros.
Types. Following are some of common types of gabbroic rocks :
(i) Norite. Contains orthorhombic pyroxenes like hypersthene and enstatite in addition to
labradorite.
(ii) Gabbro (type rock). It contains monoclinic pyroxenes (e.g. augite) as the dominant mafic
mineral besides the typical felspars.
(iii) Anorthosite. It is a typical monomineralic rock (made up only of one mineral) containing
generally felspar labradorite.
(iv) Eucrite. It is a gabbroic rock in which felspar bytwonite or anorthite dominates. Pyroxenes
are also abundant in them.
(v) ꞏEssexite is characterized by the presence of some nepheline in addition to felspars and
olivine. Pyroxenes are absent.
(vi) Troctolite is that gabbroic rock which contains mainly felspars and olivine. Pyroxenes are
absent.
(vii) Dunite. This gabbroic rock is characterized with the typical absence of felspars and
dominance of olivine and pyroxenes.
Hypabyssal and Volcanic Equivalents; Dolerites and Basalts are typical hypabyssal and
volcanic equivalents respectively of gabbro type rocks.
Dolerites
Definition. These are igneous rocks of typically hypabyssal origin having formed as shallow
sills and dykes. They may be regarded as equivalents of gabbros of plutonic origin and basalts of
volcanic origin. The term diabase is also used for dolerite.
Composition. Doleiites are predominantly made up of calcic plagioclase (e.g. anorthite and
labradorite). Dark minerals like augite, olivine and iron oxide etc. are also present in good proportion
in dolerites along with the plagioclase minerals.
Texture. Dolelites are mostly medium to fine grained rocks. Ophitic and porphyritic textures
are quite common in many dolerites.
Occurrence. Sills and dykes of doleritic composition have been recorded at many places
associated with magmatic activity. In the Singhbhum region of south Bihar, India, many dolelitic
dykes traverse the Singhbhum granites.
Basalts
Definition. Basalts are volcanic igneous rocks formed by rapid cooling from lava flows from
volcanoes either over the surface or under water on oceanic floors. They are basic in character.

labradorite) and a number of ferro-magnesian minerals like augite, hornblende, hypersthene, olivine,
biotitand iron oxides etc. In fact many types of basalts are distinguished on the basis of the type
and proportion of ferro-magnesian minerals in them. Thus, for instance, Basanite is an olivine-rich
basalt and Tepherite is an olivine-free type basalt. The olivine-free basalts, that are quite abundant
in occurrence, are sometimes named collectively as Tholeiites.
Occurrence. As said above, basaltic rocks form extensive lava flows on the continents and
also on the oceanic floors in almost all the regions of the world. In India, the Deccan Traps,
which are of basaltic and related rocks, are spread over more than four hundred thousand square
kilometers in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and adjoining parts of Indian Peninsula.

Pegmatites
Definition. These are exceptionally coarse-grained igneous rocks formed from hydrothermal
solutions emanating from magmas that get cooled and crystallized in cavities and cracks around
magmatic intrusions. These rocks are searched for their containing big-sized ystals of minerals.
Some of these crystals may be gems and other precious minerals.
Composition. Pegmatites exhibit great variation in their mineral composition. The granite -
p"egmatites contain alkali felspars (like orthoclase and microcline) and quartz as the dominant
minerals. A variety of other minerals like tourmaline, micas (muscovite and biotite, lithium
mica), topaz, flluorite, spodumene, beryl, cassiterite, wolframite, columbite and tantalite
etc. occur in different pegmatites. Crystals of some minerals in exceptionally big sizes have
been found from pegmatites at many places. A beryl crystal weighing 18 tons and measuring
3 meters in length and 1.3 meters in diameter has been recovered from Maine mines in U.S.A.
Similar beryl crystals, weighing up to 20 tons have been recovered from Pegmatites in Rajasthan,
India.
Texture and Structure. Pegmatites do not show any special textures and structures except
that they are invariably coarse grained and mostly inequigranular. In many pegmatites, the so-
called complex pegmatites, a zonal structure is commonly observed. In such cases, different
minerals of pegmatite occur in different zones starting from the periphery and proceeding
I
towards the centre. In a five-zoned pegmatite, for instance, the outermost zone is made up of
muscovite and felspar, the second zone is of quartz and felspar, third zone of microcline and
fourth of quartz. The central zone is ploymineralic containing albite and spodumene besides
quartz and mica.
Origin. Petrologically, pegmatites of complex composition are known to occur. As such no single
mode of origin can be assigned to them. At present two modes of origin are broadly suggested.
First. Pegmatites have been formed from magmatic melts towards the end of the process
of crystallisation. The hydrothermal factions left behind at this stage are capable of taking
in solution all metallic and non-metallic components by virtue of their temperature, pressure
and chemical reactivity. Most of the granite- and syenite -pegmatites are believed to have been
formed through this mode.
Second. Pegmatites have formed due to replacement reactions between the hydrothermal
solutions and the country rock through which these liquids happen to pass. Hydrothermal liquids
at elevated temperatures are considered quite effective in replacing original minerals by new
minerals.
Occurrence. Pegmatites occur in a variety of forms as dykes, veins, lenses and patches of
irregular masses.

metals bestdes the tndustry grade muscovite mica.

