GEOLOGY water, glaciers, and sea waves, run

on these agents go on modifying

 A multidisciplinary science that combines
the surface of the earth
chemistry, physics, and mathematics to
continuously.
investigate an enormous variety of
 It includes the study of Erosion,
processes that occur on and in the Earth.
Transportation and Deposition
 The study of the Earth, the materials of
(ETD)
which it is made, the structure of those
 In Civil Engineering, it reveals
materials and processes acting upon
constructive and destructive
them.
processes of physical agents at a
particular site.
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY  It helps in selecting a suitable site
for different types of project to be
 An applied branch of earth science.
under-taken after studying the
 It involves the application of knowledge
effects of physical agents which go
of geosciences to ensure safety, efficacy,
on modifying the surface of the
and economy of engineering projects.
earth physically, chemically, and
mechanically.
GEOLOGY AND CIVIL ENGINEERING
2. Mineralogy
 Geology for Civil Engineering work
 It deals with ‘the study of minerals.
primarily involves activities related to rock
 A mineral may be defined as a
and soil occurring in the top crustal layer
naturally occurring, homogeneous
of the earth.
solid, inorganically formed, having a
 In a sense, the scope of a geologist and
definite chemical composition and
that of a civil engineer while working on a
ordered atomic arrangement.
project are the same. Both work towards
construction of safe structures for the
3. Petrology
benefit of human beings.
 It deals with "the study of rocks".
 A rock is defined as the aggregation
THREE BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY THAT of minerals found in the earth’s
CONCERNS THE CIVIL ENGINEERING crust.
PROFESSION  The study of petrology is most
important for a civil engineer in the
1. Physical Geology
selection of suitable rocks for
 Students will learn about
building stones, road metals, etc.
earthquakes, volcanoes, Earth's
history, the processes that shape
Earth's surface, and about Earth's
resources.
 It deals with the various processes
of physical agents such as wind,
IMPORTANCE OF GEOLOGY IN CIVIL  Composed of magma that
ENGINEERING PRACTICE erupts on the seafloor to
create basalt lava flows or
 It provides necessary information about
cools deeper down to create
the site of construction materials used in
the intrusive igneous rock
construction of buildings, dams, tunnels,
gabbro.
tanks, reservoirs, highways and bridges.
 Sediments, primarily muds
 Its information is most important in
and the shells of tiny sea
planning phase, design and construction
creatures, coat the seafloor.
phase of an engineering project.
 Sediment is thickest near the
shore where it comes off the
EARTH STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION continents in rivers and on
wind currents.
1. Planet Earth
 It is made up of a number of layers
b. Continental crust
with different densities and
 Made up of many different
properties.
types of igneous,
 Its parts and physical characteristics
metamorphic, and
are a result of the various
sedimentary rocks.
constituent elements and
compounds that make it up.
3. Mantle
 It is divided into four main layers.
 It starts below the crust layer, and is
These layers are Crust, Mantle,
denser than the crust.
Outer core, and Inner core.
 It is 3,000 Km in thickness.
 It is mostly made of silicate rocks
2. Crust
rich in magnesium and iron.
 It is the layers on which we stand
 It is not a perfectly solid.
on.
 At some locations, the rock is
 All the mountain, jungles and
completely melted, which is called
oceans we know are carried on this
magma. When this magma reaches
layer.
near the crust, it erupts as Lava
 It is the thinnest layer of the four
from the volcanoes.
layers.
 Rocks are in constant motion. They
 This layer is 70 Km thick on the
rise and sink due to internal heat
land, and 5 Km thick at some ocean
from the core, and set up the
floors.
convective currents. These
 It is mostly composed of silica,
convective currents also cause the
alumina, lime, magnesia, and iron
tectonic plates to move and crash
oxide (rust).
into each other causing
Types: earthquakes.

