EGT 4202

ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY
- INTRODUCTION-
Hamzah Hussin
Geoscience Programme
Faculty of Earth Science
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
 Engineering geology is the application of the
geological sciences to engineering projects. It is
What is aimed at studying an area's geology to ensure that the
geological factors regarding the location, design,

Engineering construction, operation and maintenance of

engineering works are perfect for the project

Geology? implementation. It is also done during the post-

construction and forensic phases of the projects.

Engineering geologists provide geological and geotechnical

recommendations, analysis, and design associated with
human development and various structures.
Engineering Geologists
vs Geological Engineers
vs Geotechnical
Engineers ????
 Engineering Geology is a branch of
Geology that comes to use in Engineering
Engineering activity. For example, in
designing/ planning in cities,
Geology
building high rises, constructing
bridges, and preparing for complex
buildings or apartments, people call
an Engineering Geologist
 Engineering
geology is the Site appraisal and investigation
application of Foundation and excavation
geological design
concepts to Slope stability and subsidence
problems in civil
engineering Slope stability and subsidence

16
Importance Of Ground condition Construction Design
Engineering To recognise potential difficult
ground conditions prior to
To establish design specifications

Geology To In detailed design and

construction

Civil Engineering Site Selection

Practices
Hazard
It helps to identify areas
susceptible to failure due to
geological hazards
To have the best selection of
sites for engineering purposes
Material Selection
To have the best selection of
engineering materials for
construction
Geology provides a way of thinking about

The types of material present

How they are arranged in 3D

What are their properties

What processes have operated in the past or at

the present day
What do
Engineering
Geologist need to
know?
Basic The basic knowledge
required for an engineering
knowledge geologist include

required for
The structure of earth and its composition
Weathering of rocks : scale of weathering
Landforms and processes associated with

Engineering river, wind, groundwater and sea relevance

to civil engineering.

Geology
Plate tectonics : Earthquakes; Seismic zones.
Physical properties of minerals.
 Geological
Classification of structures
Basic knowledge rocks The attitude of beds, the study
of structures: folds, faults,
The distinction between unconformities, and joints:
required for Igneous, Sedimentary and relevance to civil engineering
Metamorphic rocks
Engineering Geophysical
methods
Geology Engineering Seismic, gravity, GPR and
properties of electrical methods for
subsurface investigations
rocks
Description, occurrence,
engineering properties of rock,
Remote Sensing
distribution and uses of the rock Remote sensingfor civil
engineeringapplications
Role of
Engineering
Geologist
 “A site investigation to provide data for
Geology in design should be basically an exercise
in engineering geology, for if at the very
Ground start the geological structure of the site
is misinterpreted, then any subsequent
Investigation sampling, testing and calculation may
be so much labour in vain.”
Rudolph Glossop, 8th Rankine Lecture (1968)

 Groud
Phase 1 Investigation
Desk study and walk-over
Maps
Aerial photos
Phase 2
Old records Surface and subsurface investigation
Site visits
Geophysics
Boreholes, trial pits
Phase 3
Field Mapping Design and Calculation
Sample collection and testing
 Infrastructure Development
Slope and Slope Failure

Detailed mapping of cut slopes

along an existing highway has
become a routine work for the
engineering geologist involved in
the assessment of cut slope stability
and in post-failure investigations for
remedial works.
 Infrastructure Development
Dam

Require structural
integrity against both
leakage and deformation
 Infrastructure Development
Tunnel and Cavern
Require stability of the
opening against a
variety of failure modes
Need to be watertight
The method of
excavation must be
considered from a
geological viewpoint
 Coastal protection
Coastal protection is a natural sequel to coastal erosion
It involves an understanding of both geological deposits and
the present day wind/wave/tidal regime

Environmental
Protection Waste disposal / Landfill
The selection and operation of waste disposal sites require
knowledge of the geological security of the site and of any
possible changes over the lifetime of the waste.
Mistakes can
cost lives


