A Strong Partner for Sustainable Development

Module
In

CE 113
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING 1
(SOIL MECHANICS)

College of Engineering and Technology

Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering
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Module No. 1

Soil Formation

1st Semester AY 2021 - 2022

MARIA FE V. ADIER
Instructor

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

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Table of Contents

Title Page

Introduction 5

Pre-test 6

Discussion

Lesson 1: Introduction to Soil and Weathering of Rocks 8

Lesson 2: Types of Soil and its Description and Identification and
Mineralogy 19

Post test 29

References 30

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

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INSTRUCTION TO THE USER

This module would provide you an educational experience while

independently accomplishing the task at your own pace or time. It aims as
well to ensure that learning is unhampered by health and other challenges. It
covers the topic about Soil and rocks, weathering of rocks, types of soil and
its description and identification (visual-manual procedure) and the
mineralogy of solid soils.

Reminders in using this module:

1. Keep this material neat and intact.

2. Answer the pretest first to measure what you know and what to be
learned about the topic discussed in this module.
3. Accomplish the activities and exercises as aids and reinforcement for
better understanding of the lessons.
4. Answer the post-test to evaluate your learning.
5. Do not take pictures in any parts of this module nor post it to social
media platforms.
6. Value this module for your own learning by heartily and honestly
answering and doing the exercises and activities. Time and effort were
spent in the preparation in order that learning will still continue
amidst this Covid-19 pandemic.
7. Observe health protocols: wear mask, sanitize and maintain physical
distancing.

Hi! I’m Blue Bee, your WPU Mascot.

Welcome to Western Philippines University!

Shape your dreams with quality learning experience.

STAY SAFE AND HEALTHY!

WPU-QSF-ACAD-82A Rev. 00 (09.15.20)

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INTRODUCTION

This module would provide the reader easy access to the field of Geotechnical
engineering primarily mechanics of soil. The instructor will do assessment and
discussion to the students regarding the module, its expected learning outcomes and
mechanics of activities.

This material provides basic introduction to soil mechanics. Its primary focus
are the properties of soil such as; specific gravity, density, void ratio, porosity, water
content, degree of saturation, unit weight of soil with four classification namely; bulk
unit weight, dry unit weight, saturated unit weight and the submerged or bouyant
unit weight. It also discusses the soil indices which describe the degree of solidity,
liquidity and plasticity of soil. The liquid and plastic limit of soil are also included.

Also, this material would provide appropriate topics of Soil Mechanics. It

gives primary emphasis on Classification of soil. The student will be able to know the
classification of soil using formulas, logarithmic graphs and tables. Through the
learner’s heartfelt cooperation, he will be able to solve problems involving soil
classifications.
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CHAPTER 1: SOIL FORMATION

A. Overview
This chapter covers the soils and its constituents, the weathering of rocks, the
types of soil, description and identification of soil (visual – manual procedure)
and the mineralogy of solid soils. The origin and processes are clearly
discussed.

B. Pre-test
Direction: Read carefully and answer the following questions.

1. What is the origin of soil?

2. What are the composition of soil?
3. How is rock and soil different from each other?
4. What is rock?
5. Enumerate and discuss the three types of rocks.
6. Enumerate and discuss at least 3 types of Igneous, Sedimentary and
Metamorphic Rocks.
7. Enumerate the types of soil
8. What is soil mineralogy?
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C. Learning Outcomes

After completing this chapter, the student will be able to:

a. Understand the origin of soil.

b. Know the weathering of rocks.
c. Determine the types of soil and its description and identification.
d. Understand the mineralogy of solid soils.

D. Time Allotment

6 hours per week

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E. Discussion

Lesson 1: Introduction to Soil

The term Soil has various meanings, depending upon the general field in
which it is being considered.

To a Pedologist, soil is the substance existing on the earth's surface, which

grows and develops plant life.

To a Geologist, soil is the material in the relative thin surface zone within
which roots occur, and all the rest of the crust is grouped under the term ROCK
irrespective of its hardness.

To an Engineer, soil is the un-aggregated or un-cemented deposits of

mineral and/or organic particles or fragments covering large portion of the
earth's crust.