a. Oceanic crust
 4. Outer Core
 It is in a liquid state at a
temperature of 5000 C.
 It is mostly made of iron and nickel.
 Both of these two metals are in a
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
liquid state due to intense heat.
 It is always in constant circulatory
motion, which creates a magnetic
field around the Earth. This
magnetic field protects our Earth
from the Sun’s deadly wind.
 Without this layer, our Earth
couldn’t have a magnetic field.
Without this magnetic field, our
Earth could never have
atmosphere, oceans, and life.
5. Inner Core
 It is the hottest layer of the Earth,
reaching a temperature of 7000 C;
much hotter than the surface of the
Sun.
PLATE TECTONICS
 It is also composed of iron and
nickel metal.
 It is in the solid state.
 It is the hottest part of the Earth
because the inner core is under
tremendous pressure due to the
weight of the other layers.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS
 Plate tectonics – the theory that Earth's
land masses are in constant motion.
 The realization that Earth's land masses
move was first proposed by Alfred
Wegener, which he called continental
drift.
 Wegener was a German meteorologist,
geophysicist and polar researcher.
 In 1915 he published 'The Origin of
Continents and Oceans’, which outlined
his theory of Continental Drift
 It describes the drifting of Earth’s
continents on the ocean bed.
 According to this theory, Earth’s
continents have moved on the ocean bed
over a long time period, appearing to be
drifted across the ocean.
 One type of evidence that strongly
supported this theory is the fossil record.
 Scientists have found fossils of similar
types of plants and animals in rocks of
similar age. These rocks were on the
shores of different continents.
 This suggests that the continents were
once joined.
 It is the theory in geology that describes
the features and movement of the Earth’s
surface in the present and in the past.
 It explains the large-scale motion of seven
large plates for about 3 billion years.
 This is a scientific model that is built on
the theory of continental drift.
 The Theory of Plate Tectonics builds on
Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift.
 In the Theory of Plate Tectonics, it is
tectonic plates, rather than continents,
which are moving.
 Earth's thin outer shell is broken into big
pieces called tectonic plates. These plates
fit together like a puzzle, but they're not
stuck in one place. They are floating on
Earth's mantle, a really thick layer of hot
flowing rock.
  Scientists identify 7 major tectonic plates.  Extremely hard possessing a score 8 out
In order from largest to smallest they are: of 10 mohs hardness scale
The Pacific Plate, the North American  Some kind of quartz possess piezoelectric
Plate, the Eurasian Plate, the Antarctic properties
Plate, the Indo-Australian Plate, and the
South American Plate.
Usage in Manufacturing of Construction
Materials:
MINERALS: QUARTS FAMILY
 Glassmaking
Types:  Sandblasting
 Foundry (Metal Casting)
 Macrocrystalline
 Ceramics (Tiles)
 Rock Crystal
 Citrine
 Ametrine Feldspar Types:
 Smoky Quartz
 Alkali Feldspar
 Prasiolite (Lemon Quartz)
 Orthoclase
 Milky Quartz
 Sanidine
 Tiger Eye
 Microcline
 Falcon's Eye (Blue Tiger Eye)
 Anorthoclase
 Hawks Eye
 Ammonium Feldspar
 Cryptocrystalline
 Buddingtonite
 Agate • Fire Agate
 Barium Feldspar
 Moss Agate
 Celsian
 Jasper
 Hyalophane
 Prase (Cream Jasper)
 Plagioclase Feldspar
 Aventurine
 Albite
 Heliotrope (Bloodstone)
 Oligoclase
 Chrome (Chalcedony)
 Andesine
 Onyx
 Labradorite
 Sard
 Bytownite
 Silicified Wood
 Anorthite

Properties:
Properties:
 Has glassy luster
 Most abundant mineral group
 Chemically stable, highly resistant to
 Possess Vitreous or Pearly Luster
weathering
 Score's 6-6.5 in mohs hardness
 Colorless crystalline compound at 99%
 Usually color white, pink, gray or brown,
purity
but also can be color yellow, orange, red,
black, blue, or green.

