Dr.

Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023

Ain Shams University

GEOL 301
Structural Geology
For 3rd Level Geology – Chemistry Students

Instructor: Dr. Mohamed Yousef

Objectives of the Course

• Understanding the different types of secondary
deformation of rocks.
• Knowing the different types of secondary structures.
• Understanding the relationship between plate movements
and related deformation.
• Thinking in three dimensions.
• Knowing the effect of secondary structures on economic
mineral deposits, petroleum, and groundwater.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Course Assessment

• Final written exam – 90 marks

• Semester work – 15 marks
• Oral exam – 8 marks
• Final lab exam exam – 37 marks

Course Contents
• Introduction
• Sources of Structural Data
• Criteria for Determining Top and Bottom of Beds

• Displacement and Strain

• Force, Stress, and Strength

• Structures
• Joints
• Faults
• Folds
• Fault-Fold Interactions
• Fault-Bend Folds
• Fault-Propagation Folds
• Fault-Related Folding Created Through Stretching
• Salt-Related Structures
• Structural Inversion
• Foliation and Lineation

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Textbook

• Davis, G. H., Reynolds, S. J., and Kluth, C., 2012, Structural Geology of
Rocks and Regions, Hoboken, Wiley.

Introduction
Lecture 1

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Introduction

• Structural Geology is the study of the architecture and

geometry of the Earth’s crust and processes which causes its
deformation.
• Analysis of displacement and changes in shape of rock
bodies (strain).
• Reconstruction of the stress that produced strain.

Sources of structural data

• Direct Observations
• Wells
• Seismic Reflection Profiles

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Sources of structural data

Direct Observations
• Outcrop- and mine-based maps are constructed from
observations of the locations of contacts and the
attitudes of planes and lines.

Sources of structural data

Wells
• Wells provide subsurface information on the location of
formation boundaries and the attitude of planes.
• Measurements of this information are made by a
variety of techniques and recorded on well logs.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

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Sources of structural data

Seismic Reflection Profiles
• Many interpretations of subsurface structure are based
on seismic reflection profiles.
• Sound energy generated at or near the earth’s surface
is reflected by various layer boundaries in the
subsurface.
• The time at which the reflection returns to a recorder
at the surface is directly related to the depth of the
reflecting horizon and the velocity of sound between
the surface and the reflector.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

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Criteria for determining top and bottom

of beds
• Physical
• Paleontological
• Physical Criteria for Igneous Rocks

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Physical
Tracing of beds or recognition of a known normal sequence
• The top and bottom of vertical or steeply inclined beds may be
determined by correlating with a known normal (upright) sequence in
the area where these strata are either only gently folded or not at all
deformed.
Scouring or channeling
• Scouring or channeling of strata with subsequent filling of the
channels will truncate the underlying strata.
• The concave side of channels will generally point upward.
• The edges of beds truncated by erosion (unconformity) are towards
the original top.
Conglomerates
• Basal and intraformational conglomerates may contain pebbles and
boulders that can be recognized as having been derived from the beds
below.

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Physical
Solution surfaces
• Solution surfaces may form along the top of limestone beds or other relatively
soluble rocks.

Graded bedding
• In sediments with graded bedding, the texture will grade from coarse below to fine
above.
• This often does not hold true in current-bedded deposits.

Cross-bedding
• In cross-bedding one set of layers or laminae are truncated by overlying layers, but
away from this contact the layers sweep along a concave curve to a conformable
contact with the underlying layers.
• The concave side of cross-bedding generally points toward the original upper side.
• Individual cross-bedded laminae may show a downward gradation in texture from
coarse to fine.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

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Physical
Mud cracks
• Mud cracks generally decreases in width downward and may filled with
material which composes the overlying beds.

Ripple marks
• In symmetrical ripple marks the crests (tops) are sharper than the
troughs.

Sole marks
• Small, wave- or tongue-like penetrations of a coarse clastic material from
above into a finer clastic material below along minor surface irregularities
on a bedding plane.
• Some of these marks are explained by deformation or flow of
unconsolidated sediments by gravity-sliding along a primary incline of a
bedding plane and possibly triggered by earthquakes.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

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Paleontological
Bryozoa
• Shells of invertebrate organisms or other solid objects lying
with their long axes in the plane of stratification may be
encrusted by bryozoans on the upper side.
Brachiopods
• Crania-like brachiopods occur cemented on other shells or
on substrate with their convex, conical valve pointing
upward.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Paleontological
Pelecypods
• Shells of Schizothaerus (Tertiary) and Pholadomya (Mesozoic) are
commonly found in their original buried position standing on end with
their posterior (siphonal) end pointing upward.
• Rudists and rudist-like pelecypods are occasionally found in their original
upright position with the free valve at the top.
• Disjointed open valves of convex pelecypods are generally brought to rest
by wave action or by currents with their convex side up. Observations
based on a single shell or only a few shells are not completely realizable.
• Inequivalved pelecypods if buried alive will have their more convex valve
point downward.
• Shells of marine organisms or other solid objects on the substrate may be
encrusted on their free, upper surface with cemented forms such oysters
or other sessile organisms.
• Holes in a hard substrate produced by boring organisms generally open
upward.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Paleontological
Worm trails
• Worm trails generally leave grooves on the face of the bed.
Gastropods
• In worm-gastropods the final feeding tube generally points upward during
the life of the animal.
Corals
• Solitary corals cemented to the substrate are normally oriented with their
narrow end down, widening upward.
• Colonial corals may be preserved in their original position with their
calyxes pointing upward. Along the edges of coral reefs large heads of
corals may cling to the side and have their calyxes point downward.
Echinoids
• Sea urchins when found in large numbers are commonly oriented with flat
ventral (oral) side down and convex dorsal side up.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Physical criteria for igneous rocks

Lava flows
• Tops of interbedded lava flows are generally more
vesicular.
• In lavas which contain branching tubules the
direction of branching is toward the bottom and
the direction of junction is toward the original top
of the lava flow.
• A predictable contact metamorphism (brick-red
burned soil) may be present in the rocks below the
bottom of the lava flow, but no contact
metamorphism and a depositional contact will
mark the top of the lava flow.
Crests of wrinkles
• The crests or tops of wrinkles on the surfaces of
lava are generally smoother and more broadly
curved than the spaces between the wrinkles.

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Physical criteria for igneous rocks

Pillow lavas
• Upper surfaces of pillows are moderately or gently
convex and relatively smooth.
• Bottoms of pillows commonly have cusps pointing
down into the interspaces between the underlying
pillows.
• Pillows are generally more vesicular near the top
than near the bottom.
• Small-scale columnar jointing may be well
developed around the upper periphery and is
poorly developed or absent on the bottom side of
the pillow.
• Pillows extruded upon unconsolidated sediments
are likely to ruffle and crumple these underlying
sediments.
• The top of the pillow lava flow generally shows no
heat effect on the overlying sediments.

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Dr. Mohamed Yousef - Geology Department of 10/4/2023
Ain Shams University

Questions?

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