Soil Mechanics is one of the youngest disciplines of Civil Engineering

involving the study of soil, its behavior and application as an engineering
material.

Soil is the most misunderstood term in the field. The problem arise in the
reasons for which different groups or professions study soils. Soil scientists are
interested in soils as a medium for plant growth. So soil scientists focus on the
organic rich part of the soils horizon and refer to the sediments below the
weathered zone as parent material. Classification is based on physical, chemical,
and biological properties that can be observed and measured. Soils engineers
think of a soil as any material that can be excavated with a shovel (no heavy
equipment). Classification is based on the particle size, distribution, and the
plasticity of the material. These classification criteria more relate to the behavior
of soils under the application of load - the area where we will concentrate.
Most geologists fall somewhere in between. Geologists are interested in soils
and weathering processes as indicators of past climatic conditions and in
relation to the geologic formation of useful materials ranging from clay to
metallic ore deposits. Geologists usually refer to any loose material below the
plant growth zone as sediment or unconsolidated material. The term
unconsolidated is also confusing to engineers because consolidation specifically
refers to the compression of saturated soils in soils engineering.

Origin of Soil

Rock is the source of soil. A rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of

minerals and/or mineraloids. The Earth's lithosphere is made of rock. In general
rocks are of three types, namely, igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

PETROLOGY is the scientific study of rocks.

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Three types of Rocks

1. Igneous rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks

1. Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks (etymology from Latin ignis, fire) are rocks formed by
solidification of cooled magma (molten rock), with or without crystallization,
either below the surface as intrusive (plutonic) rocks or on the surface as
extrusive (volcanic) rocks. This magma can be derived from partial melts of
pre-existing rocks in either the Earth's mantle or crust. Typically, the melting
is caused by one or more of the following processes — an increase in
temperature, a decrease in pressure, or a change in composition. Over 700
types of igneous rocks have been described, most of them formed beneath the
surface of the Earth's crust.

Types of Igneous Rocks

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2. Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks are formed because of the overburden pressure as particles of

sediment are deposited out of air, ice, wind, or water flows carrying the particles in
suspension. As sediment deposition builds up, the overburden (or 'lithostatic')
pressure squeezes the sediment into layered solids in a process known as lithification
('rock formation') and the original connate fluids are expelled. The term diagenesis is
used to describe all the chemical, physical, and biological changes, including
cementation, undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition and during and
after its lithification, exclusive of surface weathering.
Sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers called beds or strata. Each new layer is
laid down horizontally over older ones in a process called superposition. There are
usually some gaps in the sequence called unconformities. These represent periods in
which no new sediments were being laid down, or when earlier sedimentary layers
were raised above sea level and eroded away.

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

Shale is a fine-grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or

muds. It is characterized by thin laminae[1] breaking with an irregular curving
fracture, often splintery and usually parallel to the often-indistinguishable bedding
plane. This property is called fissility. Non-fissile rocks of similar composition but
made of particles smaller than 1/16 mm are described as mudstones. Rocks with
similar particle sizes but with less clay and therefore grittier are siltstones.

ES 412 - Soil Mechanics

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Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-size mineral or rock

grains. Most sandstone is composed of quartz and/or feldspar because these are the
most common minerals in the Earth's crust. Like sand, sandstone may be any color,
but the most common colors are tan, brown, yellow, red, gray and white. Since
sandstone beds often form highly visible cliffs and other topographic features, certain
colors of sandstone have been strongly identified with certain regions.

Limestone often contains variable amounts of silica in the form of chert or flint, as
well as varying amounts of clay, silt and sand as disseminations, nodules, or layers
within the rock. The primary source of the calcite in limestone is most commonly
marine organisms. These organisms secrete shells that settle out of the water column
and are deposited on ocean floors as pelagic ooze or alternatively is conglomerated in
a coral reef (see lysocline for information on calcite dissolution). Secondary calcite
may also be deposited by supersaturated meteoric waters (groundwater that
precipitates the material in caves). This produces speleothems such as stalagmites
and stalactites.