Usage in Manufacturing of Construction
Materials
 Glassmaking
AUGITE
 It is the most common pyroxene mineral
(a silicate of calcium, magnesium, iron,
titanium, and aluminum).
 It occurs chiefly as thick, tabular crystals
in basalts, gabbros, andesites, and various
other dark-colored igneous rocks.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AUGITE
1. Chemical Classification
 A single chain inosilicate
2. Color
 Dark green, black, brown
3. Streak
 White to gray to very pale green.
 It is often brittle, breaking into
USES OF AUGITE
splintery fragments on the streak
plate. These can be observed with a
hand lens.
 Rubbing the debris with a finger
produces a gritty feel with a fine
white powder beneath.
4. Luster
 Vitreous on cleavage and crystal
HORNBLENDE
faces. Dull on other surfaces.
5. Diaphaneity
 Usually translucent to opaque.
 Rarely transparent.
6. Cleavage
 Prismatic in two directions that
intersect at slightly less than 90
degrees.
7. Mohs Hardness
 5.5 to 6
8. Specific Gravity
 3.2 to 3.6
9. Diagnostic Properties
 Two cleavage directions
intersecting at slightly less than 90
degrees. Green to black color.
Specific gravity.
10. Chemical Composition
 A complex silicate.
 (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Si,Al)2O6
11. Crystal System
 Monoclinic
 It is a mineral of interest to geologists,
and collectors.
 It has little to no industrial value, the
presence and development of augite may
help tell scientists and geologists about
Earth’s history in certain regions.
 It is a field and classroom name used for a
group of dark-colored amphibole minerals
found in many types of igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
  It can vary in chemical composition but  (Ca,Na)2– 3(Mg,Fe,Al)5
are all double-chain inosilicates with very (Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2
similar physical properties
11. Crystal System
 Monoclinic
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF HORNBLENDE

1. Chemical Classification
USES OF HORNBLENDE
 Silicate
 Its primary use might be as a mineral
2. Color specimen.
 Usually black, dark green, dark  It is the most abundant mineral in a rock
brown known as amphibolite which has a large
number of uses.
3. Streak
 White, colorless - (brittle, often
BIOTITE
leaves cleavage debris behind
instead of a streak)  It is the most common mica mineral and
also known as black mica, a silicate
4. Luster mineral in the common mica group.
 Vitreous  Approximate chemical formula K (Mg, Fe)

5. Diaphaneity
PROPERTIES OF BIOTITE
 Translucent to nearly opaque
 It is a black mica with perfect cleavage
6. Cleavage and a vitreous luster on the cleavage
 Two directions intersecting at 124 faces.
and 56 degrees  When biotite is separated into thin
sheets, the sheets are flexible but will
7. Mohs Hardness break upon severe bending.
 5 to 6  When held up to the light, the sheets are
transparent to translucent with a brown,
8. Specific Gravity gray, or greenish color
 2.9 to 3.5 (varies depending upon  It is very easy to identify, and with a little
composition) experience a person will be able to
recognize it on sight.
9. Diagnostic Properties  Experienced observers can sometimes
 Cleavage, color, elongate habit recognize phlogopite by its brown color