Aplites

These are igneous rocks of plutonic origin but characterized with a fine-grained, essentially
equigranular, allotriomorphic texture.
Essential minerals of the apHtes are the same as that of granites, that is, felspars and quartz. They
commonly occur as dykes and are formed from magmas that have different gaseous content compared
to magmas from which granites are formed.

Lamprophyres

These form a group of igneous rocks that typically occur as dykes and sills. Their important
characters are :
Texture. Panidimorphic (in which most of crystals show perfect outline), fine grained and
holocrystalline.
Composition. Lamprophyres show a great variation in their mineralogical composition. Mostly
they are rich in ferro-magnesian silicates. Important minerals forming lamprophyres are : biotite,
a gite and other pyroxenes, hornblende and other amphiboles, felspars and olivine.
Types. Many types of lamprophyres are distinguished on the basis of the type of felspar and
the dark minerals occurring in them. Thus, Minette is a lamprophyre containing felspar orthoclase
and the black mica, biotite; Vogesite is another variety having felspar orthoclase and augite or
hornblende.

Peridotites
Definition. The term peridotite is commonly used to express the ultra-mafic igneous rocks that
are highly rich in a ferro-magnesian mineral OLIVINE, which has a composition of (Mg,Fe)Si0 4 .
The chief characteristics of peridotites are :
(i) Low silica index; such rocks invariably contain less than 45% silica.
(ii) High colour index; rich as they are in dark minerals, the colour index of peridotites is
always above 70, generally in the range of 90-100.
Texture. Peridotites are generally massive and coarse grained in texture.
Varieties. A number of types of peridotites are distinguished on the basis of the accessory
minerals, e.g. hornblende-peridotite, pyroxene-peridotite etc. Kimberlite is a peridotite in which
olivine is altered to serpentine.
Other rocks related to peridotites are Dunite, which is composed wholly of olivine, Pyroxenite,
containing wholly of pyroxenes, and Serpentinites and bronzitites etc.
It is important to note that peridotites have no volcanic equivalents.
Occurrence. Peridotites generally form sills and dykes of moderate size.
Origin. A number of modes of origin have been suggested for peridotites. Hess believes them
to be the products of primary peridotitic magma, a view that is very strongly objected by many
others. Another view holds them having been formed from a primary basic (basaltic) magma from
which oHvine and other mafic minerals were separated by some process. A third possibility suggested
regards the development of peridotite bodies simply as a result of hydrothermal (pneumatolytic)
transport of their material and its subsequent reaction with rocks of appropriate composition.

Many of igneous rocks, where available in abundance, are extensively used as materials for
construction. Granites, syenites and dolerites are characterized by very high crushing strengths
and hence can be easily trusted in most of construction works. Basalts and other dark coloured
igneous rocks, though equally strong, may not be used in residential building but find much use
as foundation and roadstones.
The igneous rocks are typically impervious, hard and strong and form very strong foundations
for most of civil engineering projects such as dams and reservoirs. They can be trusted as wall and
roof rocks in tunnels of all types unless traversed by joints. At the same time, because of their low
porosity, they cannot be expected to hold oil or groundwater reserves.
Some igneous rocks like peridotites and pegmatites are valuable as they may contain many
valuable minerals of much economic worth.
For further details for engineering properties of various igneous rocks, the reader is referred to
relevant chapters of this book.

Igneous Rocks: Formation and Classification

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Igneous Rocks: Formation and Classification

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Section 1 - Igneous Rocks

These are the igneous rocks formed on

TABLE 01.1. Average Chemical Composition of Igneous Rocks.

S.No Element Oxide(%) S.No Element Oxide(%)

(i) SiO 59.14 (vi) MgO 3.49

(i) Felspars 59.5 (v) Titanium 1.5

A. Holocrystalline B. Merocrystalline C. Holohyaline

A. Pillow Structure B. Blocky lava C. Spherulitic Lava D. Orbicular Lava

D- Differentiated Sills E - Interformational Sills

Phacoliths (Dark Shaded)

Lopolith (Dark shaded) Laccoliths (Dark shaded)

01.6.2. Discordant Bodies

A Simple B. Multiple C. Composite D. Ring dyke

01.6.3. Igneous Extrusions

01.7. CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

TABLE 01.3 . I Class1'f1i cat'wn.

S.No. Salic!femic ratio Class name

01.7.2. Mineralogical Classification

GRANO PHYRE rLAMPROPHYRES -+

Rhyol- Dactie Trachy- Andt:Site Basalt Phonolite Leuctio Olivine

The essential features of the tabular or field classification are as follows :

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