THE END
EGE4252 ENGINEERING
GEOLOGY

ROCK MATERIAL
AND ROCK MASS

Hamzah Hussin, PhD

Geoscience Department
Faculty of Earth Science
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
THE NATURE OF ROCKS
 ROCK MATERIAL
Definitions
. A rock is a mixture of minerals.
Most rocks contain fewer than three or four principal
minerals.
A given rock has a defined compositional range of in
terms of these minerals
 MINERALS
Definitions
A mineral is a naturally occurring, chemical compound,
often crystalline
Most minerals have a defined range of compositions in
terms of their cations
A given mineral usually has a defined
crystal structure as well as composition.
 ROCKS MATERIAL
Rocks are formed by three processes
– Melting of existing material. This creates IGNEOUS rocks
– Heating of existing material without melting. This creates
METAMORPHIC rocks
– Erosion and deposition of particles from existing material.
This creates SEDIMENTS and SEDIMENTARY rocks
 Rock Types
Rocks may be divided into 3 major
genetic groups;
– Igneuos (e.g. granite, granodiorite,
gabbro, syenite, basalt, pumice,
obsidian, dunite, etc.)
– Sedimentary (e.g. sandstone,
conglomerate, breccia, limestone,
mudstone, siltstone, etc.)
– Metamorphic (e.g. gneiss, schist,
phyllite, slate, marble, quartzite, etc.)
Rocks are identified based on their
mineralogical composition, grain size
and texture and structure.
Rocks are described based on the
following order:
– Rock Name (often accurately
determined by Petrographic studies)
– Rock Material Poperties (Colour,
Texture, Grain Size, State of weathering
or alteration, Strength), and
– Rock Mass Properties (Structure,
discontinuities, Weathering Profile)
PLUTONIC IGNEOUS ROCKS
Plutonic igenous rocks originate from the
crystallization of large intrusions of magma at depth
(plutons) or from tabular sheet-like bodies of magma
within faults or fissures at more shallow depth (dykes
and sills).
Although dykes and sills are also plutonic, they are
generally smaller scale and intruded along fractures
and plane of weakness in the existing host rocks.
In Malaysia, the intruding magma was generally
acidic (i.e. dominated by felsic minerals such as
feldspar and quartz). The plutons cooled slowly,
allowing the formation of distinctive interlocking
crystal aggregates which generally result in ‘very
strong’ rocks in the fresh state.
The Civil Engineer regards rock as an available material whose
properties (and their variability) needs to be measured and
understood.
The Geologist regards rock as a product of earth history that
needs to be interpreted.
Thus their approaches to rock description and identification will
differ.
Geologists have developed a detailed classification of rocks based on
their genesis.
Unfortunately, many of these names are both unfamiliar and
unintelligible to the non-expert.
Geological classifications are unsuitable for general civil
engineering use:
– they are often unfamiliar
– they can be difficult to apply in the field
– they emphasise rock material whereas engineering behaviour is
usually controlled by the rock mass and state of weathering
For these reasons a separate engineering classification has been
developed based on rock groups and engineering condition.
The rock groups are related to the geological classification but
omit secondary details and concentrate on field character of the
rock.
Engineering condition is a broad concept based on fracturing in
the rock mass and the extent of weathering of the rock material.
It is, however, still necessary to have some knowledge of
the geological classification in order to use geological
maps and reports.
 ROCK MATERIAL SAMPLING
using percussion drilling or core drilling
Preparation - IS 9179-1979
Expensive
Borelog: Borehole no:, location, orientation
of borehole, drilling technique, drilling
progress, flush returns, standing water
level
State of recovery important to be noted
Labelled in core boxes: with site name, BH
no: , contract details, labels on lid and
sample
Rock core recovery noted
LAB TESTS FOR MECHANICAL PROPERTIES