10. Chemical Composition

USES OF BIOTITE
  It has a small number of commercial uses.
 Ground mica is used as a filler and
extender in paints, as an additive to
drilling muds, as an inert filler and mold-
release agent in rubber products, and as a
non-stick surface coating on asphalt
shingles and rolled roofing.
 It is also used in the potassium-argon and
argon-argon methods of dating igneous
rocks.
 It is used to determine the age of rock
through the process of argon-argon
dating or potassium-argon dating.
MUSCOVITE
 It is the most common mineral of the
mica family.
 It is an important rock-forming mineral
present in igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks.
 It is readily cleaving into thin transparent
sheets.
 It has a pearly to vitreous luster on their
surface.
 If they are held up to the light, they are
transparent and nearly colorless, but
most have a slight brown, yellow, green,
or rose-color tint.
PROPERTIES OF MUSCOVITE
 It has a Mohs hardness of 2–2.25 parallel
to the [001] face, 4 perpendicular to the
[001] and a specific gravity of 2.76–3.
 It can be colorless or tinted through grays,
browns, greens, yellows, or (rarely) violet
or red, and can be transparent or
translucent.
 It is anisotropic and has high
birefringence.
 Its crystal system is monoclinic.
 The green, chromium-rich variety is called
fuchsite; mariposite is also a chromium-
rich type of muscovite.
 It is the most common mica, found in
granites, pegmatites, gneisses, and
schists, and as a contact metamorphic
rock or as a secondary mineral resulting
from the alteration of topaz, feldspar,
kyanite, etc.
 It is characteristic of peraluminous rock,
in which the content of aluminum is
relatively high.
 In pegmatites, it is often found in
immense sheets that are commercially
valuable.
 It is in demand for the manufacture of
fireproofing and insulating materials and
to some extent as a lubricant
USES OF MUSCOVITE
 Used chiefly as an insulating material in
the manufacture of electrical apparatus.
 Many of the small parts used for electrical
insulation are built up of thin sheets of
mica cemented together. They may thus
be pressed into shape before the cement
hardens.
 Most of the mica used for this purpose in
the United States is imported from India.
 Used as a transparent material, isinglass,
for stove doors, lanterns, etc.
 Scrap mica, or the waste material in the
manufacture of sheet mica, is used in
many ways, as in the manufacture of wall
papers to give them a shiny luster; as a
lubricant when mixed with oils; as a
nonconductor of heat; and as a
fireproofing material
CALCITE  It is a common mineral and can be found
in a variety of geological settings,
 It is a mineral composed of calcium
including metamorphic, igneous, and
carbonate.
sedimentary rocks.
 It is one of the most common minerals
found on Earth, and it has a wide range of
industrial and commercial applications. PROPERTIES

1. Hardness
 It is a relatively hard mineral,
PROPERTIES OF CALCITE
ranging from 6.5 to 7.5 on the Mohs
1. Hardness scale.
 It has a Mohs hardness of 3.
2. Color
2. Color  It can be found in a wide range of
 It is typically colorless or white. colors, including red, orange,
 It has a brittle tenacity. yellow, green, blue, purple, and
brown.
3. Tenacity
 Brittle 3. Cleavage
 It has no cleavage.
4. Luster
 It has a vitreous to resinous luster. 4. Luster
 It has a vitreous to resinous luster.
5. Cleavage 
 It exhibits perfect rhombohedral 5. Tenacity
cleavage.  Brittle

6. Functions 6. Functions
 Construction industry  Electronics
 Agriculture  Other industrial applications
 Energy industry  Scientific instruments
 Abrasives Construction
7. Usage
 Cement and concrete production 7. Usage
 Road construction  Filtration
 Roofing materials  Roofing granules
 Gravel and crushed stone  Construction aggregates