Dolostone is a sedimentary carbonate rock that contains a high percentage of the

mineral dolomite. It is usually referred to as dolomite rock. In old U.S.G.S.
publications it was referred to as magnesian limestone. Most dolostone formed as a
magnesium replacement of limestone or lime mud prior to lithification. It is resistant
to erosion and can either contain bedded layers or be unbedded. It is less soluble
than limestone in weakly acidic groundwater, but it can still develop solution features
over time.

3. Metamorphic rocks
It is the result of the transformation of a pre-existing rock type, the protolith,
in a process called metamorphism, which means "change in form". The protolith is
subjected to heat (greater than 150 degrees Celsius) and extreme pressure causing
profound physical and/or chemical change. The protolith may be sedimentary rock,
igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock.

Metamorphic rocks make up a large part of the Earth's crust and are classified
by texture and by chemical and mineral assemblage (metamorphic facies). They may
be formed simply by being deep beneath the Earth's surface, subjected to high
temperatures and the great pressure of the rock layers above. They can be formed by
tectonic processes such as continental collisions which cause horizontal pressure,
friction and distortion. They are also formed when rock is heated up by the intrusion
of hot molten rock called magma from the Earth's interior.

The study of metamorphic rocks (now exposed at the Earth's surface following
erosion and uplift) provides us with very valuable information about the
temperatures and pressures that occur at great depths within the Earth's crust.
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Soil Categories

1. Residual
2. Transported

1)Residual soil. The soil that is remaining after the soluble elements have been
dissolved.

2)Transported Soils. Soil that have been profoundly altered by humans are pervasive
in urban, suburban, industrial, and intensely farmed agricultural areas. Human-
altered soils have been described using a variety of terms borrowed from other
disciplines or from classification systems used to describe agricultural soils. New
terms are needed to consistently describe and sample profoundly-modified or
transported soils and the manufactured features and objects they contain.

In most places, even where soil erosion is active, a substantial quantity seems
to remain underfoot. Associated problems, such as loss of soil fertility and sediment
pollution of surface waters, are even less obvious to the untutored eye and may be too
subtle to be noticed readily. Nevertheless, soil is an essential resource on which we
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depend for the production of the major portion of our food. Soils vary in their
suitability not only for agriculture but also for construction and other purposes.

Soil scientists restrict the term soil to those materials capable of supporting plant
growth and distinguish it from regolith, which encompasses all unconsolidated
material at the surface, fertile or not. Conventionally, the term soil implies little
transportation away from the site at which the soil formed, while the term sediment
indicates matter that has been transported and redeposited by wind, water or ice.

Soil is produced by weathering, a term that encompasses a soil variety of

chemical, physical, and biological processes acting to break down rocks and
minerals.

Soil-Forming Processes: Weathering

• Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering, is the physical

breakup of rocks without changes in rocks composition.
• Chemical weathering involves the breakdown of minerals by chemical reaction
with water, with other chemicals dissolved in water, or with gasses in the air.
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Soil Profiles, Soil Horizons

The result of mechanical, chemical, and biological weathering, together with

the accumulation of decaying remains from organisms living on the land and any
input from the atmosphere, is the formation of a blanket of soil between bedrock and
atmosphere.
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Chemical and Physical Properties of Soils

Mechanical weathering merely breaks up rocks without changing its

composition. In the absence of pollution, wind and rainwater rarely add many
chemicals, and runoff water may carry away some leached chemical in solution.

One control in soils composition, then, is the composition of the material from
which it is formed.

The extent and balance of weathering processes involved in soil formation

then determine the extent of further depletion of the soil in various elements.

Color, Texture, And Structure of Soils

Soil color tends to reflect compositional characteristics. Soils rich in organic matter
tend to be block or brown, while those poor in organic matter are paler in color,
often white or gray.
Soil texture is related to the sizes of fragments in the soil.

• Sand (grain diameters 2-0.05 mm),

• Silt ( 0.05-0.002 mm),
• Clay ( less than .002 mm)
Soils are named on the basis of the dominant grain size(s).An additional
term, loam, describes a soil that is a mixture of all three particle sizes in similar
proportions (10 to 30% clay, the balance nearly equal amounts of sand silt). The
significance of soil texture is primarily the way it influences drainage.

Soil structure relates to the soil

tendency to form lumps or clods of soil particles. These clumps are technically called
peds, their name deriving from the Latin root pedo meaning “soil”.