Triaxial Test
Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS)
Ring Shear Test Lab
Split Tensile Test/ Brazilian Test
Point Load Test
Tests for shear strength
General Strength Tests
Field
Tests for deformability
Tests for internal stresses
 Rock Material vs Rock Mass
In general terms, the mass characteristics of rocks and soils are
controlled by the following engineering geological factors:
– Intact material properties, Rock mass
– Geological structures, notably discontinuities,
– Grade of weathering,
– Groundwater (within pores & discontinuities)
– Geological history

Rock material or intact rock

 ROCK MASS
A rock mass is a material quite different from other
structural materials used in civil engineering. It is
heterogeneous and quite often discontinuous, but is one
of the materials in the earth's crust, which is most used in
man's construction.
Ideally, a rock mass is composed of a system of rock
blocks and fragments separated by discontinuities forming
a material in which all elements behave in mutual
dependence as a unit
 Rock Mass Characteristics
The mass characteristics of plutonic rocks are largely dependent on the
nature, persistence and density of discontinuities and the degree of
weathering.

Slightly weathered, less Slightly weathered, Moderately weathered,

jointed granite intensely jointed granite sheared and altered, granite
 Rock Mass Characteristics
Discontinuities
Discontinuities allow inelastic deformation of the rock mass and can reduce mass strength
by more than an order of magnitude, depending on confining stress (Hoek, 2004).
The following discontinuity types are especially pertinent to plutonic rocks:
– Cooling joints
– Tectonic joints, faults, shears, foliation, etc.
– Stress-relief joints
In addition to their effect on the rock mass, these joints can result in variable and steeply
sloping rockhead and allow weathering below general rockhead.
Variable and steeply sloping rockhead can be problematic for piling, and weathering below
rockhead can be problematic for tunnelling.
Unfavourably oriented discontinuities with respect to the slope cutting orientation
may results in rock slope failures/instabilities.
Weathering in Sedimentary Rock Masses

Note how profound is the influence of structural discontinuities on the development of the
weathering profile over the bedded sedimentary rock. Crocker Formation, Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah
The main variables influencing rock properties and behavior
 ROCK MASS CLASIFICATION
▪ Developed for estimation of tunnel support
▪ Used at project feasibility and preliminary design stages
▪ Simple check lists or detailed schemes
▪ Used to develop a picture of the rock mass and its variability
▪ Used to provide initial empirical estimates of tunnel support requirements
▪ Are practical engineering tools which force the user to examine the
properties of the rock mass
▪ Do Not replace detailed design methods
▪ Project specific
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION
Systems for tunneling: Quantitative
– Rock Mass Rating (RMR)
– Q-system
– Mining rock mass rating (MRMR)
Other systems: Qualitative
– New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM)
– Size Strength classification
Systems for slope engineering
– Slope Mass Rating (SMR)
– Rock mass classification system for rock slopes
– Slope Stability Probability Classification (SSPC)
 ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION
Identify the most significant parameters influencing the behavior
of a rock mass.
Divide a particular rock mass formulation into groups of similar
behavior – rock mass classes of varying quality.
Provide a basis of understanding the characteristics of each rock
mass class
Relate the experience of rock conditions at one site to the
conditions and experience encountered at others
Derive quantitative data and guidelines for engineering design
Provide common basis for communication between engineers and
geologists
 THANK YOU
For your attention……

“Examining the array of useful knowledge which has filtered into my

own system and crystallized into sound judgement, I find that it
contains one ounce of geology for every pound of theory of structures
and soil mechanics. The one ounce of geology is as essential as the yeast
in the process of fermentation…”
Karl Terzaghi (1957) - The Father of Soil Mechanics.
ROCK AND ITS
ASSOCIATION IN
ENGINEERING

