LECTURE 2.

BASICS OF GEOLOGY
GL5534 FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE

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Lecture 2 – Learning Outcomes part 1

1. Define the science of
geology & its sub-
disciplines
- Definition of Geology
- Sub-Disciplines of Geoscience
- Link to the Petroleum Industry
2. Describe the layers that
make up the structure of
the Earth
- Internal Structure of the Earth
- The Crust and Tectonic Plates
- Plate Boundaries
- Geologic Structures
3. Explain the principles
of stratigraphy
- Uniformitarianism
- The 7 laws/principles
- Up-ness and Up Criteria

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Lecture 2 – Learning Outcomes part 2

4. Differentiate 5. Distinguish between 6. Explain the rock cycle

between the entities sedimentary, igneous and
of rocks, minerals and metamorphic rocks - Identify igneous, sedimentary
fossils and metamorphic rocks and the
steps of the rock cycle related to
- Fossils and microfossils - Formation of Igneous rocks
their formation.
- Rocks vs Minerals - Formation of Sedimentary rocks
- Mineral Features - Formation of Metamorphic rocks

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WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOME 1 – DEFINE GEOLOGY AND ITS SUB-DISCIPLINES

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 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
1. Define geology & its sub-disciplines

• Geology - The branch of science concerned with the physical structure and
substance of the earth, the processes which act on these, and the Earth's
development since its formation
• Broad ranging science with numerous sub-disciplines

Why is this important to you as Engineers, Data Managers etc…

• Some of the key practitioners you may encounter in the Petroleum Industry:
• Geologists
• Geophysicists
• Petrophysicists
• Biostratigraphers
• Geochemists

1. Geology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion
 Reading for Learning Outcomes
1. Define geology & its sub-disciplines

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

Elements of Petroleum Geology – 3rd Edition
R.C.Selly and S.A.Sonnenberg
Chapter 1
In particular Section 1.2 The Context of Petroleum Geology

1. Geology 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion
BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 2 – THE STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH

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 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
2.Describe the layers that make up the structure of the Earth

• The structure of the Earth can be considered from a compositional or a mechanical perspective
• There are two types of crust:
• Continental crust – 30 -70km thick, made of less dense material (granitic)
• Oceanic crust – 5-15km thick, made of denser material (basaltic)
• The crust is divided into a number of internally rigid blocks or plates
• The plates can move relative to each other in 3 ways resulting in the formation of geological
structures (faults, folds and unconformities) on a variety of scales

Why is this important to you as Engineers, Data Managers etc…

• The crust (or lithosphere) contains all of the Earth’s mineral deposits and fossil fuel resources

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 8

 Reading for Learning Outcomes
2.Describe the layers that make up the structure of the Earth

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/3-1-earths-
layers-crust-mantle-and-core-2/

https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap2-What-is-a-
Plate/Chemical-composition-crust-and-mantle

http://webgeology.alfaweb.no/webgeology_files/english/earthsinte
rior.html - this is a lot more detail than you will need for this course
but some of the animations are illustrative and there is an
opportunity to read more if you would like to deepen your
knowledge.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 9

BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 3 – EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY

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 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
3. Explain the principles of stratigraphy

• The Stratigraphic Principles/Laws are basic principles that all geologists use in deciphering the spatial and temporal
relationships of rock layers.
1. Principle of superposition - in an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each layer of rock is older than the one above it and
younger than the one below it. The oldest rocks in a sequence are at the bottom and the youngest rocks are at the top.
2. Original horizontality - layers of strata are deposited horizontally or nearly horizontally
3. Lateral Continuity - Within the depositional basin, strata are continuous in all directions until they thin out at the edge of that basin.
4. Inclusions - When one rock formation contains pieces or inclusions of another rock, the included rock is older than the host rock.
5. Baked Contacts - an igneous intrusion “bakes” (metamorphoses) surrounding rocks, so the rock that has been baked must be older than
the intrusion
6. Cross-cutting relationships Deformation events like folds, faults and igneous intrusions that cut across rocks are younger than the rocks
they cut across.
7. Fossil Succession - Assemblages of fossils contained in strata are unique to the time they lived, and can be used to correlate rocks of the
same age across a wide geographic distribution.
Why is this important to you as Engineers, Data Managers etc…
• Stratigraphic understanding forms the basis for all upstream activity from basin exploration through field evaluation
to reservoir development and production. The overarching need of the petroleum industry to correlate between
what are essentially 1-dimensional representations of stratigraphies (well-bores) is the driving force for the science.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 11