Soil Classification

Soil classifications can indicate something of a soil composition and perhaps its
origins, which in turn may have implications for its suitability for agriculture or
construction, or its vulnerability to degradation.

The pedalfer soils were seen as characteristics of more humid regions. The word
pedalfer comes from the prefix pedo – and the Latin words for aluminum ( alumium
) and iron ( ferrum ).

The Twelve Soil Orders, With Descriptions

• Alfisols
Formed in semiarid to moist areas; deeper layers enriched in clay

• Andisols
Soils of cool volcanic areas with moderate to heavy precipitation

• Aridosols
Common desert soils, dry and rich in soluble minerals

• Entisols
Soils with little development of horizons, formed on recently deposited or
rapidly eroding parent materials

• Gelisols
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Soils with near-surface permafrost or that show evidence of mixing by frost

action; also known as crysols

• Histosols
Wetland soils rich in organic matter

• Inceptisols
Soils of semiarid to humid climates with limited evidence of weathering or
horizon development

• Mollisols
The common soils of relatively dry grasslands, with a high content of organic
matter near the surface

• Oxisols
Highly leached soils of tropical and subtropical climates, which often have
indistinct horizons

• Spodosols
Soils common under conifer forests in humid regions, with aluminium oxides
and organic matter leached from the surface and deposited below

• Ultisols
Moderately leached soils of temperate, humid climates

• Vertisols
Soils rich in expansive clays

Soil and Human Activities

Soil and their characteristics are not only critical to agricultural activities; their
properties influence the stability of construction projects. In the area of soil erosion,
human activities may aggravate or moderate the problem and sometimes may be
influenced by the erosion in turn. This section sample several relationship between
soil and human activities.
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The Soil Resource

Soil degradation is a concern worldwide. Desertification, erosion, deterioration of

lateritic soil, contamination from pollution and other chemical modification by
human activity all contribute to reduce soil quantity, fertility, and productivity.
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Lesson 2: Types of Soil and its Description, Identification

and Mineralogy

The following three terms are often used by geotechnical specialists to describe a
geomaterial: identification, description and classification. For soils, these terms have
the following meaning:

• Identification is the process of determining which components exist in a

particular soil sample, i.e., gravel, sand, silt, clay, etc.

• Description is the process of estimating the relative percentage of each

component to prepare a word picture of the sample (ASTM D 2488). Identification
and description are accomplished primarily by both a visual examination and the feel
of the sample, particularly when water is added to the sample. Description is usually
performed in the field and may be reevaluated by experienced personnel in the
laboratory.

• Classification is the laboratory-based process of grouping soils with similar

engineering characteristics into categories. For example, the Unified Soil
Classification System, USCS, (ASTM D 2487), which is the most commonly used
system in geotechnical work, is based on grain size, gradation, and plasticity. The
AASHTO system (M 145), which is commonly used for highway projects, groups soils
into categories having similar load carrying capacity and service characteristics for
pavement subgrade design.

Soil Description

Soil description/identification is the systematic naming of individual soils in both

written and spoken forms (ASTM D 2488, AASHTO M 145). Soil classification is the
grouping of soils with similar engineering properties into a category by using the
results of laboratory-based index tests, e.g., group name and symbol (ASTM D 2487,
AASHTO M 145). It is important to distinguish between a visual description of a soil
and its classification in order to minimize potential conflicts between general visual
evaluations of soil samples in the field and more precise laboratory evaluations
supported by index tests.

The soil's description should include as a minimum:

• Apparent consistency (e.g., soft, firm, etc. for fine-grained soils) or density adjective
(e.g., loose, dense, etc. for coarse-grained soils);
• Water content condition adjective (e.g., dry, moist, wet);
• Color description (e.g., brown, gray, etc.);
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• Main soil type name, often presented in all capital letters (e.g. SAND, CLAY);
• Descriptive adjective for main soil type (e.g., fine, medium, coarse, well-rounded,
angular, etc. for coarse-grained soils; organic, inorganic, compressible, laminated,
etc., for fine-grained soils);
• Particle-size distribution adjective for gravel and sand (e.g., uniform, well-graded,
gap-graded);
• Plasticity adjective (e.g., high, low) and soil texture (e.g., rough, smooth, slick,
waxy, etc.) for inorganic and organic silts or clays;
• Descriptive term for minor type(s) of soil (with, some, trace, etc.);
• Minor soil type name with "y" added if the fine-grained minor component is less
than 30 percent but greater than 12 percent or the coarse-grained minor component
is 30 percent or more (e.g., silty for fine grained minor soil type, sandy for coarse-
grained minor soil type);
• Descriptive adjective “with” if the fine-grained minor soil type is 5 to 12 percent
(e.g., with clay) or if the coarse-grained minor soil type is less than 30 percent but 15
percent or more (e.g., with gravel). Note: some practices use the descriptive
adjectives “some” and “trace” for minor components;
• Inclusions (e.g., concretions, cementation);
• Geological name (e.g., Holocene, Eocene, Pleistocene, Cretaceous), if known, in
parenthesis or in notes column.

The various elements of the soil description are generally stated in the order given
above. For example, a soil description might be presented as follows:
Fine-grained soils: Soft, wet, gray, high plasticity CLAY, with f. Sand; (Alluvium)
Coarse-grained soils: Dense, moist, brown, silty m-f SAND, with f. Gravel to c. Sand;
(Alluvium)
When minor changes occur within the same soil layer (e.g., a change in apparent
density), the boring log should indicate a description of the change, such as “same,
except very dense.”
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Type of Soil

The constituent parts of a given soil type are defined on the basis of texture in
accordance with particle-size designators separating the soil into coarse-grained,
fine-grained, and highly organic designations. Soil with more than 50 percent by
weight of the particles larger than the U.S. Standard No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) is
designated coarse-grained. Soil (inorganic and organic) with 50 percent or more by
weight of the particles finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm) is designated fine-
grained. Soil primarily consisting of less than 50 percent by volume of organic
matter, dark in color, and with an organic odor is designated as organic soil. Soil with
organic content more than 50 percent is designated as peat. The soil type
designations used by FHWA follow ASTM D 2487; i.e., gravel, sand, silt, clay, organic
silt, organic clay, and peat.

Coarse-Grained Soils (Gravel and Sand)

Coarse-grained soils consist of a matrix of either gravel or sand in which more than
50 percent by weight of the soil is retained on the No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm). Coarse-
grained soils may contain fine-grained soil, i.e., soils passing the No. 200 sieve
(0.075 mm), but the percent by weight of the fine-grained portion is less than 50
percent. The gravel and sand components are defined on the basis of particle size as
indicated in Table 4-4. The particlesize distribution is identified as well graded or
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poorly graded. Well graded coarse-grained soil contains a good representation of all
particle sizes from largest to smallest, with #12 percent fines. Poorly graded coarse-
grained soil is uniformly graded, i.e., most of the coarsegrained particles are about
the same size, with # 12 percent fines. Gap graded coarse grained soil can be either a
well graded or poorly graded soil lacking one or more intermediate sizes within the
range of the gradation.

Gravels and sands may be described by adding particle-size distribution adjectives in

front of the soil type in accordance with the criteria given in Table 4-5. Based on
correlation with laboratory tests, the following simple field identification tests can be
used as an aid in identifying granular soils.

Feel and Smear Tests: A pinch of soil is handled lightly between the thumb and
fingers to obtain an impression of the grittiness (i.e., roughness) or softness
(smoothness) of the constituent particles. Thereafter, a pinch of soil is smeared with
considerable pressure between the thumb and forefinger to determine the degrees of
grittiness (roughness), or the softness (smoothness) of the soil. The following
guidelines may be used:

• Coarse- to medium-grained sand typically exhibits a very gritty feel and smear.

• Coarse- to fine-grained sand has less gritty feel, but exhibits a very gritty smear.

• Medium- to fine-grained sand exhibits a less gritty feel and smear that becomes
softer (smoother) and less gritty with an increase in the fine sand fraction.
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• Fine-grained sand exhibits a relatively soft feel and a much less gritty smear than
the coarser sand components.

• Silt components less than about 10 percent of the total weight can be identified by a
slight discoloration of the fingers after smear of a moist sample. Increasing silt
increases discoloration and softens the smear.