Dr Hamzah Hussin
Geoscience Programme
Faculty of Earth Science
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
2
• Typically fresh granite, Grade I, is very strong to
extremely strong, with uniaxial compressive
strength (UCS) about 200 MPa.
• Grade II granite, slightly decomposed, is very
strong, with UCS about 100 to 150 MPa.
• Grade III granite, moderately decomposed, is
moderately weak to strong, with UCS about 10 to
80 MPa.
• Grade IV granite is weak when it is intact but is
classify ed as a soil when highly fractured and
composed of loosely interlocking fragments.
• However, within these decomposition grades wide
variations in strength occur due to the gradational
nature of rock decomposition and variability in the
degree of microfracturing.
• In general terms, engineering geological considerations largely relate to:
• Nature of plutonic rock formation: relatively little post-formation deformation results in relatively
uniform material characteristics over large areas and interpolation of drillhole information can
generally be made with a reasonable degree of confidence.
• Weathering: this is the dominant process which controls the engineering characteristics of
plutonic rocks. It is initiated at the surface and penetrates the rock via discontinuities. In the
unweathered state, plutonic rocks are very strong to extremely strong and the mass
characteristics are controlled by discontinuities.
• Discontinuities: faults, shears, tectonic joints and stress-relief joints weaken the rock mass and
promote irregular weathering where groundwater penetration has occurred.

4
• The key geological factors that may have an adverse influence on the engineering
properties of igneous plutonic rocks include:
• Contact margin and cooling effects
• heterogeneous and variable material properties (along irregular contact surfaces)
• local variations in material strength
• additional discontinuities, i.e. cooling joints
• Material weathering effects
• variations in material weathering effects (depth/ rate of chemical weathering and resulting soil
properties vary according to mineralogy)
• disintegration (variations in material strength for same weathering grade)
• Mass weathering effects
• stress-relief joint development (potentially affecting slope stability)
• development of corestones, coreslabs and irregular weathering below rockhead (prevalent in coarse-
grained rocks, potentially affecting foundations and tunnelling operations)
• Tectonic deformation
• Type of geological structures, notably structural discontinuities that developed in the rock mass; e.g.
faults, shear zones, joints, fractures, fissures, foliation, etc.
5
A. In the fresh state all plutonic rocks are competent, but as weathering increases, differences in material
properties become more apparent.
B. The development of fractures by mechanical disintegration can also reduce the strength of the material
C. Mass weathering is largely controlled by the discontinuity characteristics. Weathering along joints leads to
an irregular rockhead profile.
D. Plutonic rocks (especially granite) can develop extensive low-angle, undulating stress-relief joints which may
be dilated and clay infilled, very unfavorable for cut slopes
E. Weathering along sub-horizontal joints can result in seams of decomposed rock below the general rockhead
and in the formation of core slabs.
F. Weathering on three or more joint sets can result in corestones within the saprolite (soil) matrix and in tors
where the saprolite has been eroded.
G. Core stones are more common in coarser grained and more widely jointed plutonic rocks.

ADD A FOOTER 6
A) In the fresh state all plutonic rocks
are competent, but as weathering
increases, differences in material
properties become more apparent.

Fresh biotite granite at Mont Kiara

B) The development of fractures by
mechanical disintegration can also
reduce the strength of the material

EKVE Slope Bukit Lanjan rock slope

C) Mass weathering is largely controlled by
the discontinuity characteristics.
Weathering along joints leads to an
irregular rockhead profile.

Sharp contact between soil-rock

boundary, Pos Selim road.
Zone of highly
weathered granite,
showing at EKVE
Highway
D) Plutonic rocks (especially granite) can
develop extensive low-angle, undulating
stress-relief joints which may be dilated and
clay infilled.

Low angle stress relief (exfoliation/sheet) joints in

granite rock slope (Bukit Lanjan).
Construction of new development, apparently
without due consideration on the rock slope safety.
E Weathering along sub-horizontal joints can result in
seams of decomposed rock below the general
rockhead and in the formation of core slabs.

Weathering along sub-horizontal joint,

Sg Perting Dam Site, Bentong, Pahang
F) Weathering on three or more joint sets can
result in core stones within the saprolite
matrix and in tors where the saprolite has
been eroded.

Spheroidal weathering
in jointed granite, often
resulted in well
rounded corestone
boulders.
G) Corestones are more common in coarser
grained and more widely jointed plutonic rocks.