GARNET CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS

 It is a mineral that belongs to the group of 1. Igneous Rocks

silicate minerals.
  Igneous rocks (from the Latin word
for fire) form when hot, molten
rock crystallizes and solidifies.
 The melt originates deep within the
Earth near active plate boundaries
or hot spots, then rises toward the
surface.
Types:
a. Intrusive Igneous Rocks
 It is cool underground.
 Deep in the crust, magma
cools slowly.
 Ex. Granite, Syenite, Diorite,
Gabbro, Pegmatite
b. Extrusive Igneous Rocks
 It forms above the surface.
 The lava cools quickly as it
pours out onto the surface.
 Ex. Dolerite, Basalt
2. Sedimentary Rocks
 These are formed from pre-existing
rocks or pieces of once living
organisms.
 They form from deposits that
accumulate on the Earth's surface.
 It often has distinctive layering or
bedding.
Types:
a. Common Sedimentary Rocks
DISTINCTION TEXTURES AND STRUCTURES
 It includes sandstone,
limestone, and shale.
 These rocks often start as
sediments carried in rivers
and deposited in lakes and
oceans.
b. Clastic Sedimentary Rocks
 These are group of rocks most
people think of when they
think of sedimentary rocks.
 These are made up of pieces
(clasts) of pre-existing rocks.
 Ex. Sandstone, Shale,
Conglomerate, Breccia,
Limestone
c. Biologic Sedimentary Rocks
 It forms when large numbers
of living things die.
 Coal is an example for this
type of rock, and this is one of
the ways limestone can form.
 Limestone is composed
almost entirely of sand-size
fossil debris
3. Metamorphic Rocks
 It is the transformation of existing
rock to new types of rock in a
process called metamorphism.
 The word metamorphism is taken
from the Greek word “change of
form”
 How does metamorphism occur?
when rocks are subjected to high
heat, high pressure, hot mineral-
rich fluids or, more commonly,
some combination of these factors.
1. Texture
 The physical characters of rocks
(size, shape, orientation,
distribution of grains: intergrain
relationships)
 2. Structure
 The arrangement of features of rock
larger than grains (layers, holes,
fractures, contact relationships)
Examples:
1. Sedimentary Rocks
 Horizontal layering, clastic
(aggregate of clastic particles)
texture
2. Igneous Rocks
 Cross cutting relationships,
interlocking crystalline texture
3. Metamorphic Rocks
 Interlocking crystalline texture
either equi-granular/isotropic or
aligned, outcrop scale planar or
linear fabric.
DISTINCT COMPOSITION OF MAJOR CLASSES
OF ROCKS
 (mineral associations) reflect conditions
of formation. (Temperature, Pressure,
Chemical conditions
FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
 Molten materials are found below the
earth’s crust and are normally subjected
to extreme pressure and temperatures –
up to 1200° Celsius.
 Because of the high temperatures and
pressure changes, the molten materials
sometimes shoot up to the surface in the
form of volcanic eruption and they cool
down to form volcanic or extrusive
igneous rocks.
PROPERTIES OF IGNEOUS ROCK
 They all contain minerals.
 The majority are made up of silicate
materials.
 The process of igneous rock formation
cannot be directly observed.
 They can be fine-grained or close-grained.
 Lava that cools quickly often has a glassy
texture
PROPERTIES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK
 Clastic sedimentary rocks are made up of
rock and mineral grains you can see with
the naked eye or a microscope.
 The texture of igneous rocks is either
fragmental or crystalline.
 Sedimentary rocks are found mostly on
the Earth’s surface.
 It contains the fossil record of ancient
plants and animals.
PROPERTIES OF METAMORPHIC ROCK
 They are generally crystalline in texture.
 They often have a banded, or squashed
look.
 They do not get hot enough to melt
ROCK AS A CONSTUCTION MATERIALS
 Rocks are aggregate of materials.
 Rocks are extract larger for used as
building stones for constructing buildings,
dams, bridges etc...
 Since 12000 years, rocks are commonly
used for building houses or shelters.
  Building stones should have quality and STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
strength to sustain stress and strain
1. Mohorovicic Discontinuity
exerted by engineering structure.
 A significant boundary within the
earth's structure, separating the
PROPERTIES OF BUILDING ROCKS crust from the mantle.
 Also plays a critical role in plate
 Color
tectonics as the movement of the
 Mineral Composition
plates is influenced by their
 Texture
interaction with the underlying
 Porosity
mantle.
 Permeability
 Resistance, Abrasion & Weathering 2. Reppetti Discontinuity
 Heat Resistance  Divides the mantle into the lower
and upper mantle.
TYPES OF BUILDING ROCKS  Passing through this discontinuity,
seismic waves increase their speed.
1. Natural Building Materials  Lower mantle is hotter and liquefied
 Mud while the upper is cooler and pasty.
 Stone
 Sand 3. Guttenberg Discontinuity
 Wood  Major boundary within the earth's
 Leaves structure, separating the mantle
 Lime from the core.
 fibers  The discontinuity is characterized
by a rapid increase in seismic wave
2. Artificial Building Materials velocity.
 Cement
 Brick 4. Lehmann Discontinuity
 Tiles  A boundary that separates the
 Glass liquid outer core from the solid
 Metal inner core.
 Plastics  The boundary is thought to be a
result of the change in physical
properties between the liquid and
BUILDING ROCKS
solid portions of the core.
 The buildings and ornamental stones are
part of our civilization. Durability of rock is
directly related to its mineral composition
and texture