Sedimentation Test: A small sample of soil is shaken in a test tube filled with
water and allowed to settle. The time required for the particles to fall a distance of 4-
inches (100 mm) is about 1/2 minute for particle sizes coarser than silt. About 50
minutes would be required for particles of 0.0002 in (0.005 mm) or smaller (often
defined as "clay size") to settle out. For sands and gravels containing more than 5
percent fines, the type of inorganic fines (silt or clay) can be identified by performing
a shaking/dilatancy test. See fine-grained soils section.

Visual Characteristics: Sand and gravel particles can be readily identified

visually, but silt particles are generally indistinguishable to the eye. With an
increasing silt component, individual sand grains become obscured, and when silt
exceeds about 12 percent, the silt almost entirely masks the sand component from
visual separation. Note that gray fine-grained sand visually appears to contain more
silt than the actual silt content.

Fine-Grained Soils

Fine-grained soils are those having 50 percent or more by weight pass the No. 200
sieve. The so-called fines are either inorganic or organic silts and/or clays. To
describe finegrained soils, plasticity adjectives and soil-type adjectives should be
used to further define the soil's plasticity and texture. The following simple field
identification tests can be used to estimate the degree of plasticity of fine-grained
soils.

Shaking (Dilatancy) Test (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). Water is dropped or

sprayed on a portion of a fine-grained soil sample mixed and held in the palm of the
hand until it shows a wet surface appearance when shaken or bounced lightly in the
hand or a sticky nature when touched. The test involves lightly squeezing the wetted
soil sample between the thumb and forefinger and releasing it alternatively to
observe its reaction and the speed of the response. Soils that are predominantly silty
(nonplastic to low plasticity) will show a dull dry surface upon squeezing and a glassy
wet surface immediately upon release of the pressure. This phenomenon becomes
less and less pronounced in soils with increasing plasticity and decreasing dilatancy,

Dry Strength Test (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981). A relatively undisturbed portion
of the sample is allowed to dry out and a fragment of the dried soil is pressed
between the fingers. Fragments which cannot be crumbled or broken are
characteristic of clays with high plasticity. Fragments which can be disintegrated
 24

with gentle finger pressure are characteristic of silty materials of low plasticity. Thus,
in generally, fine-grained materials with relatively high dry strength are clays of high
plasticity and those with relatively little dry strength are predominantly silts.

Thread Test (After Burmister, 1970). Moisture is added to or worked out of a

small ball (about 1.5 in (40 mm) diameter) of fine grained soil and the ball kneaded
until its consistency approaches medium stiff to stiff (compressive strength of about
2,100 psf (100 kPa)). This condition is observed when the material just starts to
break or crumble. A thread is then rolled out between the palm of one hand and the
fingers of the other to the smallest diameter possible before disintegration of the
sample occurs. The smaller the thread achieved, the higher the plasticity of the soil.
Fine-grained soils of high plasticity will have threads smaller FHWA NHI-06-088 4
– Engineering Characteristics Soils and Foundations – Volume I 4 - 10 December
2006 than 0.03 in (3/4 mm) in diameter. Soils with low plasticity will have threads
larger than 0.12 in (3 mm) in diameter.

Smear Test (FHWA, 2002b). A fragment of soil smeared between the thumb and
forefinger or drawn across the thumbnail will, by the smoothness and sheen of the
smear surface, indicate the plasticity of the soil. A soil of low plasticity will exhibit a
rough textured, dull smear while a soil of high plasticity will exhibit a slick, waxy
smear surface.

Highly Organic Soils

Colloidal and amorphous organic materials finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.075 mm)
are identified and classified in accordance with their drop in plasticity upon oven
drying (ASTM D 2487). Further identification markers are:

1. dark gray and black and sometimes dark brown colors, although not all
dark colored soils are organic;
 25

2. ost organic soils will oxidize when exposed to air and change from a
dark gray/black color to a lighter brown; i.e., the exposed surface is
brownish, but when the sample is pulled apart the freshly exposed
surface is dark gray/black;
3. fresh organic soils usually have a characteristic odor that can be
recognized, FHWA NHI-06-088 4 – Engineering Characteristics Soils
and Foundations – Volume I 4 - 11 December 2006 particularly when
the soil is heated;
4. compared to inorganic soils, less effort is typically required to pull the
material apart and a friable break is usually formed with a fine granular
or silty texture and appearance;
5. workability of organic soils at the plastic limit is weaker and spongier
than an equivalent inorganic soil;
6. the smear, although generally smooth, is usually duller and appears
more silty than an equivalent inorganic soil’s; and
7. the organic content of organic soils can also be determined by the
combustion test method (AASHTO T 267, ASTM D 2974).