Bukit Sg Putih, Cheras

Pos Selim-Cameron Highland Road

14
 The key engineering geological factors that influence
the properties of the clastic sedimentary rocks include:

i. Variations in rock material strength and durability,

which are largely dependent on:
▪ composition and properties of the constituent grains.
▪ degree of diagenesis (e.g. compaction, cementation,
leaching).
ii. Sedimentary structures (e.g. bedding) may affect
rock mass properties by:
▪ introducing planes of weakness.
▪ acting as hydrogeological conduits or barriers.
iii. Potential vertical and lateral variability in material
and mass characteristics over short distances.

ADD A FOOTER 15
• Bedding planes are primary sedimentary structures
reflecting changes in the depositional environment.
Therefore adjacent beds may comprise materials of
significantly different composition, grain size and
cementing properties, which in turn leads to
heterogeneity in the engineering geological
properties. These beds can vary greatly in thickness
both laterally and vertically.
• The wide range of geological age of the sedimentary
rocks, also influences the engineering geological
properties as the older rocks have a higher likelihood
of being affected by regional tectonic activities.

16
Bedding structures may be folded
or tilted. Where such structures
are adversely orientated with
respect to an engineering
structure, stability and/or
groundwater issues may arise.

17
• Given the inherent variability of the
environments of deposition,
extrapolation of individual units
between outcrops or drillholes
requires knowledge of sedimentary
environments to reflect adequately the
possible range of engineering
geological properties.

Folded strata
being mistaken
for inclined
strata.
Disintegration (ravelling) of
shales once they are
exposed subaerially and
subjected to weathering
effects
ADD A FOOTER 20
 The key engineering geological consideration for limestone is that it weathers by dissolution.
Dissolution erodes the marble on surfaces in contact with moving water, often leading to
highly irregular rockhead profiles and cavities within the rock, i.e. ‘karst’.

Dissolution features which developed along the Sea notch around a limetone island that marked the
fractures/joints in the limestone. Pulau Anak recent sea level – a common features on limestone
Tikus, Langkawi. islands in Langkawi.
• Factors which affect the extent and degree of dissolution
include:
• purity of the limestone,
• extent and thickness of the limestone beds,
• frequency, orientation and number of discontinuity
sets,
• rate and duration of flow of groundwater containing
carbon dioxide over geological time, and
• size of the original limestone clasts and
permeability of the matrix where the limestone is
contained within other rock types.
• Establishment of sound geological models and the
characterization of the state and pattern of dissolution
within a site are key to understanding the potential
geotechnical constraints.
22
23
• A key engineering geological effect of dynamic metamorphism is the development
of foliation.
• When foliation coincides with an unfavorable slope aspect and angle, instability
can result.
• Unfavorable intersection of
foliation (cleavage) with joints and
other types of discontinuities, with
respect to the slope orientation
may give rise to slope failures.

