LECTURE 3.

THE GEOLOGICAL CYCLE AND

GLOBAL TECTONICS
GL5534 FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE

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Lecture 3 – Learning Outcomes part 1
1. Explain the difference
between absolute and
relative age
- Relative Age
- Absolute Age
- Geological time and age of Earth
- Stratigraphic principles reminder
2. Apply the principles of 3. Discuss the three types
stratigraphy to distinguish of plate boundaries,
the relative timing of where they occur and
geological events/features give present day
examples
- Group exercise
- Stratigraphic Charts - Convergent
- Divergent
- Transform
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Lecture 3 – Learning Outcomes part 2

4. Explain the Wilson 5. Describe the key features 6. Discuss the

Cycle of continental margins
- Supercontinent Cycle
- Formation of Passive Margins
- Active vs Passive Margins
manifestations of plate
tectonics on the surface
of the Earth
- Divergence = Basins
- Convergent = Mountains

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 Reflection on Learning Outcomes 1 & 2

• Relative age is the age of one feature compared to another, but does not require a numerical date,
only “older than” or “younger than”
• Absolute age of geological events is measured in millions of years (Ma) either as a duration, or as a
time before the present day
• Current estimates place the age of the Earth at 4.66 billion years
• Due to the immense span of geological time it is necessary to divide it into manageable smaller portions.
This smaller subdivisions form the stratigraphic or geological column.
Why is this important to Petroleum Engineers…
• The concept of geologic time is central to an understanding of all geologic phenomena and features. The
concept of long periods of time being required for reservoirs to assume their present form is difficult to
grasp. However, the lengthy formative processes for hydrocarbon reservoirs can be understood, and this
understanding is important for proper knowledge of why a reservoir is built the way it is.

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Passive 6. Mountains Conclusion 4

Reflection on Learning Outcomes 3 & 4

• The tectonic plates that make up the Earth move through geological time
• There are 3 types of plate boundary resulting from the relative motion of the plates:
• Divergent (or Rift) – Where two plates move apart forming a rift and creating new basins
• Convergent (or collisional) – Where two plates collide and subduction of one plate below the other occurs
• Transform – Where two plates slide past each other
• The ‘Wilson Cycle’ - the repeated opening and closing of ocean basins along old orogenic belts is a key
process in the assembly and breakup of supercontinents

Why is this important to Petroleum Engineers…

• The formation of basins and associated petroleum habitats can be explained in terms of the fundamentals
of plate tectonics.

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. 6. Conclusion 5

 Active and Passive Continental Margins

Active Margin

Passive Margin https://folk.uib.no/nglhe/e-

modules/Chapter%201/Structural%20
geology/1%20Structure%20intro.swf

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Margins 6. Mountains Conclusion 6

 Active and Passive Continental Margins
Active margins
• Occur where tectonic plates converge (to form
subduction zones in which one plate sinks below
another) or where they slide by one another (transform
zones)
• Tectonic activity (earthquakes, volcanoes, uplift, and
the formation of new igneous rock) is characteristic of
active margins.

Passive margins
• Passive margins form where two continental plates split
• They are not the sites of plate boundaries, and
although continental crust abuts oceanic crust, they are
part of the same tectonic plate and subduction does
not take place
• Tectonic activity at passive margins is negligible as no
plate collision or subduction occurs

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Margins 6. Mountains Conclusion 7

 Passive Margins
• Passive margins (rifted margins)
mark the sites where continents
have rifted apart to become
separated by an ocean
• Passive margins consist of a
seawards tapering wedge of
continental crust that is dissected
by faults, overlain by sedimentary
basins and juxtaposed with
oceanic crust
• Economically important - they are
among the world´s most prolific
sources of oil and gas

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Margins 6. Mountains Conclusion 8

 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
5. Describe the key features of a continental margins

• Active margins are found on the edge of a continent where subduction occurs. These are often
marked by uplift and volcanic mountain belts on the continental plate. Less often there is a strike-
slip fault.
• Passive margins begin as rifts within continents and represent the collapsed flanks of the original
rift, during and after se-floor spreading has created a new ocean basin from the original rift

Why is this important to Petroleum Engineers…

• The passive margin sequences (post rift) are estimated to host approximately 35% of all giant
field discoveries (Mann et al. 2003), which in turn represent 67% of discovered conventional
hydrocarbons.
• Despite more than 70 years of active exploration, modern passive continental margins still remain
an exploration frontier.

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Margins 6. Mountains Conclusion 9

 Reflection on Learning Outcomes
6. Discuss the manifestations of plate tectonics on the surface of the Earth

• A rift is a region in which the Earth's crust is pulling apart and creating normal faults and down-
dropped areas or subsidence which can lead to the formation of new sedimentary basins.
• The convergence between two plates will always result in the subduction of the heavier plate.
• The collision of two continents will occur after an oceanic lithosphere, with continent attached,
has been fully subducted beneath a continent. This subducting plate will drag its continent down
to a fixed depth where it will form a basin, the Foreland basin. It will then move laterally pushing
against the overriding plate causing uplift and creating a mountain range.
Why is this important to Petroleum Engineers…
• The differences in plate tectonic setting result in differences in basin characteristics such as
tectonic regime, heat flow, lithology of the basin fill, source rock maturity depth and the nature
of the hydrocarbons.

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Margins 6. Mountains Conclusion 10

 Reading for this lecture
Recommended General Reading for this Lecture:
A useful overview of plate tectonics and will be helpful to watch before the assessed lab:
http://webgeology.alfaweb.no/webgeology_files/english/plate%20tectonics.html
A more in depth explanation of geological time and relative vs absolute ages
http://webgeology.alfaweb.no/webgeology_files/english/geol_time_eng.html
Understanding plate motions - US Geological Survey
https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/understanding.html

Other reading will be put in the folder with this lecture

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Margins 6. Mountains Conclusion 11

 Lecture 3 Summary
Here is what we learned
• Learning Outcome 1 - Explain the difference between absolute and relative age
Relative age – the age of one geological feature or event with respect to another
Absolute age – the numerical age of one geological feature or event specified in year
• Learning Outcome 2 - Apply the principles of stratigraphy to distinguish the relative timing of
geological events/features
In a sequence of sedimentary rocks, the lowest unit is the oldest and the highest unit is the
youngest, provided that the sequence has not been disturbed by tectonic processes.
• Learning Outcome 3 - Discuss the three types of plate boundaries, where they occur and give
present day examples
The three types of plate boundaries are convergent (e.g. South American Pacific coast), divergent
(e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge) and transform (e.g. California).

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Margins 6. Mountains Conclusion 12

 Lecture 3 Summary
Here is what we learned
• 4. Explain the Wilson Cycle
The Wilson Cycle (Supercontinent Cycle), is fundamental to the theory of plate tectonics. It
outlines the concept in which the repeated opening and closing of ocean basins along the same
plate boundaries is a key process in the assembly and breakup of continents and supercontinents.
• 5. Describe the key features of continental margins
Active margins occur where tectonic plates converge (to form subduction zones in which one
plate sinks below another) or where they slide by one another (transform zones). Passive margins
form where two continental plates split. They are part of the same tectonic plate and subduction
does not take place.
• 6. Discuss the manifestations of plate tectonics on the surface of the Earth
Plate tectonics is a process that explains and links together a variety of geological and geophysical
phenomena including mountain building and sedimentary basin formation.

1. Time 2. Events 3. Tectonics 4. Wilson 5. Margins 6. Mountains Conclusion 13