Fine-grained soils, where the organic content appears to be less than 50 percent of
the volume (about 22 percent by weight), should be described as soils with organic
material or as organic soils such as clay with organic material or organic clays etc. If
the soil appears to have an organic content greater than 50 percent by volume it
should be described as peat. The engineering behavior of soils below and above the
50 percent dividing line is entirely different. It is therefore critical that the organic
content of soils be determined both in the field and in the laboratory (AASHTO T
267, ASTM D 2974). Simple field or visual laboratory identification of soils as organic
or peat is neither advisable nor acceptable.

It is very important not to confuse topsoil with organic soils or peat. Topsoil is the
relatively thin layer of soil found on the surface composed of partially decomposed
organic materials, such as leaves, grass, small roots etc. Topsoil contains many
nutrients that sustain plant and insect life and should not be used to construct
geotechnical features or to support engineered structures.

Minor Soil Type(s)

Two or more soil types may be present in many soil formations,. When the
percentage of the fine-grained minor soil type is less than 30 percent but greater than
12 percent, or the total sample or the coarse-grained minor component is 30 percent
or more of the total sample, the minor soil type is indicated by adding a "y" to its
name (e.g., f. gravelly, c-f. sandy, silty, clayey). Note the gradation adjectives are
given for granular soils, while the plasticity adjective is omitted for the fine-grained
soils.

When the percentage of the fine-grained minor soil type is 5 to 12 percent or for the
coarsegrained minor soil type is less than 30 percent but 15 percent or more of the
 26

total sample, the minor soil type is indicated by adding the descriptive adjective
“with” to the group name (i.e., with clay, with silt, with sand, with gravel, and/or with
cobbles).

Mineralogy of Solid Soils

Any definition of the term soil will take into account aspects of behaviour in which
the user has a predominant interest. Four ways in which soil could be defined are:

1. The material on natural surfaces in which vegetation takes root.

2. A limited section (beneath natural surface) extending from decomposed rock to

the surface.

3. Any loose fragmental material which can be readily broken into grains or masses
of coherent clays.

4. The loose fragmental materials of the earth’s crust.

Soil Mechanics could be loosely defined as the application of the principles of

mechanics and hydraulics to the study of soil. In this context “study” would include
examination of behavioural changes that occur when soil is subjected to changes of
stress, deformation, or environmental conditions.

The examination of soil behaviour can be performed at two levels: a consideration

that response can be explained by considering soil to be an assemblage of solid soil
particles, air and water; or a study at the atomic level where surface forces are
considered.

It could be thought that a study at the atomic level would provide a more
fundamental understanding of soil behaviour than that conducted at the
“assemblage” level. Whilst this is true for some limited aspects of soil behaviour, in
particular the response of “fine grained” soils to changes in moisture, the major
thrust in research has been the explanation of soil behaviour on the engineering (or
assemblage) level.

Soil Minerals

Soil minerals play a vital role in soil fertility since mineral surfaces serve as potential
sites for nutrient storage. However, different types of soil minerals hold and retain
differing amounts of nutrients. Therefore, it is helpful to know the types of minerals
that make up your soil so that you can predict the degree to which the soil can retain
and supply nutrients to plants.
 27

There are numerous types of minerals found in the soil. These minerals vary greatly
in size and chemical composition.

Soil Mineral Particle Size

Particle size is an important property that allows us to make distinctions among the
different soil minerals. Soils contain particles that range from very large boulders to
minute particles which are invisible to the naked eye. To further distinguish particles
based upon size, particles are separated into the two categories: the coarse fraction
and the fine earth fraction.