Typical example of natural

toppling failure in pyhllitic
mudstone at Pulau Ular,
Langkawi, eventhough the
foliation plane is dipping into the
slope.
26
• In engineering terms, superficial deposits are soils. The strength of
superficial deposits varies from very soft to very stiff, and their consistency
from very loose to very dense. Weakly cemented deposits also occur.
• The geotechnical properties of superficial deposits, e.g. shear strength,
permeability, compressibility and susceptibility to internal erosion, depend
on factors such as particle size distribution, clast composition and stress
history, all of which can vary significantly both laterally and vertically within
a particular superficial unit.
• The way in which these factors vary is related to the processes operating
during their deposition and their subsequent geological history.
• Understanding these processes is a pre-requisite to formulating the
geological and ground models that provide the basis for predicting
engineering behavior.
• Caution should be exercised when using the published geological maps and memoirs for
engineering purposes because they have been compiled on the basis of stratigraphy rather than
properties of materials.
• Superficial deposits are only shown on the 1:20,000- scale geological maps if they were estimated
to be >2m thick.
• Superficial deposits in Malaysia can be broadly grouped into terrestrial and marine based on their
depositional environments.
• However, the engineering geological characteristics and geotechnical properties are more
conveniently discussed under three categories, namely:
o Terrestrial deposits (colluvium and alluvium), and
o Coastal Alluvium (marine clay deposits).
• At many sites, the main geotechnical issue is often the prediction of spatial variability based on
relatively few ground investigation data and engineering geological interpretation, rather than
determination of the geotechnical properties of a few soil samples based on laboratory testing. 28
• Terrestrial deposits, are mostly brownish in color, indicative of oxidation in a generally well-
drained subaerial or fluvial depositional environment.
• Lacustrine deposits, organic-rich deposits and strata that have been waterlogged for long
periods in oxygen-poor conditions are usually greyish in color. Where oxygen levels in the soil
have fluctuated over long periods of time, brown and grey mottling may occur.
• The variety of grain size, sedimentary structures and morphology of the sedimentary units
reflects the very wide range of energy and modes of sediment transport and deposition.
• Patterns of sediment erosion, transport and deposition are dominated by gravity in the mass
wasting products on the hillslopes, by fast flowing, intermittent streams further down slope,
and by meandering fluvial networks and occasional shallow lakes in the flatter-lying more
distant terrain.
• Re-erosion of sedimentary deposits adds to the complexity of the resulting accumulations.
• However, a more general term such as ‘colluvium’ is preferred for non-talus deposits because
the term ‘debris flow deposit’ implies a specific origin, and most colluvium will have a variety
of origins, from soil creep through to landsliding.
29
The engineering geological
characteristics of colluvium depend on
numerous factors. Primary controls
include:
▪ the rock type, structure and
degree of weathering of source
material,
▪ the processes of transportation
and deposition,
▪ the age of the deposit and
weathering history, and
▪ subsequent modifying factors
such as groundwater conditions.
Colluvium deposits overlying weathered mudstone-sandstone bedrock.
• Colluvium is commonly a heterogeneous material
consisting of rock fragments (ranging in size from
several millimeters to a meter or so) supported within a
sandy, clayey, silty matrix. Some generalizations are
possible :
• the larger boulders found in colluvium are generally
derived from coarse grained bedrock because of its
widely-spaced joints,
• granitic colluvium is generally thicker than volcanic
colluvium,
• older colluvium tends to have been eroded from drainage
lines and is therefore now more likely to be found on
interfluves, and
• older colluvium tends to be stiffer or denser and displays
more weathering of the clasts.
Slope cut in colluvium….
THANK YOU!

34
 EGT 4202
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Dr Hamzah Hussin
Geoscience Programme
Faculty of Earth Science
Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
 DISCONTINUITY SURVEY
 “Discontinuity” – mechanical break within a rock mass
which causes the tensile strength across the plane to be
lower than that of the rock material.
 Examples: joints, fissures, faults, fractures, shear
planes, cleavages, foliations and bedding.
 Objective of survey – to determine orientation, nature
and other physical properties (e.g. spacing, persistency,
surface roughness, wall strength, infilling materials,
seepage, number of sets) and block size and shape.
 Discontinuities

 Foliation

Bedding Plane & Joints

Fault & bedding plane

 Major fault

Shear Zone
Bedding; Faults (thrust); Joints; Foliation
Discontinuities Vs Relict Discontinuities
 Relict Discontinuities

Relict structures (faults and bedding) in completely

weathered rocks (“engineering soils”).
Relict Discontinuities
 Relict Discontinuities

Traces of faults and bedding planes are still visible in the slope
cut in CW rocks (soil)
Geologic Mapping of Rock Mass Features