 Reading for Learning Outcomes
3. Explain the principles of stratigraphy

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (second edition)
Nichols, Gary
Section 19.1 – 19.3 put the stratigraphic principles in to context
Available online through the library

The following website has a concise summary of the principles:

http://geologylearn.blogspot.com/2015/05/geologic-principles-for-
dening-relative.html

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 12

BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 4 – ROCKS, MINERALS & FOSSILS

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FOSSILS
Remnants or traces of ancient living organisms now preserved in rock

4. Rock/Mineral
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 5. 6. Conclusion 14
MICROFOSSILS

• Microfossils (fossils too small to be seen without the

use of a microscope) have many applications to
petroleum geology
• The two most common uses are:
• Biostratigraphy - the differentiation of rock units based
upon the fossils which they contain
• Paleoenvironmental Analyses - the interpretation of the
depositional environment in which the rock unit formed,
based upon the fossils found within the unit.
• Many other uses of fossils besides these, including:
paleoclimatology, biogeography, and thermal
maturation.
https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/fosrec/ONeill.html
4. Rock/Mineral
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 5. Lower et al., 2013 6. Conclusion 15
 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
4. Differentiate between the entities of rocks, minerals and fossils

• Minerals are naturally occurring crystalline compounds that can be defined by a specific chemical composition. In
practice, the most common minerals are identified by looking at specific physical properties unique to each: the
luster (the way the mineral reflects light), the hardness, the presence or absence of cleavage (the tendency to
break into flat planes), and many others.
• There are approximately 4000 different naturally occurring minerals recognised today. Each one has its own unique
characteristics and physical properties. These include: colour, streak, hardness, luster, specific gravity, cleavage,
magnetism, solubility along with a number of others.
• These physical properties are controlled by the composition and the pattern and strength of the bonds between
molecules in its ordered internal structure.
• Rocks are solid aggregates or mixtures of one or more minerals. In other words, a mineral is a single compound,
and analysis of any part will give the same composition. A rock consists of numerous mineral grains in a solid mass,
and thus will provide different compositions as each different part is tested. Rocks are identified as igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic, based on their origin.

Why is this important to you as Engineers, Data Managers etc…

• Rocks and the minerals they are composed of form the basis of the petroleum system → without rocks there would
be no petroleum!

4. Rock/Mineral
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 5. 6. Conclusion 16
 Reading for Learning Outcomes
4. Differentiate between the entities of rocks, minerals and fossils

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

For a brief definition of the difference between rocks and minerals the following resources are helpful:

https://www.usgs.gov/news/earthword-rock-vs-mineral

What is a Rock? - https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/chapter/6-1-what-is-a-rock/

What is a Mineral? - https://openpress.usask.ca/physicalgeology/part/chapter-5-minerals-3rd-ed/

More in depth -
Nickel, E. H. (1995). The Definition of a Mineral. The Canadian Mineralogist 33, 698-690. Read paper

4. Rock/Mineral
1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 5. 6. Conclusion 17
BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 5 – DISTINGUISH BETWEEN
SEDIMENTARY, IGNEOUS AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

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 3 Key Types of Rocks

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 19

 SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks form from sediment.
• "Sediment" is a general term that indicates loose
grains (such as the sand at the beach) and chemical
precipitates (such as crystals of salt).
• Sedimentary rocks can be subdivided in three
categories: clastic, chemical, and biochemical
sedimentary rocks.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 20

 Sedimentary Rocks
Commonly classified according to their depositional environment

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 21

 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
5. Distinguish between sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks

• Geoscientists recognise 3 main classes of rocks:

• Sedimentary – Rocks formed from sediments that have been deposited then undergone lithification
• Igneous - Rocks that have crystallised from magma (molten rock) or in association with eruptive processes
• Metamorphic - Rocks formed from alteration of pre-existing rocks under high pressure and temperature conditions