Weathering of Soil Minerals and Change in Mineral Composition

Weathering is the principal process that acts upon the earth’s primary minerals to
form the smaller and finer particles that we call “soil.” Maui County is an excellent
place to observe the effects of weathering since it contains both slightly weathered
and highly weathered soils. In terms of nutrient management, the process of
weathering greatly influences the availability of plant nutrients. Initially, as soil
particles begin to weather, primary minerals release nutrients into the soil. As these
particles decrease in size, the soil is also able to retain greater amounts of nutrients.
Ultimately, however, the capacity to hold and retain nutrients is greatly reduced in
highly weathered soils, since most nutrients have been lost due to leaching.

There are two types of weathering: physical weathering and chemical weathering.
Differences in weathering patterns are the reason why there is a great range in soil
particle size. Boulders are much less weathered than gravel. In return, gravel is much
less weathered than clay particles. Clay particles may even weather into other
materials, such as iron and aluminum oxides, which are generally resistant to further
weathering. In the tropics, chemical weathering is very important. Since the climate
is typically warm and moist year-round, it provides a suitable environment for
continuous chemical weathering to occur. Over time, with sufficient amounts of
rainfall and warm temperatures, mineral particles weather into smaller and smaller
soil particles. As a result, tropical soils tend to be highly weathered soils.
 28

PHYSICAL WEATHERING

Physical weathering is a process that breaks up and disintegrates parent rock, or

primary minerals, within the earth. In the tropics, physical weathering is caused by
the wetting and drying of rocks; erosion; actions of plants and animals; or the falling,
smashing, or breaking of rock materials into smaller pieces.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

Chemical weathering is important in nutrient management since the resulting

soil particles retain and supply nutrients. However, when highly weathered, the soil
loses much of its nutrients due to excessive leaching. Thus, highly weathered soils
tend to be infertile soils, while moderately weathered soils are generally more fertile.

Once parent rock has broken down into smaller pieces, another process acts upon the
rock. This process is chemical weathering. Chemical weathering involves the
change, or transformation, of primary minerals into secondary minerals. Secondary
minerals serve as the basic building blocks of the small particles with the soil. As a
result, new materials may be synthesized, residual material may accumulate from
materials (such as oxides) which cannot be furthered weathered, or materials can be
lost as the result of leaching.
 29

F. Evaluation/Post-test

Instruction: Read the questions carefully and answer the following questions
based on what is required.

I. Identification
__________________1. process that breaks up and disintegrates parent rock, or primary
minerals, within the earth.

_____________2. This type of weathering is important in nutrient management

since the resulting soil particles retain and supply nutrients.

_____________3. It is the process of determining which components exist in a

particular soil sample, i.e., gravel, sand, silt, clay, etc.

_____________4. It is the process of estimating the relative percentage of each

component to prepare a word picture of the sample.

_____________5. It is the source of soil.

_____________6. Soils rich in expansive clays.

_____________7. The common soils of relatively dry grasslands, with a high

content of organic matter near the surface.

_____________8. Soils of semiarid to humid climates with limited evidence of

weathering or horizon development.

_____________9. Moderately leached soils of temperate, humid climates.

_____________10. Soils common under conifer forests in humid regions, with

aluminum oxides and organic matter leached from the surface and deposited below.

II. Enumeration
1. Enumerate the soil categories.
2. Enumerate the soil horizons.
3. Give at least 5 minor types of soil.

III. Answer following based on your own understanding.

1. Discuss in diagram the rock cycle. (5)

2. How humans affect the soil activities? (5)
3. Discuss the soil resource. (5)
4. What are highly organic soils? Discuss
5. What is clay mineralogy?
6. What is the greatest impact of soil to the field of civil
engineering? (10)
 30

G. References

DIT, Gillesania.2006. Fundamentals of Geotechnical Engineering

Terzhagi, K. 1995. Soil Mechanics for Engineering Practice. John Wiley and
Sons Inc.

Mc Carthy, David F. 2001. Essentials of Soil mechanics and Foundations:

Basic Geotechnics, 6th edition, New jersey, USA

UH at Manoa. (Updated 2021). Soil Nutrient Management for Maui County.

Universtity of Hawaii at Manoa. Soil Minerals

Yun Zhou. 2006. Soil Mechanics: Description and Classification. Reference

Manual – Volume 1
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