1. Rock type
2. Discontinuities
a) No. of sets
b) Type of discontinuity
c) Orientation
d) Spacing
e) Persistency
f) Wall strength
g) Aperture
h) Infilling materials
i) Surface roughness
j) Water/Seepage
3. Block shape & size
4. Weathering grade
 Discontinuity Survey
 Discontinuity Survey is generally conducted on rock
slope cuttings, and it is also highly recommended to be
applied on cut slopes in HW-CW rocks (or “engineering
soils”).
 Results of the survey can be used to determine the RQD,
Rock Mass Classification and Kinematic Stability
Analyses.
 Method of survey is dealt with in ISRM (1977) and Brown
(1981). Its application on some selected Malaysian slopes
are given by Ibrahim Komoo et al (1985) and Tajul Anuar
Jamaluddin (1991)
Discontinuity Survey using a scan-line method
Discontinuity Survey – Random Mapping
 Discontinuity Survey
 It is often useful to divide the slope face into several
sections or domains prior to conducting discontinuity
survey.
 This can be done by considering the following factors:
– Lithologic boundary
– Structural styles
– Distribution and pattern of discontinuities
– Weathering profile
– Age of rock formation, and/or
– Combination of the above factors
 Data from each slope domains shall be analysed
saperately.
Presentation of Discontinuity Data

A rose-diagram

 2-D data, gives only orientation (strike or dip direction) of the

discontinuity planes.
 Useful in identification of discontinuity sets.
Presentation of Discontinuity Data
Stereographic Plots

Pole Plot

Contour Plot
Major Plane Plot
Discontinuity & RQD
 RQD of the rock
mass forming the
slope can be
measured directly
on the rock face by
using scan-line
method.
 KINEMATIC STABILITY ANALYSIS

 Orientation data obtained from structural

mapping or discontinuity survey is
particularly useful in kinematic stability of
cut slopes.
 Details of the analysis method is dealt with
in Hoek & Bray (1981).
 This analysis is very useful for preliminary
stability assessment of cut slopes in rocks
(fresh to CW), to select the best orientation
for slope cuttings, to detect unstable
elements or critical planes of weakness in
slope, and to interpret the likely mode of
slope failure.
 Methods of Analysis

 Plot poles of discontinuities (from the orientation:

strike/dip or dip direction/dip) on stereographic
projections
 Identify individual discontinuity sets and plot the
average representative plane for each sets
 Plot slope face orientation (strike/dip)
 Plot friction circle (friction angle) of the representative
rock type, preferably value of friction angle for the
shearing along the plane of discontinuity.
 Kinematic Stability Analysis
 Planar Failure Analysis
 Toppling Failure Analysis
 Wedge Failure Analysis
 KINEMATIC STABILITY ANALYSIS
DISCONTINUITY STRUCTURAL
SURVEY MAPPING
Plot poles of discontinuities on
stereographic projections

Identify individual discontinuity sets

and plot the average representative
plane for each sets

Plot slope face orientation

(strike/dip)

Plot friction circle (friction angle) of the

representative rock type, preferably value of
friction angle for the shearing along the plane of
discontinuity
Potential
NO MARGINAL
Mode of Failure Mode of
Stable? Failure

YES Identify the

Identify the
potentially
unstable elements END unstable elements
Influence of Discontinuities
Toward Rock Mass
 MODE OF CUT/ROCK SLOPE FAILURES

 Failure of cut slopes in rock mass could be either one

or combination of the following modes;
 Circular failure – generally occurs within a very
heavily jointed rock mass where no identifiable
patterns of discontinuities present.
 Planar Failure – failure take place along a dominant
discontinuity plane or highly ordered structure (e.g.
bedding), which is parallel or nearly parallel to the
slope face.
 Wedge Failure – commonly occurrs at two or more
intersecting discontonuity planes
 Toppling or rock fall – failure in hard rock which can
form columnar or block strcutures separated by
steeply dipping discontinuities
Planar Failure

…. Due to daylighting sheet joints in granitic rock slope. (Photo by

J. K. Raj)
Planar Failure

Cut slope in mudstones/siltstone with daylighting bedding planes – a

situation highly potential for planar sliding failure, Qurayyat Road
Oman, 2010)
Wedge Failure
 Toppling Failure

Toppling failures due to subvertical joints, intersecting with

the gently dipping bedding planes
 Toppling Failure

Toppling failures due to subvertical joints, intersecting with the

gently dipping bedding planes (Qurrayyat Road, Oman, 2010)
Composite Failure

…. a combination of wedge and planar failures in granitic rock slope.