Why is this important to you as Engineers, Data Managers etc…

• The rocks that make up the different elements of the petroleum system are predominantly sedimentary. It is
a fundamental skill in geoscience to be able to distinguish between different rock types and these three
classes are the starting point for that process. If we can find the sedimentary rocks, we can start looking for
the components of the Petroleum System…

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion 22

BASICS OF GEOLOGY
LEARNING OUTCOME 6 – EXPLAIN THE ROCK CYCLE

PAGE 23
 THE ROCK CYCLE

The Rock Cycle – The Geological

Society Fact Sheet
https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/~/medi
a/shared/documents/education%20
and%20careers/Resources/FactShee
ts/Rock%20cycle%20factsheet%20d
raft%20KS2%20v2/Rock%20cycle%2
0factsheet%20FINAL.pdf?la=en

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion

Image Courtesy: rationalskepticism.org
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 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
6. Explain the Rock Cycle

• The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the
three rock types igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Conversion to metamorphic
rocks requires conditions of increased temperature and/or increased pressure,
conversion to sedimentary rocks occurs via the intermediate stage of sediments, and
conversion to igneous rocks occurs via the intermediate stage of magma.

Why is this important to you as Engineers, Data Managers etc…

• The oil and gas industry is most concerned with sedimentary rocks because hydrocarbons are typically
found in sedimentary rocks. Looking at the way these rocks are formed, we can see that of all rock types, it
is easier for organic matter to be found in sedimentary rocks than in any other rock type.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion

Image Courtesy: rationalskepticism.org
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 Reading for Learning Outcomes
5. Distinguish between sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks
6. Explain the Rock Cycle

Recommended Reading for this learning outcome:

The Imperial College Lectures in Petroleum Engineering – An introduction to Petroleum
Geoscience
Ala, Michael. 2017
For these two learning outcomes the sections starting from 1.4 to the end of section 1.8
provide an introduction to the material covered in this lecture
Available in the library 5th floor or the first chapter can be read at
https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/9781786342072_0001

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle Conclusion

Image Courtesy: rationalskepticism.org
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 Reading for this lecture

Recommended General Reading for this Lecture:

The Imperial College Lectures in Petroleum Engineering – An introduction to
Petroleum Geoscience
Ala, Michael. 2017
For this lecture Pages 1-36 give a good introduction
Available in the library 5th floor or at
https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/9781786342072_0001

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle

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Conclusion
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 Lecture 2 Summary
Here is what we learned
• Learning Outcome 1 - Define the science of geology & its sub-disciplines
Geology is a broad discipline applied across the upstream value chain

• Learning Outcome 2 - Describe the layers that make up the structure of the Earth
The structure and internal composition of the Earth. The two types of crust (oceanic and
continental) and their characteristics. Tectonic plates and their relative motions and resulting
boundaries (Convergent, Divergent and Transform)..

• Learning Outcome 3 - Explain the principles of stratigraphy

The Stratigraphic Principles/Laws are basic principles that all geologists use in deciphering the
spatial and temporal relationships of rock layers.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle

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Conclusion
Image Courtesy: rationalskepticism.org
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 Lecture 2 Summary
Here is what we learned
• 4. Differentiate between the entities of rocks, minerals and fossils
A mineral is a naturally occurring inorganic element or compound having an orderly internal structure and
characteristic chemical composition, crystal form, and physical properties. A rock is an aggregate of one or
more minerals, or a body of undifferentiated mineral matter. A fossil is the remains of an organism that has
been buried by natural processes and become permanently preserved. The remains can include
microscopically small fossils as well as more familiar fossils such as trilobites and ammonites.
• 5. Distinguish between sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) have cooled down and solidified. Sedimentary
rocks are formed by the accumulation of other eroded substances, while Metamorphic rocks are formed
when rocks change their original shape and form due to intense heat or pressure.
• 6. Explain the rock cycle
The rock cycle is a process in which rocks are continuously transformed between the three rock types
igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Conversion to metamorphic rocks requires conditions of increased
temperature and/or increased pressure, conversion to sedimentary rocks occurs via the intermediate stage
of sediments, and conversion to igneous rocks occurs via the intermediate stage of magma.

1. Geology 2. Earth 3. Principles 4. Rock/Mineral 5. Sed/Ig/Met 6. Rock Cycle

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Conclusion
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