PLATE BOUNDARIES
 1. Divergent Boundaries
 It occurs when two plates move
apart from each other.
 As the plates move apart, magma
rises from the mantle and solidifies,
creating a new crust.
2. Convergent Boundaries
 Happens when two plates collide.
 There are three types of convergent
boundaries: oceanic-oceanic,
oceanic-continental, and
continental-continental.
3. Transform Boundaries
 These are where two plates slide
past each other.
 Responsible for many earthquakes
as the pressure builds up and is
suddenly released.
MINERALS
 The main building blocks of rock.
 It exists as a solid under normal earth
conditions.
 It is a naturally occurring and is an
inorganic substance.
 It has distinct fixed chemical makeup.
 It also has a specific atomic structure.
PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
1. Color
 Most obvious property, but also the
least diagnostic since a lot of
minerals share the same color.
2. Crystal Form
 Determined largely by its internal
atomic structure, which means that
this property can be highly
diagnostic.
3. Hardness
 Can be determined through a
scratch test.
 A hardness scale which is based on
scratch test is a good indicator if a
mineral is hard.
4. Luster
 Can be determined by the way it
reflects light.
5. Density
 A helpful indicator to determine if
rock contains minerals or not.
 If a rock feels heavier than that of
an average rock of the same size,
the rock may be made up of
minerals that contain iron or lead.
6. Cleavage and Fracture
 It is determined by the strength of
the bonds.
MINERALS FORMATION
 Minerals are formed naturally by
geological processes.
 It can be formed in two ways:
Crystallization of Magma or Crystallization
of Materials dissolve in water
MAGMA
 Minerals are formed in this way when hot
magma from within the earth rises to the
 surface and cools. It then crystallized to b. Unstratified Rocks
form minerals.  have crystalline
granularity
 uniform structure
DISSOLVE MATERIALS IN WATER
throughout their bodies
 The mineral formed in this way mainly  deal from foundation
occurs in salty waters such as ocean works in construction
water. projects
 The formation happens when salt water
evaporates, leaving behind Na and Cl c. Foliated Rocks
atoms.  consist of layered
 These atoms are then blend together to structures
form a mineral called Halite, which is  developed when
basically salt. subjected to enough
exposure to heat and
pressure
TWO TYPES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 similar to stratified rocks,
1. Foliated Metamorphic Rock however, they only split
 Have a layered or banded up to specific directions
appearance that is produced by
exposure to heat and directed 2. Durability
pressure.  Ability to resist the gradual
deterioration due to natural forces,
2. Non-foliated Metamorphic Rocks such as heat, rain, wind, sun, and
 Do not have a layered or banded vibration.
appearance.  Mostly dependent on the chemical
composition of rocks.
 Homogeneous rocks have dense
PROPERTIES OF ROCKS
structure.
1. Structure
 Classified into three: stratified, 3. Weathering
unstratified, and foliated  Disintegration of rocks.
 Changes occur due to long exposure
a. Stratified Rocks to natural forces.
 composed of several  Primary causes of weathering are
layers alternate freezing and thawing of
 separated by bedding water between rock fissures,
planes thermal expansion, and contraction
 used for columns, slabs, of rocks.
and floorings
4. Seasoning
 Process of removing the quarry sap
of rocks.
 Rocks that undergo seasoning are
highly commended to be used in
construction projects.
 Improves the strength of rocks.

5. Porosity & absorption

 Porosity refers to the empty spaces
within the rocks.
 Rocks with high porosity absorb
more water than those of less to
non-porous rocks.
 Absorbed water often freezes
within the pores and makes the
rocks more porous. It causes the
breaking down of rocks.

6. Workability
 Ability of rock to be utilized, placed,
and compacted easily without
segregation.
 The amount of useful internal work
required to create full compaction.