Composite Failure
 Rock Falls
…. primarily due to very steep
joints in overhanging rock
face. (Limestone cliff near
Simpang Pulai, Ipoh)
 What Can We Do With Kinematics Stability
Analyses?

 Stability assessment – stable or unstable?

 Identification of modes of failure
 Identification of critical plane of weakness.
 Selection of suitable stabilisation measures:
– Soil nails/rock bolt length/orientation
– Pile length for foundation on slope
 Example #1 – Gunung Pass

 Huge cut slope failure in metamorphic rocks

 Objectives of study: to identify the causing factors and to recommend suitable
mitigation measures
Results of Mapping
 CH 23+900 – CH24+400 (The major
failure)

Cross section showing the likely orientation of major discontinuities in

the cut slope
CH 23+900 – CH24+400 (The major failure)

Cross Section Showing The Likely Mechanisme Of The Major Failure

Between Ch 23900 – Ch 24400
 Example #2 – Palm Walk Sg Long
 Stability assessment of a very high rock slope (ex-quarry
face) and recommendation for stabilisation measures.
 PHOTO LINEAMENT INTERPRETATION & MAJOR
STRUCTURAL FEATURES

Figure 3.1: Photolineaments in the granite bedrock of the study area. Note that the slopes are dissected by
major NNE oriented lineaments (F-F’), which are assigned as J1 in the discontinuity data stereoplots.
 a) DOMAIN A
N
SG LONG 2010 DOMAIN A

N
SG LONG 2010 DOMAIN A
Poles
Orientations
3m ID Strike / Dip Right
2m 4m

1 m 227 / 65
2 m 243 / 21
3 m 073 / 73
W E 4 m 123 / 77
1m 5 m 323 / 68
6m 5m
6 m 261 / 75
W E

4m
3m
2m

Equal Area
5m Lower Hemisphere
1m 85 Poles
85 Entries
Equal Area
S Lower Hemisphere
85 Poles
6m 85 Entries

• Kinematic stability analysis for Domain A slope..

• Potential Wedge failure due to intersection of J1xJ5, J1xJ6, J5xJ6 and J4xJ6;
• Potential Planar Failure along J6; and
• Potential Toppling Failure along J3
Mode of Potential Failures
Figure 3.8: Interpretative cross
section along A-A’, showing the
likely orientation of major joint
sets with an assumed worst
case scenario where the
potential sliding planes
developed along the
predetermined intersections
between J1 x J5 (wedge failure).
If the wedge to be secured with
rock bolts/nails, then the
minimum length of the nails
should be greater than the
specified length indicated by
figures in the parentheses.
Figure 3.9:
The assumed worst cases
scenario in Domain A where the
potential sliding planes developed
along the intersections between
J1 x J6 (wedge failure).
The potential wedge can be
arrested with rock nails and the
recommended lengths of the nails
must be not less than the figures
indicated in the parenthesis and
the nails should be installed
perpendicular to the critical joint
planes (in this case J1 and J6, and
J3 reacts as the release plane).
 CONCLUSIONS
 Stability of cut slopes (either in “hard” or “soft” rocks) is
largely controlled by discontinuities.
 It is therefore highly recommended that discontinuity survey
to be carried out as one of the most vital components of an
engineering geological mapping of cut slopes.
 Data from the discontinuity survey can be utilised for
stability assessments, identification of unstable elements,
modes of instability, and also can be projected into the
slope’s profile section to facilitate the selection of suitable
stabilisation measures (e.g. designs of rock bolts/soil nails
and pile length).
Thank
You